FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS

Study Guide 1

NUMBER SKILLS

Prepared by Dr. Faleye Sunday

 ii

CONTENTS
MODULE 1: NUMBER SKILLS 1

Unit 1 The set of Real Numbers 1

Outcomes 1

1.1 Number system 1

1.2 Sets 21

Unit Summary 37

Checklist 40

Unit 2 Operations on Real Numbers 41

Outcomes 42

2.1 Combining Numbers 41

2.2 Rules that Numbers Obey 54

Unit Summary 104

Checklist 111

Unit 3 Ratio, Proportion and Percentage 112

Outcomes 112

3.1 Ratio 113

3.2 Proportion 120

3.3 Percentages 125

Unit Summary 142

Checklist 143
 iii MAT0511/001

Unit 4 Integer exponents, Scientific Notations and Roots 144

Outcomes 144

4.1 Integer (Integral) Exponents 145

4.2 Scientific Notation 158

4.3 Roots and Surds 165

Unit Summary 181

Checklist 182

Unit 5 Units of Measurement 185

Outcomes 185

5.1 Units 185

Unit Summary 199

Checklist 199

ANSWERS 200

REFERENCES 213
 1 MAT0511/001

MODULE 1: Number skills

UNIT 1: The Set of Real Number
OUTCOMES
After studying this unit you should be able to do the following.

1.1: Number system

I Recognise different types of numbers.

I Recognise the place value of different digits in the representation of numbers in the decimal system.

I Multiply and divide decimals by 10, 100, 1 000, etc.

I Convert English “statements of comparison” to mathematical inequalities.

I Apply the correct manipulation rules to inequalities (particularly with regard to multiplication).

I Describe intervals using interval notation and represent them geometrically.

1.2: Sets

I Use roster notation and set builder notation to describe sets of numbers.

I Use set builder notation to describe intervals.

I Describe the union and intersection of intervals using set builder notation

I Represent the union and intersection of intervals geometrically.

I Apply the correct meaning of “and” and “or” in the context of sets of numbers.

1.1 Number system

1.1.1 Terminology

The numbers most of us learn about first are the numbers we use when we count, i.e. the numbers 1; 2; 3 and
so on. We call them the counting numbers. In mathematics we refer to these as the natural numbers. We
can begin counting from the first number (which is 1) and carry on indefinitely, i.e. the counting process has
no end. We denote the set of natural numbers by means of the symbol N. When we include 0 with the set of
natural numbers N we obtain the set of whole numbers. We use the symbol N0 to denote this set.
 2

We can illustrate certain members of the set N0 by using a line. We begin by drawing a horizontal line, as
shown in Figure 1.1.1. Place a mark for 0 at the left end of the line. Now choose a unit of length, and mark
off equal segments to the right of the 0 mark. Label these marks 1; 2; 3, and so on. Place an arrow at the right
end of the line to show that the line continues, in order to represent the infinite number of whole numbers.
In order to represent a given number on this line we place a dot at the appropriate mark. For example, the
numbers 0; 1; 2 and 3 are illustrated in Figure 1.1.1.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 1.1.1

INTEGERS

Now we need to extend the set of whole numbers so that we have some means of indicating whether a
measurement lies to one side or another of some reference point. For example, consider a thermometer which
measures temperature in degrees Celcius (which we denote by o C). The point 0o C was chosen as a convenient
reference point because water freezes to ice when its temperature is below 0o C and ice melts to water when
its temperature rises above 0o C. Now we need to differentiate between temperatures that are above or below
0o C. We use directed numbers, i.e. positive and negative numbers for this purpose.

When we look at Figure 1.1.1, we see that the natural numbers lie to the right of our point of reference, 0. We
consider the natural numbers to be positive numbers. For example, we consider 3 to be C3, but we usually
omit the “C” sign. We can extend the line in Figure 1.1.1 to the left, and assign “ ” to a number if we want
to show that it lies to the left of our point of reference. Such numbers are called negative numbers. When
we combine with N0 all the natural numbers to which we have assigned minus signs, we produce a new set,
called the set of integers. The symbol Z denotes this set, i.e. Z D f: : : ; 3; 2; 1; 0; 1; : : :g. We can also
represent members of Z by using points on a line, shown in Figure 1.1.2. This line is called a number line.

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 1.1.2

In Figure 1.1.2 notice the following.

I Every integer except 0 has a sign. (An integer with a positive sign will usually be written without the
sign, e.g. we write 3 and not C3.)

I 0 is neither positive nor negative.

I The sign indicates whether the integer lies to the left or right of zero.

I The “ ” does not mean “subtract”.

 3 MAT0511/001

I Each integer has a magnitude which indicates the distance that the number is from zero. For example,
the integers 3 and 3 both lie three units away from zero. Thus 3 and 3 have the same magnitude,
but 3 lies to the right of zero and 3 to the left. Sometimes we use the phrase “numerical value” instead
of magnitude.

Integers can be divided into two groups, known as even integers and odd integers. All even integers are
divisible by 2 exactly with no remainder. Examples of even integers are 10; 4; 6.

On a number line, consecutive odd integers lie between consecutive even integers. For example, 9 (lies
between 10 and 8); 5 (lies between 6 and 4) and 7 (lies between 6 and 8).

Odd: -5 -3 -1 1 3 5

Even: -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

Even and odd integers

Figure 1.1.3

We have said that the use of the “ ” shows where we can find a number on the number line. Another way of
describing position, but this time ordered position, is the use of ordinal numbers (the word ordinal comes
from the word order). If we list five items in a particular order, for example
ball, dog, tree, pencil, book;
" " " " "
st nd rd th th
1 item 2 item 3 item 4 item 5 item

Similarly, phrases like “the hundredth person”, or “the sixty–seventh car” reflect the use of ordinal numbers
in everyday language. This indicates how the English language can sometimes be confusing, and shows us
that we need to read mathematical statements carefully to make sure we understand what is meant. The word
“hundredth” on its own tells us very little. We may be referring to “the hundredth person”, or we may mean
“one hundredth of the population”. The second phrase actually means one out of every hundred. Suppose we
have the population of a certain community divided into three groups, and each group consists of 100 people.

100 100 100

people people people

1 person 1 person 1 person

 4

If we choose one out of every group of 100 people, then we have a total of 3 people out of a possible 300
people. In this case
3 is one hundredth of 300.

RATIONAL NUMBERS (FRACTIONS)

The concept of working with some number of equal parts of a whole leads us to the idea of fractions. In the
example we have just looked at, one out of every one hundred can be regarded as one part out of a whole (100
1
parts) and we use the notation 100 to denote this fraction. The number 1 is the numerator of the fraction and
the number 100 is the denominator.
The denominator “names” the fraction; the numerator
1
“counts how many” equal parts there are, i.e. 100
says we have one (how many) hundredth (what
it is called).

1
We know that fractions of the form 100 can be written as decimal fractions. A collection of digits (the digits
1
are 0; 1; 2; : : : ; 9/ after a comma represents a decimal fraction. For example, 100 D 0; 01: We also have, for
example, 1; 5 or 0; 6666 : : : . In the first two of these examples (0; 01 and 1; 5) the decimals are finite or
terminating (i.e. there is a finite number of digits after the decimal comma).

In the third example above (0; 6666 : : :/ the decimal is non–terminating but the same digit is repeated an in-
finite number of times. (The dots indicate that 6 appears infinitely many times.) Rather than write 0; 6666 : : :
we write 0; 6P where the dot above the digit 6 indicates that this digit is repeated. This is an example of a
recurring (repeating) decimal.

