School of Engineering and Digital Sciences

Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement ELCE 310 Laboratory

LAB 3A (SIMULATIONS): MEASUREMENT OF TIME-DEPENDENT SIGNALS

(OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS)

Instructor: Ikechi Ukaegbu

OBJECTIVES:
 To demonstrate an operational amplifier adder circuit
 To implement an operational amplifier averaging circuit
 To implement an operational amplifier subtractor circuit
 To show the workings of an operational amplifier comparator circuit

REQUIRED:

 A computer with LTspice installed

 Laboratory manual

PART I: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP) ADDER AND AVERAGING CIRCUIT

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Figure 1 shows a typical op-amp adder circuit. Generally, 𝑅3 is inserted between the non-inverting terminal
and the ground, to obtain thermal stability and balance in the amplifier. Its value is determined by the parallel
resistances connected to the non-inverting pin. The circuit in Figure 1 has two inputs 𝑉1 and 𝑉2. These voltages
are impressed on the inverting input of the op-amp through resistors 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 . Each input provokes an effect
in the output, independent of the amplitude of the voltages of the other input(s). Therefore, we can say that the
output voltage 𝑉𝑜 is determined by:
𝑅4 𝑅4
𝑉𝑜 = − ( 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 ) (1)
𝑅1 𝑅2
The negative sign indicates that the output signal is phase-shifted by 180𝑜 , with respect to the input signal.
From Equation (1), it is evident that the output voltage becomes the mere sum of the input signals
𝑅4 𝑅
when = 𝑅4 = 1.
𝑅
1 2
When this is the case, equation (1) becomes:

𝑉𝑜 = −( 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 ) (2)
𝑅 𝑅
Similarly, for the output to be equal to the average of the input voltages, then the condition that 𝑅4 = 𝑅4 = 0.5
1 2
must be met. Equation (1) then becomes:
 𝑉𝑜 = −( 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 )/2 (3)

This reasoning can be extended to circuits with more that two inputs, that is, a three-input adder produces an
output that is the sum of all three inputs. That is, 𝑉𝑜 = −( 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 ). Likewise a three-input averaging
circuit produces an output that is the average of three input levels. For this to happen, 𝑅4 ⁄𝑅𝑖 = 1⁄3 for i = 1,
2 and 3 implying that 𝑉𝑜 = −( 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 )/3

Figure 1: Typical op-amp adder circuit

A. OP-AMP ADDER CIRCUIT

Figure 2: Op-amp adder circuit with component specifications

Procedure IA
 i. In LTspice, build the circuit shown in Figure 2. Component values are as stated. The OP07 is a
precision operational amplifier.
ii. From ‘Simulate’ / ‘Edit Simulation Command’, select ‘DC op pnt’. Click ‘ok’ and drop the command
in the simulation window
iii. Using the extended version of equation (2) for three inputs, calculate the output voltage of the circuit
in Figure 2. Enter you answer in Table I
iv. Run the simulation and note the value of 𝑉𝑜 in the window that pops up, for the given input voltages.
Record your answer in Table I
v. In one sentence compare the calculated value of 𝑉𝑜 with the simulated result
vi. For the values of 𝑉1, 𝑉2 and 𝑉3 shown in Table I, repeat steps (iii) and (iv)

Table I
Step 𝑉1 (𝑉) 𝑉2 (𝑉) 𝑉3 (𝑉) 𝑉𝑜(𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑) (𝑉) 𝑉𝑜(𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) (𝑉)
iii & iv 1 2 3
vi 2 3 4
vi 2 5 3
vi 1 1 5

B. OP-AMP AVERAGING CIRCUIT

Figure 3: Op-amp averaging circuit with component specifications

Procedure IB
i. On LTspice, build the circuit shown in Figure 3 with the specified values
 ii. Using the extended version of equation (3) for three inputs, calculate the output voltage of the op-amp
averaging circuit in Figure 3. Enter you answer in Table II
iii. Run the simulation and note the value of 𝑉𝑜 in the window that pops up, for the given input voltages.
Record your answer in Table II
iv. In one sentence compare the calculated value of 𝑉𝑜 with the simulated value
v. For the values of 𝑉1, 𝑉2 and 𝑉3 shown in Table II, repeat steps (ii) and (iii)