When a group of digits is repeated, for example 1; 213213213 : : :we write 1; 213 and the bar over the group
of digits 213 indicates that these three digits keep on repeating, in the same order.

Decimals do not all terminate, as we have seen. Non–terminating decimals need not always be repeating
decimals. For example the decimal
1; 010011000111 : : :
has a specific pattern in the repeating group of digits, but the numbers that repeat do not recur in the same
way all the time. This is an example of a non–terminating and non–repeating decimal.

A rational number is any number that can be written as a fraction qp ; where p and q are integers, and q 6D 0:
From this description we see that 5; 0, 23 ; 12 are all examples of rational numbers, because
5
5D ; ( 5 and 1 are integers and 1 6D 0/
1

0
0D ; ( 0 and 1 are integers and 1 6D 0/
1

and both 2
3
and 1
2
are already in the form qp ; where p and q are integers with q 6D 0:
 5 MAT0511/001

We know that the condition q 6D 0 must be imposed because we cannot divide by zero.

If we look at the two fractions 23 and 12 ; we see that 2

3
can be written as a repeating decimal: 2
3
D 0; 666 : : : D
0; 6P and 21 can be written as a terminating decimal: 1
2
D 0; 5:

Every rational number can be written in decimal form, which will either be terminating (as in 0; 5) or
P
repeating (as in 0; 6).

Do the rational numbers form a finite set?

ACTIVITY 1.1.1

Consider the integers 0 and 1. Draw a number line like the one drawn here.

0 1

How many rational numbers can you represent on this line between 0 and 1?

SOLUTION
1
__ 1
__ 3
__
4 2 4

1
__ 2
__
0 3 3 1

Figure 1.1.4

Suppose you divide the line segment between 0 and 1 into two equal parts. The midpoint then represents
the number 12 ; and there are now two segments, i.e. the segment between 0 and 12 ; and the segment between
1
2
and 1. If you divide each of these into two equal parts, their midpoints represent the numbers 14 and 34 ;
respectively. We can carry on in this way for as long as we choose.

We can also start in a different way and divide the line segment from 0 to 1 into three equal parts. The division
marks now represent the numbers 31 and 23 :

We can continue the process in many different ways, but we find that, however we start, the process actually
never ends. In other words, there are infinitely many rational numbers, even though it is physically im-
possible to represent all these numbers by means of a dot or dash on the number line. (These dots lie so close
to each other that it forms a line).

Since there are infinitely many rational numbers between 0 and 1, then clearly there are altogether infinitely
many rational numbers. We usually denote the set of rational numbers by means of the symbol Q:
 6

IRRATIONAL NUMBERS

We saw earlier that some decimals are both non–terminating and non–repeating. These decimals are in
contrast to the decimals that are rational numbers, namely the terminating or repeating decimals. We say that
such numbers are not rational and we prefer to use a single word, irrational, to describe them. We do not
have a commonly used symbol for the set of irrational numbers.
p p
Examples of irrational numbers are 0; 010011000111 : : : ; 2; 3; : It is beyond the scope of this module
to prove that these are irrational numbers.
p p
2 and 3 are examples of surds. You will study these in Section 4.2 of Unit 4. is the Greek letter “pi”,
and is approximately equal to 22
7
:

In Activity 1.1.1 you saw that there are infinitely many rational numbers between 0 and 1. Now, in that small
space (and yet infinitely many rational numbers occur there!) we can also “fit in” other numbers such as
0; 01001100111 : : : . It may surprise you, but it is also true that there are infinitely many irrational numbers
as well. What is perhaps even more surprising is that two irrational numbers, and e, are of great importance.
We will use them later.

Note: e is the base in the system of natural logarithms. is the constant obtained by dividing the circumfer-
ence of any circle by its diameter.

REAL NUMBERS

When we combine all the numbers we have discussed so far, we obtain the set of real numbers, which we
denote by the symbol R: We now return to the concept of a number line: every point on the line can be
associated with some real number; conversely every real number can be specified by means of a point on the
line.

The relationship between the different types of numbers is shown in Figure 1.1.5.

Real numbers (R)

Rational numbers (Q) Irrational numbers

= non - repeating
or terminating
Integers (Z) Fractions decimal

Whole numbers (N0)

Natural numbers (N)

The real number system
Figure 1.1.5
 7 MAT0511/001

We read this diagram from the bottom up, and see that the set of real numbers includes all the other sets. This
means that:

2 is a natural number, hence it is also

a whole number, and thus also
an integer, and thus also
a rational number (it can be written as 21 /; and finally also
a real number.

We also have

3 is an integer, hence it is also

a rational number, and thus also
a real number,

but

3 is not a whole number or

a natural number.

1.1.2 Ordering on the Real Number Line

We have postulated that every real number can be represented by a point on a line, and conversely, that each
point on the line can be associated with unique real number.

Numbers can be assigned places on the line by comparing them with one another in terms of their size and
in terms of their position to the left or right of zero. When we speak of the size of a number we immediately
raise the issue of one number being bigger than, or smaller than, some other number.

1 1
-2 __
4 1__
2

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Figure 1.1.6

The sketch of the number line shows that the real number line divides real numbers into three types with
respect to their relationship to zero:

I the real number zero

I positive real numbers, shown by points to the right of zero

I negative real numbers to the left of zero.

 8

Ordering where to variables are involved.

In mathematics, letters of the alphabet are used to represent numbers. This enables us to be much more
concise than if we were to use everyday English. We call these letters variables (they represent quantities
that may take on different, or various, values). Suppose we use a and b to represent two different real numbers.

If a lies to the left of b on the number line, we say that

a is less than b

and we denote this by

a < b:

If a lies to the right of b on the number line, we say that

a is greater than b

and we denote this by

a > b:

If a and b can be represented by the same point on the number line, we say that

a is equal to b

and we denote this by

The statement a D b is
a D b:
called an equation.

We could be told that a may be greater than b or equal to b: We then write a b: We read this as “a is
greater than OR equal to b” meaning that either a is greater than b or a is equal to b. If we are told that a is
smaller than b or equal to b; we write a b: We read this as “a is smaller than OR equal to b”. The symbols
>; <; and are called inequality signs. The statements in which inequality signs are used are called
inequalities.

We do not necessarily have to interpret a diagram or an inequality statement from left to right. Consider two
numbers a and b; represented as follows.

a b

Figure 1.1.8

We can interpret Figure 1.1.8 either as

a is less than b

or as
b is greater than a
 9 MAT0511/001

i.e.
a < b or b > a:

Similarly we may write each of the statements b < a; a b and a b in two different ways.

Note:
The symbols >; <; and are called inequality signs. Statements in which the inequality signs are used
are called inequalities.

Initially it may not be easy to understand the meaning of notation such as a b: To make sure this is clear,
try to do the next activity.

ACTIVITY 1.1.2

For each of the following statements, say whether the statement is true or not, and give a reason for your
answer.

(a) 1 2 (b) 2 2 (c) 3 2

SOLUTION

The notation “ " means “is less than OR is equal to”, i.e. only one of the conditions needs to be true in order
for the statement to be true.

(a) 1 2 is true, since 1 is less than 2 (1 < 2/:

(b) 2 2 is true, since 2 is equal to 2 (2 D 2/:

(c) 3 2 is false, since 3 is not less than 2 and 3 is not equal to 2.

In the solution to Activity 1.1.2(c) we see that 3 2 is false. The notation we use to show that an inequality
is false involves writing the usual inequality sign and drawing a line through it. Thus, for example,

a b means a is not less than b

a b means a is not greater than or equal to b:

We will often come across everyday comments such as “I need at least as much money as he does” or “We
will give you at most a ten percent salary increase”. Perhaps you have not thought about such statements in
terms of inequalities, but phrases such as “at least”, “at most”, “not more than” all lead to inequalities.
 10

In the examples below, x and y represent the respective ages, in years, of two different people, Sipho and
Salome.
English phrase Mathematical Example
symbol

less than x<y Sipho’s age is

less than Salome’s
age or Sipho is
younger than Salome.

at least x y Sipho is at least

(which means as old as Salome.
“the same as or
more than”)

not more than x y Sipho is not older

(which means or than Salome (i.e. Sipho’s
“the same as x y age is not more than
or less than”) Salome’s age).

at most (which x y Sipho is at most as

means “the same old as Salome.
as or less than”)

not less than x y Sipho is not younger

(which means or than Salome (i.e.
“the same as or x y Sipho’s age is not
more than”) less than Salome’s age).
Table 1.1.1

Apart from the phrases which have been “translated” into mathematical inequalities in Table 1.1.1 there are
many other words or phrases which we can classify as belonging to the language of comparison. These
can also be interpreted as inequalities. Some such words are fewer, greater; higher, lower; wider, narrower;
deeper, shallower; cheaper, dearer/costlier, and so on. For example, suppose that a and b represent the number
of children in two different classes, A and B; respectively. The statement “There are fewer children in class
A than in class B" can be mathematically represented by the inequality a < b:

ACTIVITY 1.1.3

Suppose x represents the amount of money, in rands, that Ishmael has, and y is the amount, in rands, that
Anya has. Write mathematical inequalities that express the following statements.

(a) Anya has at least as much money as Ishmael has.

 11 MAT0511/001

(b) Anya has at most the same amount of money as Ishmael has.

(c) Anya does not have less money than Ishmael has.

SOLUTION

We know that “at least as much as” means “the same as or more than”. Hence we have

y x:

(b) “At most” means “less than or the same as”, and thus

y x:

(c) y x; i.e. y x:
In this case we know that if Anya does not have less than Ishmael, she must have the same amount as,
or more than, he does.

The notation we have introduced leads to the following terminology. Suppose x is a real number.

I If x is positive then x > 0:

I If x is negative then x < 0:

I If x is non–negative then x 0:

I If x is non–positive then x 0:

The converse of each of these statements is also true.

ACTIVITY 1.1.4

Write down the converse of each of the statements given on the previous page.

SOLUTION

I If x > 0 then x is positive.

I If x < 0 then x is negative.

I If x 0 then x is non–negative.

I If x 0 then x is non–positive.
 12

Ordering where more than two quantities are involved.

So far we have looked at ordering in which only two numbers have been compared. We need to consider
notation for the comparison of more than two quantities.

-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 1.1.9

From Figure 1.1.9 we see that

2 < 0 and 0 < 3:

We can combine these two inequalities into one, and write

2 < 0 < 3:

This notation makes sense, because it also shows that 2 < 3; which we know is true.

Avoid writing inequalities that look like this:

3 > -2 < 0

This means This means

3 > 2; or 2 < 0;
2 < 3; which which is
is correct. correct.
BUT

How do we know how to relate 3 and 0 according

to this statement?
There are two signs, > and <; between them. We
do not know which one applies.

Convention

To avoid confusion, in any inequality where more than two quantities are involved, we make sure that all
inequality signs keep the same direction.

If we write an inequality such as

a<b<c
 13 MAT0511/001

then we mean that

a < b and b < c and a < c
i.e. all three inequalities must be true.

ACTIVITY 1.1.5

(a) Write two separate inequalities for the following statement.

“a is a number greater than 4 and a is also a number less than 10.”

(b) Rewrite the statement above using only one inequality.

SOLUTION

(a) a > 4 and a < 10

(b) 4 < a < 10

ACTIVITY 1.1.6

Suppose x; y and z represent three real numbers.

Write out in words, as two separate statements, what you understand by each of the following.

(a) x < y z

(b) z x<y

(c) x y>z

SOLUTION

(a) The statement x < y
these as
z is the shortened form of the two statements x < y and y z: We interpret
x is less than y
and
y is less than or equal to z:

(b) The statement z x < y is the shortened form of the two statements z x and x < y: We interpret
these as
z is less than or equal to x
and
x is less than y:
 14

(c) The statement x y > z is the shortened form of x y and y > z: We have

x is greater than or equal to y

and

y is greater than z:

For each of (a), (b) and (c) in Activity 1.1.6, what statement can we make about the variables mentioned first
and last? In (a), we have x < y z: What can we say about x and z? Do we say x < z? Or do we say x z?
It is probably easiest to answer this if we use numbers instead of variables. For example, consider

1<x 2:

Both the statements

1 < 2 and 1 2

are true. The first inequality, 1 < 2; is true because 1 is less than 2. The second inequality will be true if
EITHER 1 < 2 OR 1 D 2 is true. Obviously 1 D 2 is not true, but since 1 < 2 is true we may write
1 2: However, since we know that 1 6D 2 it is better to write 1 < 2. Similarly, we can deduce from
x < y z that x < y, i.e. x is less than y but not equal to y. It thus follows that x is less than z but not equal
to z. Note that x cannot be equal to z, since even though y may be equal to z, x is less than y.

However, if x y z then we write x z and not x < z since in this case x may be equal to z depending
on the relationships between x and y; and y and z.

We have included these comments because of frequent confusion relating to inequalities. The most important
point for you to remember here, though, is that you keep the signs in the same direction. Thus

a < b < c
a > b > c
a b < c
a > b c

are all examples of correct notation.

Change of direction of inequality sign

Let us now consider some pairs of numbers. We look at 1 and 3; 1 and 3; 1 and 3I 1 and 3: Look at
these numbers on the number line below.

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
 15 MAT0511/001

Inequality Position
1<3 1 lies to the left of 3
1<3 1 lies to the left of 3
1> 3 1 lies to the right of 3
1> 3 1 lies to the right of 3

Figure 1.1.10

This illustrates an important principle. If a and b are two numbers such that a < b; then a > b: For
example, 1 < 3, so that . 1/ > 3, i.e. 1 > 3.

We discuss multiplication of integers in Unit 2. At that stage you will learn that we can also interpret . 1/
as . 1/ . 1/. You will then also learn (or may already know) that the product of two negative numbers
is a positive number. Hence . 1/ . 1/ D 1. This is consistent with the comment after Figure 1.1.2 that
. 1/ D 1 because 1 is one unit to the left of zero, and hence . 1/ is one unit from zero on the opposite
side, i.e. one unit to the right of zero.

We can thus also consider the change of direction of inequality signs in the context of multiplication. Directly
from the number line we see that 1 < 3, so that . 1/ > 3, i.e. 1 > 3. However, we can also interpret
this as follows:
If 1 < 3 then . 1/ . 1/ > . 1/ 3, i.e. 1 > 3. This leads us to the following important statement.

In general, when we multiply or divide the terms of both sides of an inequality by a negative number,
then the direction of the inequality sign changes.

This applies to all inequalities, regardless of how many terms are involved. For example if a, b and c are real
numbers such that
a<b<c

then
a > b> c

and
a b c
> > :
2 2 2

ACTIVITY 1.1.7

(a) Write one inequality that shows the ordering of the numbers 2; 1 and 4.