Table II
Step 𝑉1 (𝑉) 𝑉2 (𝑉) 𝑉3 (𝑉) 𝑉𝑜(𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑) (𝑉) 𝑉𝑜(𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) (𝑉)
ii & iii 1 2 3
v 1 1 1
v 3 3 3

PART II: OP-AMP SUBTRACTOR CIRCUIT

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

The circuit in Figure 4 is representative of the typical op-amp in subtractor configuration. Now, supposing this
operational amplifier is an ideal amplifier, it is possible to obtain the characteristic formulae, which describes
the subtractor operation.

As in this case, the input impedance (in parallel with 𝑅4 ) has infinite value and the voltage across the non-
inverting input is determined by:
𝑉2 𝑅4
𝑉2′ = (4)
𝑅3 𝑅4
As an ideal amplifier has an infinite gain and as a result, its differential input voltage is always equal to zero,
the voltage 𝑉1′ must be equal to 𝑉2′ . Therefore, the current I, which crosses the resistor 𝑅1 , is determined by:
𝑉2 𝑅4
𝑉1 − 𝑉1′ 𝑉1 − 𝑅3 𝑅4
𝐼= = (5)
𝑅1 𝑅1

Figure 4: Circuit configuration of a typical op-amp subtractor

Due to the infinite input resistance of the amplifier, all this current will cross 𝑅2 . Consequently, the output
voltage can be determined by:
 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉1′ − 𝐼𝑅2 (6)

Making the proper substitutions, the result becomes:

𝑉2 𝑅4 𝑉1 𝑅2 𝑉2 𝑅4 𝑅2
𝑉𝑜 = − + ∗ (7)
𝑅3 +𝑅4 𝑅1 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 𝑅1
𝑅 𝑅
When 𝑅2 = 𝑅4, equation (7) becomes:
1 3
(𝑉2− 𝑉1 )𝑅2
𝑉𝑜 = (8)
𝑅1

But if 𝑅2 = 𝑅1 , then 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 (9)

The non-infinite amplification of a real amplifier causes a differential voltage of some tens of microvolts. This
can be omitted since it affects the calculation of the current crossing 𝑅2 , for a value of some nanoamperes,
which causes an error lower than 1mV on the output voltage.

In the real amplifier case, the input resistance is not infinite; therefore, it is necessary to substitute 𝑅4 with the
equivalent resistance supplied by the parallel of 𝑅4 with the impedance 𝑅𝑖 . For 𝑅4 = 10kΩ and a typical input
resistance of 2MΩ, it is possible to write:
1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = (10)
1 1
+
𝑅4 𝑅𝑖

Substituting the numerical values, we obtain 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 9950

For instance, if 𝑉2= 10V, 𝑅3 = 𝑅4 = 10KΩ, the voltage at point 𝑉2′ will be 5V in the case of an ideal amplifier.
For a real amplifier, substituting 𝑅2 with the value of 𝑅𝑒𝑞 , we obtain a value of 4.987V. As can be observed,
the error is low. Therefore, the formulae obtained in the ideal amplifier case can also be used for a real
amplifier.

A. OP-AMP SUBTRACTOR

Procedure IIA

i. Build the schematic of Figure 5 using the indicated component values

ii. Calculate the theoretical value of the output voltage 𝑉𝑜 . Enter your answer in Table III
Hint: Use equation (9)
iii. Run the simulation and note the value of 𝑉𝑜 in the window that pops up, for the given input voltages.
Record your answer in Table III
iv. In one sentence compare the calculated value of 𝑉𝑜 with the simulated value
v. For the values of 𝑉1, 𝑉2 and 𝑉3 shown in Table II, repeat steps (ii) and (iii)
 Figure 5: Schematic of an op-amp subtractor with component specifications

Table III

Step 𝑉1 (𝑉) 𝑉2 (𝑉) 𝑉𝑜(𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑) (𝑉) 𝑉𝑜(𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) (𝑉)

ii & iii 6 4
v 5 2
v 4 3

B. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
Instructions: Show full working for Questions 2-4. For each question, enter the correct option
(i.e. i - iv) in Table IV