(b) Write one inequality that shows the ordering of the numbers 2; 1 and 4 after you have multiplied
them by 2:

(c) Write one inequality that shows the ordering of the numbers 2; 1 and 4 after you have divided them
by 1.
 16

SOLUTION

If we begin by writing (a) 2 < 1 < 4; then we have (b) 4 > 2 > 8 (after multiplying by 2) and (c)
2 > 1 > 4 (after dividing by 1). We may also start by writing (a) 4 > 1 > 2: Then we will have (b)
8 < 2 < 4 (after multiplying by 2) and (c) 4 < 1 < 2 (after dividing by 1).

You may not know how to multiply or divide by negative numbers. This will be explained later, in Unit 2,
Study Unit 2.2A. You may want to look at (b) and (c) of this activity again after you have worked through
Unit 2.

1.1.3 Intervals Notation

Certain sets of real numbers can be represented by means of segments of the real number line. These sets are
called intervals. Mathematics has developed a very precise system of notation. Our notation for describing
intervals, and the diagrams we use, enable us to be sure which numbers lie in the interval, and which numbers
are excluded.
INTERVALS
Set of numbers, Interval notation Geometric represen–
described using describing the set tation, i.e. a “picture”
words of numbers of the set

All real numbers .a; b/ a b

between a and b, We use “open” dots to
excluding a and b show that a and b are
excluded.

All real numbers [a; b] a b

between a and b, We use shaded dots to
including a and b show that a and b are
included.

All real numbers [a; b/ a b

from a to b,
including a but ex–
cluding b

All real numbers .a; b] a b

from a to b, ex–
cluding a but in–
cluding b

Table 1.1.2
 17 MAT0511/001

These intervals have different names. We say that

I .a; b/ is an open interval, denoted by means of round brackets

I [a; b] is a closed interval, denoted by means of square brackets

I [a; b/ and .a; b] are half–open half–closed intervals.

From the geometric representation it is clear that, for example, .a; b/ represents all real numbers x which
satisfy the inequality a < x < b. Similarily, [a; b] represents all real numbers x which satisfy a x b.
Note that the darker sections of the lines which indicate the relevant intervals. (See table 1.2.)

The intervals sketched in Table 1.1.2 show sets of numbers that have specific boundaries.

We will come across many mathematical problems in which the numbers we work with do not necessarily lie
between two specific numbers. There will be cases where the magnitude of numbers in a given set becomes
indefinitely large in either a positive or a negative direction. The symbol we use for the phrase “indefinitely
large, in the positive direction”, is 1. The symbol we use for the phrase “indefinitely large, in the negative
direction”, is 1. If we introduce these two symbols in our interval notation, we have more items to add to
the table we set up earlier. Another word for indefinitely large is“infinity”.

INTERVALS
Set of numbers, Interval notation Geometric
described using describing the set representation
words of numbers

All real numbers bigger [a; 1/ a

than or equal to a; i.e.
the number a and all
numbers bigger than
a, increasing indefinitely
in the positive direction

All real numbers bigger .a; 1/ a

than a; i.e. all numbers
bigger than a (excluding
a itself), increasing inde–
finitely in the positive
direction
Table 1.1.3
 18

ACTIVITY 1.1.8

Set up a table similar to Table 1.1.3, and give the interval notation and geometric representation for

(a) all real numbers less than or equal to a

(b) all real numbers less than a

(c) all real numbers.

SOLUTION

INTERVALS
Set of numbers, Interval notation Geometric
described using describing the set representation
words of numbers

All real numberso less . 1; a] a

than r equal to a

All real numbers less than a . 1; a/ a

All real numbers ( 1; 1/

Table 1.1.4

Note:

I We do not use square brackets or shaded dots to represent infinity. It is wrong to write .a; 1] or to draw
the following on a number line:

because the symbol 1 does not represent one specific real number which can be contained in an
interval.

I In any interval, we always write the smaller of the two numbers first, i.e. we write [1; 5) and not (5; 1].

I We do not use interval notation to describe sets of numbers in N, N0 , Z, Q or in the set of irrational
numbers. When we write a set of numbers as an interval such as .a; b/ we imply all the real numbers
between a and b. That means, we use the interval notation only for sets of real numbers, and not for
sets of integers, natural numbers, etc.
 19 MAT0511/001

ACTIVITY 1.1.9

Give the geometric representation for each of the following intervals.

(a) [ 3; 10/

(b) .0; 1/

(c) . 2; 1]

(d) . 1; a] where a is a real number and a > 0

SOLUTION

(a)

-3 10

(b)

0
(c)
-2 -1

(d)

-1 0 a

Note that you may put a anywhere on the line to the right of zero. Since a > 0 you need to show zero, and
show that a lies to the right of zero.

Now let us try to reverse the process. If you are given the geometric representation, can you identify the
interval? Try the next activity.

ACTIVITY 1.1.10

Write down the interval represented by each of the following sketches.

(a)

-2

(b)

2 5
 20

(c)

2 8

SOLUTION

(a) . 1; 2] (b) [2; 5] (c) .2; 8/

EXERCISE 1.1

1. Make a table showing units, tens, hundreds, etc.

(a) Write down the numbers

(i) ten thousand and four
(ii) six hundred and seven.
(b) What is the place value of 3 in
(i) 69; 03
(ii) 368; 09?

2. Which is bigger: 0; 12 or 0; 0987?

3. For each of the following statements decide whether it is true or false.

(a) 1; 3P is not a rational number.

(b) Every non–negative number is a positive number.
(c) Every integer is a rational number.
(d) 3; 05 D 3; 50
(e) 3; 05 D 3; 050505 : : :
(f) 2 hours and 40 minutes D 2; 40 hours.

4. During one 24 hour period I eat for 48 minutes, read for 50 minutes, work for 8 hours, travel to and
from work for 1 hour and 16 minutes. How much time is left in the 24 hours?

5. Suppose a represents Isaac’s age in years and b represents Daniel’s age in years. Express each of the
following statements in mathematical form.

(a) Isaac is at least as old as Daniel.

(b) Daniel is older than Isaac and cannot be the same age as Isaac.
(c) Daniel’s age is not more than Isaac’s age.
(d) Isaac is at most the same age as Daniel.
(e) Daniel and Isaac are not the same age.
 21 MAT0511/001

6. (a) Write one inequality that shows the ordering of the numbers 4; 1 and 21 :
1
(b) Write one inequality that shows the ordering of the numbers 4; 1 and 2
after they are multi-
plied by 2.
1
(c) Write one inequality that shows the ordering of the numbers 4; 1 and 2
after they are multi-
plied by 1.

7. Fill in the missing items in the table given below.

Set of numbers Interval notation Geometric
described in words describing the set representation
of numbers

All real numbers (a) (b)

from 4 to 1,
excluding 4 but
including 1

(c) [0; 3/ (d)

(e) (f) -1

8. Why is it incorrect in interval notation to describe the set given by the following sketch as .3; 1/?

1.2 Sets
1.2.1 Terminology and Set Operation

SETS AND THEIR ELEMENTS

A set is a collection of objects specified by its members. These objects may be real physical objects, such
as cups and saucers, or they may be abstract ideas, such as a set of feelings, which could include happy, sad,
excited, and so on. The individual objects that make up a set are called the elements of the set. A set can be
finite or infinite. We will not get involved now with formal definitions, but we can say that a set is finite if
its elements can be counted and the counting process comes to an end. If the elements can be counted, but
the counting process carries on indefinitely, we say that the set is infinite. We may also have a set with no
elements. For example, suppose we divide children in a class into different age groups, say 10 year olds, 11
year olds and 12 year olds. If there are no 10 year olds in the class, we say that the set consisting of the 10
year olds in the class is empty. Since there are 0 elements in this set, it is also a finite set. We have a special
symbol for the empty set, namely ;:
 22

Set notation

We usually use capital letters, e.g. A; B; C, to denote sets. Sets can be described in different ways. One of
these is the use of roster notation. We list all the elements of a particular set between curly brackets. For
example, the set S D f1; 3; 5; 7g has the numbers 1; 3; 5 and 7 as its elements. To indicate that 3 is
an element of S; we write 3 2 SI since 9 is not an element of S we write 9 2 = S: The order in which we
write the elements inside the brackets does not matter. We can write S D f1; 3; 5; 7g; or S D f7; 1; 3; 5g:
When we list the elements in a set, we do not need to write down any element more than once. Hence the set
f0; 1; 2; 3; 0; 1g has only four elements, and we should write it as f0; 1; 2; 3g. The set {0} has one element,
i.e. the number zero. It is important that we do not confuse this with the empty set { }, denoted by ;; which
has no elements. The word “roster” means “list”. The curly brackets we use are called braces. NB: ; 6D f0g

When we use roster notation to describe an infinite set it is impossible to write down all the elements. We
then list the first few elements and use dots to show that the list continues. For example we can use roster
notation to show the set of all odd natural numbers: P D f1; 3; 5; 7; : : :g: Note: If A is not a subset of B we
write A * B.

The set S D f1; 3; 5; 7g is a set whose elements are real numbers, but it does not contain every possible real
number. We call it a subset of R: The notation we use in this module to show that some set A is a subset of
another set B is A B or A B: We write A B if every element of A is also an element of B: If A is a
subset of B; but B contains some elements which are not in A; we write A B; and we say A is a proper
subset of B: Without giving any formal definitions you will be able to see that we may call two sets equal if
they contain exactly the same elements. If the sets A and B are equal we write A D B.

Note: Some authors use A B or A B to indicate that A is a subset of B, where A may be equal to B;
and A $ B to indicate that A is a proper subset of B.

Another way in which sets can be described is by means of set builder notation. This notation requires that
we use a statement (given in words or in mathematical form) to describe clearly the conditions the elements
must satisfy in order to belong to a particular set. For example, for the set S D f1; 3; 5; 7g we write

S D fx : x is an odd integer between 0 and 8}

or
S D fx : x 2 Z; x is odd and 1 x 7g
or
S D fx 2 Z : x is odd and 1 x 7g:

We have several ways of describing the set consisting of the numbers 1; 3; 5 and 7:

In set builder notation we read the symbol “:” as “such that”. Thus we read the first statement above as “S
is equal to the set of x such that x is an odd integer between 0 and 8 or more succintly, S is the set of odd
integers between 0 and 8. Remember that Z is the symbol we use for the set of integers, so “x 2 Z” is an
abbreviated way of saying “x is an element of the set of integers”, or “x is an integer”.
 23 MAT0511/001

Set builder notation

Set builder notation informs us about

I what kinds of elements are in the set

I what conditions the elements must satisfy in order to belong to the set.

For example:
S D fx 2 Z : x is odd and 1 x 7g
" "
The kinds of The conditions the numbers must
numbers we satisfy in order to belong to S:
have in S:

The statements describing the conditions that apply are given after the “:” inside the curly brackets. Note that
x is a variable, and we use it as a representative of the elements that make up the set. We can use any other
letter instead of xI we usually use small (lower case) letters to denote the elements in a set, and a capital letter
to denote the set itself.

ACTIVITY 1.2.1

(a) We have given three ways of writing S D f1; 3; 5; 7g in set builder notation. Give two more ways of
representing S in set builder notation.

(b) Use roster notation and set builder notation to describe each of the following sets.

(i) A is the set of even numbers between 10 and 20, excluding 10 and 20.
(ii) B is the set of all integers greater than or equal to 4:
(iii) C is the set of negative integers.

SOLUTION

(a) We may write

S D fa 2 N : a is odd and 0 < a < 8g

or
S D f p 2 Z : p is odd and 0 p 8g
or
S D fx 2 Z : x is odd and 7 x 1g:
 24

(b) In each of the following answers we have written the set builder notation option in two different ways,
but there are other correct answers.
Roster notation Set builder notation

(i) A D f12; 14; 16; 18g A D fx 2 Z : x even and 12 x 18g

or
A D fx 2 N : x even and 10 < x < 20g
(ii) B D f 4; 3; 2; : : :g B D fy 2 Z : y 4g
or
B D fy 2 Z : y > 5g

(iii) C D f: : : ; 3; 2; 1g C D fa 2 Z : a < 0g
or Note that the dots show
C D fa 2 Z : a 1g that the number continues
indefinitely.

You may perhaps have wondered why we spend time talking about notation, and not “doing mathematics”.
This is the same as wondering why we learn the rules of a language instead of just communicating. In order
to communicate effectively, at some stage we need to write down whatever it is we want to communicate.
Mathematical notation provides us with efficient tools that make it possible for us to communicate information
precisely, so that there is no possibility of misunderstanding. Everyday language is often vague, and open to
misinterpretation. If someone says “pick a number between 0 and 6”, does this mean 0 is a possible choice?
What about 5 12 ? However, if we read

A D fx 2 N : 0 < x 6g

we understand that the only possible numbers are

1; 2; 3; 4; 5 and 6

= A and 5 12 2
i.e. 0 2 = A; so we could not have chosen either of these two numbers. Remember that fractions
1
such as 5 2 are rational numbers and not natural numbers.

In (b) of Activity 1.2.1, what happens if you are asked to write a set such as B in roster notation, but instead
of integers, we write rational numbers? Suppose B is the set of all rational numbers greater than or equal to
4: Can we list these numbers?

As soon as you begin to try, you realise that it is impossible to do so. For instance, what is the “first” rational
number bigger than 4? Suppose you think of 3 12 : Then you can immediately see that there is another
rational number between 4 and 3 12 , for example 3 34 :
3
-3 __
4
1
-3 __2

-4 -3

Figure 1.2.1
 25 MAT0511/001

You only need to repeat this process a few times to realise that it is not possible to list the elements in Q;
or in the set of irrational numbers, or in R: This limitation of roster notation is overcome by set builder
notation. In set builder notation we can describe the set of rational numbers greater than or equal to 4 by

fx 2 Q : x 4g:

SETS AND INTERVALS

In Study Unit 1.1 we learnt about the use of intervals to denote certain sets of real numbers. Let us return
to Tables 1.1.2, 1.1.3 and 1.1.4 and see how we can describe the sets given there by means of set builder
notation.

SET BUILDER NOTATION FOR INTERVALS

Interval notation Geometric representation Set builder notation

.a; b/ a b fx 2 R : a < x < bg

[a; b] a b fx 2 R : a x bg

[a; b/ a b fx 2 R : a x < bg

.a; b] a b fx 2 R : a < x bg

[a; 1/ a fx 2 R : x ag

.a; 1/ a fx 2 R : x > ag

. 1; a] a fx 2 R : x ag

. 1; a/ a fx 2 R : x < ag
. 1; 1/ fx : x 2 Rg D R

Table 1.2.1

The examples given in this table highlight the fact that an interval is a set. Every interval is some subset of
R; and the interval . 1; 1/ denotes the whole of R:

We mentioned earlier that mathematical notation makes it possible for us to describe precisely the numbers or
elements we have. How can we use interval notation to describe the subset of R represented in Figure 1.2.2?

a b

Figure 1.2.2

This subset of R consists of the combination of two different subsets, namely all real numbers that are less
than or equal to a; as well as all real numbers which are bigger than b: Can we use interval notation to
describe this combination in an unambiguous way?
 26

Combining Sets

Questions such as this can be answered by using notation describing basic set operations. For any given sets
A and B we define two such set operations.