1. Select the correct option. A subtractor generates an output voltage that is:
i. Equal to the difference of the signals applied to the inverting input
ii. Equal to the difference of the signals applied to the non-inverting input
iii. Equal to the difference between the signal applied to the non-inverting input and the signal
applied to the inverting input
iv. Equal to the sum of the signal applied to the non-inverting input and that applied to the inverting
input

2. Refer to Figure 3. If all the resistances 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 and 𝑅4 are equal to 10kΩ and the respective values of
the voltages 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are 4V and 6V, what is the value of the output voltage 𝑉𝑜 ?
i. 0V
ii. 2V
 iii. 4V
iv. 6V
3. With respect to the scenario in Question 2, what is the value of the output voltage 𝑉𝑜, when 𝑅2 = 𝑅4 =
5KΩ and 𝑅1 = 𝑅3 =10KΩ?
i. -1V
ii. 0V
iii. 1V
iv. 2V
4. Refer to Figure 3, if the four resistances are equal and 𝑉2 = 2V. What must be the value of 𝑉1 to obtain an
output voltage of 𝑉𝑜 = -3V?
i. -1V
ii. 1V
iii. 3V
iv. 5V
Table IV

Question Answer
1
2
3
4

PART III: OP-AMP COMPARATOR

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

The comparator is a circuit, which compares the input signal 𝑉𝑖𝑛 with a reference signal 𝑉𝑟 . As soon as the value of
𝑉𝑖𝑛 exceeds 𝑉𝑟 , the value of the output voltage of the comparator 𝑉𝑜 differs very much from the value the output
had when 𝑉𝑖𝑛 > 𝑉𝑟 .

Figure 6: Op-amp comparator circuit

For this application of the operational amplifier (its use as a comparator), the op-amp works in the non-linear region.
Figure 5 shows the typical op-amp comparator.
Under ideal conditions, when the amplitude of 𝑉𝑖𝑛 exceeds 𝑉𝑟 , the output of the comparator reaches the maximum
value of negative voltage. On the other hand, when 𝑉𝑖𝑛 becomes lower than 𝑉𝑟 , the output will reach the maximum
positive value.

This behaviour is due to the characteristic infinite gain of the ideal amplifier. This implies that when the differential
voltage is other than zero, the output is immediately saturated. The circuit is very simple because it does not include
external components. It finds use in various applications like zero-crossing detectors, clippers, pulse generators,
phase meters and so on.

When using actual operational amplifiers, it is necessary to make some considerations. 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 and 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 are the
minimum and maximum voltages that the operational amplifier can deliver. Due to its finite gain (compared to the
infinite gain of the ideal amplifier), a real amplifier cannot instantaneously go from 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 to 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 , instead it needs
some variation of the input voltage 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 to pass from the minimum voltage to the maximum voltage. This variation
is very little (in the order of millivolts)

Another source of error is the offset voltage which shifts the level at which the switching occurs, by a quantity
equal to its amplitude. Note though, that the offset voltage is in the millivolts, therefore it can be ignored when
dealing with signals of much higher amplitude or when the amplifier is used in detecting very slow crossing signals
of certain voltage levels. Lastly, the bias currents have no important effect on the typical applications of these
circuits.

Figure 7: Op-amp comparator circuit with specifications

 A. OP-AMP COMPARATOR

Procedure IIIA

i. Build the circuit of Figure 7 in LTspice

ii. Apply a sinusoidal signal to the inverting input of the operational amplifier 𝑉𝑖𝑛 . The input voltage 𝑉𝑖𝑛 =
6𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘−𝑡𝑜−𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 at a frequency of 1 KHz (Enter the peak value, not peak-to-peak in your simulator). 𝑉2 is
the reference voltage
iii. Run the simulation then display 𝑉𝑖𝑛 , 𝑉2 and 𝑉𝑜 . Save the data for the three waveforms on your thumb drive
iv. Plot 𝑉𝑖𝑛 , 𝑉2 and 𝑉𝑜 on the same axes using the recommended plotting tools