1.2.2 Union and Intersection

Definition 1.2.1
The union of A and B, denoted by A [ B, is the set that consists
of all elements in A or in B or in both.

The intersection of A and B; denoted by A \ B, is the set of all

elements that are in both A and B; i.e. elements common to both sets.

There are many other set operations, but we do not need to consider them now. A useful way to visualise
relationships between sets, and set operations, is by means of Venn diagrams. Figure 1.2.3 gives Venn
diagrams for the situations we have looked at so far.

B\A
B is a proper subset of A:

A[B
The shaded area represents
the union of A and B:

A\B
The shaded area represents
the intersection of A and B:

Figure 1.2.3

Note that if A and B have no common elements, i.e. if A \ B D ;, we say that A and B are disjoint sets.

Now that we have suitable notation, let us look again at the set we described geometrically just now. Let us
call the set below P:
a b

Figure 1.2.4
 27 MAT0511/001

We see that a real number x belongs to P (i.e. it is an element of P/ if it lies in the interval . 1; a] or if it
lies in the interval .b; 1/. Thus we can say that P is the union of the two sets . 1; a] and .b; 1/, i.e.

P D . 1; a] [ .b; 1/:

ACTIVITY 1.2.2

Use interval notation and [ or \ to describe the two sets A and B given geometrically here.

(a) A

0 1

(b) B

0 1

(a) A real number x belongs to A if it lies in the interval [1; 1/ or if it lies in the interval . 1; 0]: Thus A
is the union of these two intervals, i.e.

A D . 1; 0] [ [1; 1/:

(b) A real number y belongs to B if it lies in the interval .0; 1/: Thus an element y lies in this interval if
y < 1 and y > 0: Thus
B D . 1; 1/ \ .0; 1/

i.e.
B D .0; 1/:

A sketch makes this answer easier to understand.

( , 1)
1

( 0, )
0

( 0 , 1)
0 1

Elements common to both intervals

 28

We are mainly interested in sets of numbers, but to make sure you understand the concepts, we give two
examples where numbers are not involved.

EXAMPLE 1.2.1

Let S D fa; b; c; d; e; f g and T D fa; e; i; o; ug:

Then

S[T D fa; b; c; d; e; f; i; o; ug
S\T D fa; eg:

In this case we also see that

S 6D T S and T do not contain exactly the same elements.

S*T There are elements in S which are not in T; and vice versa.
T * S:

EXAMPLE 1.2.2

(a) Let M D f p; q; r; sg and N D fa; b; cg: Note that M and N have no common elements.
Then

M[N D f p; q; r; s; a; b; cg
M\N D ;:

Notice that M 6D N I M * N and N * M:

(b) Let C D fcat, dog, goat, cow} and D D fdog, goat}.

Then

C [ D D fcat, dog, goat, cow} D C

C \ D D fdog, goat} D D:

Notice that

C 6D D
D C (we may also write D C):

From this example we see that when a set (like D) is a proper subset of some other set (like C), then
the union of the two sets is the bigger set, and the intersection is the smaller set.

In mathematics it is important to take particular notice of the meaning of the words “and” and “or”.
 29 MAT0511/001

Before we illustrate this with a mathematical example, let us consider an everyday example. Try to do the
following activity.

ACTIVITY 1.2.3

Suppose we consider a group of students studying this book. Let us divide the group into four sets.

A is the set of all the male students in this group.

B is the set of all the female students in this group.
C is the set of all the students in this group who wear glasses.
D is the set of all the students in this group who do not wear glasses.

Suppose that we could represent the whole group of students by means of a diagram such as this.

(a) Divide this region in a way that represents all the students in sets A; B; C and D:

(b) Use A; B; C; D as well as [ and \ to describe

(i) the set of students who wear glasses and are female

(ii) the set of students who wear glasses or are female.

SOLUTION

(a) We begin with A and B

 30

Now we need to divide this further to show C and D.

Male students ! Female students

Now that the process is clear we can put these two diagrams together, and we have the following
diagram.

(b)(i) The set of students who wear glasses is the set C: Show this more clearly by shading the set C, the
upper section of the sketch.

The set of students who are female is the set B: Show this more clearly by shading the set B, the right
section of the sketch.

Students who are in C and in B can be considered as elements common to both the sets C and B; i.e.
they are elements in the intersection of B and C and hence they can be represented by B \ C: On the
following diagram the double shaded area represents B \ C, i.e. the set of all students who are female
and wear glasses.

(ii) The set of students who wear glasses is C:

The set of students who are female is B:

In order to belong to the set consisting of students who wear glasses or who are female, a member can
be either in C or in B: These elements thus lie in the union of B and C; i.e. they can be represented
 31 MAT0511/001

by B [ C: On the following diagram the total shaded area represents B [ C; i.e. the set of all students
who are female or who wear glasses.

Notice that the only elements

“left out” are students who are
male and who do not wear glasses.

From the last two sketches you can see that there are many more elements in B [ C than in B \ C; and yet
the only difference in the description of the sets is the use of the words “and” and “or”.

EXAMPLE 1.2.3

In (a) and (b) of this example we give

(i) the geometric representation

(ii) the verbal description

(iii) the representation in set builder notation

(iv) the interval notation representation of two different sets.

Take note of the way “and” and “or” are used (in (ii) and (iii)) and how [ or \ are used (in (iv)).

(a)(i) Geometric representation

-1 0

(ii) Verbal description

All numbers less than or equal to 1; or greater than zero.

(iii) Set builder notation

fx 2 R : x 1 or x > 0g
 32

(iv) Interval notation

( 1; 1] [ .0; 1 /

(b)(i) Geometric representation

-1 0

(ii) Verbal description

All numbers less than zero and greater than or equal to 1:

(iii) Set builder notation

fx 2 R : 1 x < 0g
We may write this as fx 2 R : x 1 and x < 0g, but fx 2 R : 1 x < 0g is more concise.

(iv) Interval notation

[ 1; 0/
We may write this as ( 1; 0/ \ [ 1; 1/, but this is equal to [ 1; 0/.
In the following example and activity you can consolidate what you know about the use of “and”, “or”,
[ and \.

EXAMPLE 1.2.4

Consider the sets A D . 2; 1] and B D .0; 3/: Write (a) A [ B and (b) A \ B as one set using set builder
notation, and sketch the two sets A [ B and A \ B on a number line.

SOLUTION

(a) A[B D . 2; 1] [ .0; 3/

D fx 2 R : 2 < x 1g [ fx 2 R : 0 < x < 3g
D fx 2 R : 2 < x 1 or 0 < x < 3g
D fx 2 R : 2 < x < 3g
A
(- 2 , 1]
-2 1

B
( 0 , 3)
0 3

(- 2 , 3)
-2 0 1 3

A B
 33 MAT0511/001

(b) A\B D . 2; 1] \ .0; 3/

D fx 2 R : 2 < x 1g \ fx 2 R : 0 < x < 3g
D fx 2 R : 2 < x 1 and 0 < x < 3g
D fx 2 R : 0 < x 1g

A
( - 2 , 1]
-2 1

B
( 0, 3 )
0 1 3

( 0 , 1]
-2 0 1 3
A B

ACTIVITY 1.2.4

Consider the sets A and B given below. In each case write (i) A [ B and (ii) A \ B as one set using set builder
notation, and sketch the set on a number line.

1
(a) A D . 2; 1/I B D fx 2 R : 2
<x 3g

(b) A D fx 2 R : x < 2gI B D fx 2 R : x 3g

SOLUTION

(a)(i) A[B D . 2; 1/ [ fx 2 R : 12 < x 3g

D fx 2 R : 2 < x < 1g [ fx 2 R : 12 < x 3g
D fx 2 R : 2 < x < 1 or 21 < x 3g
Note that this set cannot be simplified any further, because A and B are disjoint sets.
 34

-2 -1

B
1
__ 3
2

__
1
-2 -1 2 3

The dark line segments in the third diagram represent A [ B:

(ii) A\B D . 2; 1/ \ fx 2 R : 21 < x 3g

1
D fx 2 R : 2 < x < 1g \ fx 2 R : 2
<x 3g
D fx 2 R : 2 < x < 1 and 12 < x 3g
D ;

We see that A \ B is the empty set, because there are no numbers that lie between 2 and 1 and at
the same time lie between 12 and 3. Since A \ B D ; we cannot sketch A \ B on a number line.

(b)(i) A[B D fx 2 R : x < 2g [ fx 2 R : x 3g

D fx 2 R : x < 2 or x 3g
D fx 2 R : x 3g

A
2

B
3

A B 3
 35 MAT0511/001

(ii) A\B D fx 2 R : x < 2g \ fx 2 R : x 3g

D fx 2 R : x < 2 and x 3g
D fx 2 R : x < 2g

A
2

B
3

2
A B

NB! Please note the darker sections in the sketches which indicate the relevant sections of the intervals.

We hope that the examples and activities have helped you understand how important it is to be specific in
your use of notation and that you have acquired confidence in using the notation. We use set builder notation
or just inequalities, when we present the solutions of algebraic inequalities (see Unit 2 in Module 2), and we
want to make sure that the answers are unambiguously stated. For example, we should not write “x < 2;
x < 4" as an answer, since it is not clear from this whether we mean

x< 2 and x < 4

or if we mean

x< 2 or x < 4:

In mathematics we apply the inclusive meaning of “or”. Hence when we say that a group may consist of
ducks or chickens, we imply that it may be a group of only ducks or only chickens, or a mixed group of
ducks and chickens. (The non–inclusive meaning implies that the group may consist of only ducks, or only
chickens, but not both.)

EXERCISE 1.2

1. Write each of the following sets using roster notation.

(a) The set of the first six letters of the English alphabet.
 36

(b) The set of the vowels of the English alphabet.

(c) The set of odd integers between 0 and 6.

2. Write the following sets using set builder notation.

(a) f1; 3; 5g
(b) f2; 4; 6; 8; 10g
(c) {: : : ; 6; 4; 2g

3. Suppose A D f0; 1; 2g; B D f3; 4; 5; 6g; D D f2; 4; 6g and E D f1; 3g: Write each of the following
sets in roster notation.

(a) A \ B
(b) A [ B
(c) A \ D
(d) A [ B [ D [ E
(e) B \ E
(f) D [ E

4. In each of the following write (i) P [ Q and (ii) P \ Q as one set using set builder notation, and sketch
the set on a number line.

(a) P D fx 2 R : 1 x < 1gI Q D [3; 4/

(b) P D . 1; 1/ and Q D [2; 1/
(c) P D fx 2 R : 2<x 4gI Q D fx 2 R : 0 x 2g
(d) P D [ 1; 2] and Q D fx 2 R : 0 < x < 3g

5. Use set builder notation to denote the set whose elements satisfy the following conditions.

(a) x is a real number greater than 1 and less than or equal to 3.

(b) x is a real number less than 0 or greater than 5.
(c) x is a real number less than 3 or less than 1.
(d) x is a real number less than 3 and less than 1.

6. Describe the set represented by the unshaded region of the last Venn diagram in the solution to Activity
1.2.3.
 37 MAT0511/001

UNIT SUMMARY

The real number system

Real numbers (R)

Rational numbers (Q) Irrational numbers

= non - repeating
or terminating
Integers (Z) Fractions decimal

Whole numbers (N0)

Natural numbers (N)

Decimal representation and place value

For example
Thousands Hundreds Tens Units , Tenths Hundredths Thousandths
4 0 3 2 1 4 9

Inequalities and ordering

Notation Explanation
aDb a is equal to b
a<b a is less than b
a b a is less than or equal to b
a>b a is greater than b
a b a is greater than or equal to b

Positive, negative, non–positive and non–negative numbers

Notation Explanation
x >0 x is a positive number
x <0 x is a negative number
x 0 x is a non–negative number
x 0 x is a non–positive number

Note: 0 is neither positive nor negative.

The number x need not be negative.
(For example, if x D 1; then x D . 1/ D 1 > 0:/
For real numbers a; b and c the following are true.
If a > b then ca > cb when c > 0I and ca < cb when c < 0:
If a < b then ca < cb when c > 0I and ca > cb when c < 0:

Different ways of describing sets of numbers

In the table on the following page, assume a and b are real numbers such that a < b:
 38

Verbal description Interval description Set builder notation Geometric representation

The set of real .a; b/ fx 2 R : a < x < bg a b

numbers greater (open interval)
than a and less
than b

The set of real [a; b/ fx 2 R : a x < bg a b

numbers greater (half–open, half–
than or equal to a closed interval)
to and less than b

The set of real .a; b] fx 2 R : a < x bg a b

numbers greater (half–open, half–
than or equal to a closed interval)
and less than b

The set of real [a; b] fx 2 R : a x bg a b

numbers greater (closed interval)
than or equal to
a and less than or
equal to b

The set of real . 1; a/ [ .b; 1/ fx 2 R : x < a or x > bg a b

numbers greater
than b or less than
a

The set of real . 1; a/ [ [b; 1/ fx 2 R : x < a or x bg a b

numbers greater
than or equal to b,
or less than a

The set of real . 1; a] [ [b; 1/ fx 2 R : x a or x bg a b

numbers greater
than or equal to
b, or less than or
equal to a
 39 MAT0511/001

Verbal description Interval description Set builder notation Geometric representation

The set of real . 1; a] [ .b; 1/ fx 2 R : x a or x > bg a b

numbers greater
than b, or less
than or equal to a

The set of real . 1; 1/ fx : x 2 Rg or R

numbers

Set concepts
Roster notation: e.g. f4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9}

Set builder notation: e.g. fx 2 N : x is greater than 3 and less than 10g

Empty set: contains no elements

Finite set: the elements can be counted and the counting comes to an end

Infinite set: a set which is not finite

Subset: A B (every element of A is an element of B/

Proper subset: A B (every element of A is an element of B; but B contains some elements

which are not in A/

Equal sets: A D B (A and B contain the same elements)

Union: A [ B (all elements in either A, or B; or in both A and B/

Intersection: A \ B (all elements common to both A and B/

Disjoint sets: A \ B D ;; i.e. A and B have no elements in common

 40

CHECKLIST

Now check that you can do the following.

1.1 Number system

1. Recognise different types of numbers. Figure 1.1.5

2. Recognise the place value of different digits in the representation of numbers in the decimal system.
Figure 1.1.6

3. Multiply decimals by 10; 100; 1 000, etc. Divide decimals by 10; 100; 1 000, etc. Example 1.1.1

4. Convert English “statements of comparison” to mathematical inequalities. Table 1.1.1; Activity 1.1.3

5. Apply the correct manipulation rules to inequalities.

For real numbers a; b and c

if a > b then ca > cb when c > 0

ca < cb when c < 0

if a < b then ca < cb when c > 0

ca > cb when c < 0.
Activity 1.1.7

6. Describe intervals using interval notation and represent them geometrically. Tables 1.1.2, 1.1.3, 1.1.4;
Activities 1.1.9, 1.1.10

1.2 Sets

1. Use roster notation and set builder notation to describe sets of numbers. Activity 1.2.1

2. Use set builder notation to describe intervals. Table 1.2.1; Example 1.2.3

3. Describe the union and intersection of intervals using set builder notation and represent them geomet-
rically. Example 1.2.4; Activity 1.2.4

4. Apply the correct meaning of “and” and “or”. Example 1.2.4; Activity 1.2.4
 41 MAT0511/001

UNIT 2: Operations on Real Numbers

OUTCOMES
After studying this unit you should be able to do the following.

2.1: Combining numbers

I Factorise numbers into their prime factors.

I Find the HCF and LCM of several numbers.

I Find out whether one fraction is smaller than, equivalent to, or bigger than, another.

I Cancel only where appropriate.

2.2: Rules that numbers obey.

I Add, subtract, multiply and divide integers.

I Perform calculations using BODMAS and applying the properties of real numbers (i.e. closure, com-
mutative property, associative property and distributive property)

I Add, subtract, multiply and divide fractions without using a calculator.

I Apply knowledge of fraction operations to everyday problems.

I Use a calculator to perform operations on fractions.

8
>
< the nearest tenth, hundred, etc.
I Round numbers to a given number of decimal places.
>
:
a given number of significant digits.

2.1 Combining Numbers

2.1.1 Prior Knowledge

Most people know how to perform the operations denoted by, for example,

2 C 3; 3 4; 8 2:

The answers to simple calculations such as these are easy to find because only natural numbers are in-
volved. When we consider the same operations, using integers or rational numbers, the situation becomes
less straightforward. For example, consider 2 34 1 37 . We need a deeper understanding of the operation of
multiplication in order to apply it to numbers such as these.
 42

The fundamental arithmetic operations are addition and multiplication. Subtraction is the “inverse” oper-
ation of addition, i.e. it is the operation that “undoes” the process of addition. In the same way we can think
of division as the inverse operation of multiplication.

I Addition is denoted by the symbol C: The result of adding two numbers a and b is called the sum of
a and b; and we write this as a C b.

I Subtraction is denoted by the symbol . The result of subtracting the number b from the number a is
called the difference of a and b and we write this as a b.

I Multiplication is denoted by the symbols or . or . /. The result of multiplying two numbers a and
b is called the product of a and b, and we usually write a b or a:b. Because a and b represent two
different numbers (and are not two digits that make up a single numeral) there is no confusion if we
write ab instead of a b: It is easy to see that we cannot do this when numerals are used, because 23
does not mean 2 3:

I Division is denoted by the symbol : The result of dividing a by b (provided b is not zero) is called the
quotient of a and b; and we write a b: We also often write ab : When we write a b as ab we obtain
a fraction. It may be possible to simplify the fraction, but for now we assume that this fraction cannot
be simplified. We have two different words that we use for a and for b in the fraction.

numerator (of the fraction)

dividend (the number that is being divided)

a_
b

denominator (of the fraction)

divisor (the number of parts into which
the dividend is being divided)

When we write “the quotient of a and b”, the number mentioned first is written “on top” and the number
mentioned second “goes at the bottom”.

One confusing thing about languages is the number of times the same words mean different things. For
example, school children are told to “do their sums”, but this usually means that they must perform various
calculations, not necessarily addition. Let us summarise the English words that are commonly related to the
 43 MAT0511/001

arithmetic operations we have described.

Operation Words often used Examples

addition add add 3 and 4
sum sum 3 and 4
plus 3 plus 4
find the sum of find the sum of 3 and 4
combine combine 3 and 4
together 3 and 4 together give ...
increase ::: by increase 3 by 4
more than 3 more than 4

multiplication multiply ... by multiply 3 by 4

product find the product of 3 and 4
times 3 times 4
of 14% of R100
as much as I have twice as much as ...
as many as I have 3 times as many as ...

subtraction subtract ... from subtract 3 from 4

minus 4 minus 3
difference the difference between 4 and 3
less 4 less 3
less than 2 less than 10
take away 4 take away 3

division divide ... by divide 4 by 3

find the quotient of the quotient of 4 and 3
divide ... into divide 3 into 4
share ... between share 4 pies between 3 people

Divide by or divide into? Less or less than? Does it matter what we say? Yes, very definitely!

If I write “6 is divided into 12” I mean 12 6; because I want to know how many times 6 can “go into” 12.
(For example, if there are 12 pies and 6 children, how many pies will each child be able to have? The answer
is 2 pies.) If I write “6 is divided by 12”, I mean 6 12; because now I want to know how many times 12
can “go into” 6. (For example, if there are now 6 pies and 12 children, how much pie will each child be able
to have? You can see that in this case the answer is 12 of a pie.)

If I write 15 less 5; I mean that 5 must be subtracted from 15; i.e. 15 less 5 is 10 (15 5 D 10). If I write 15
less than 5; I mean that 15 must be subtracted from 5; i.e. 5 15 D 10:
 44

Useful Hint

When you read “is divided into”: write the number that is given first as the denominator of the fraction.

When you read “is divided by”: write the number that is given second as the denominator of the fraction.

When you read “less”, first write down the number mentioned first.

When you read “less than”, first write down the number mentioned second.

Checking answers using the opposite (i.e. inverse) operation

We noted earlier that we can check subtraction by means of addition, and division by means of multiplication,
since these pairs of operations are “inverses” of one another. Let us look at one simple example of each
checking process.

We first use addition to check subtraction.

18 7 D 11 is correct, since 11 C 7 D 18:

However
23 7 D 18 is incorrect, since 18 C 7 D 25 6D 23:

We now check division by multiplication.

24 4 D 6 is correct, since 6 4 D 24:

However
54 6 D 8 is incorrect, since 8 6 D 48 6D 54:
The examples given on the previous page involve only natural numbers. However, these checking processes
work for all real numbers because of the relationships between addition and subtraction, and between multi-
plication and division.
Remember: “,” means “equivalent”.
It is used between two equivalent
statements.

For real numbers a, b and c we have

a b Dc ,bCc Da
and
a bDc,b c D a; where b 6D 0:

2.1.2 FACTORS, MULTIPLES AND FRACTIONS

In the case of multiplication and division, we sometimes distinguish between the numbers involved by giving
them special names.
 45 MAT0511/001

FACTORS AND MULTIPLES

We know that the product of 3 and 4 is 12. We call 3 and 4 factors of 12. We say that 12 is a multiple of
3 (it is also a multiple of 4). It is clear that 3 and 4 are not the only factors of 12. We can also write 12 as a
product of 1 and 12 (since 1 12 D 12/ or 2 and 6 (since 2 6 D 12/ and thus the factors of 12 are 1; 2;
3; 4; 6, and 12. In general we say that any natural number can be written as a product of natural numbers.
Suppose a D b c d; where a; b; c and d are all natural numbers. Then b; c and d are called factors of a;
and a is called a multiple of b, c and d.

Remember: All even integers are multiples of 2. All integers that have 5 as the last digit are multiples of 5
and 10.

EXAMPLE 2.1.1

(a) Find all the factors of 24.

(b) 60 is a multiple of several numbers. What are the numbers?

SOLUTION

(a) We can write

24 D 1 24
24 D 2 12
24 D 3 8
24 D 4 6

and thus the factors of 24 are 1; 2; 3; 4; 6; 8; 12 and 24.

(b)

60 D 1 60
60 D 2 30
60 D 3 20
60 D 4 15
60 D 5 12
60 D 6 10

Hence 60 is a multiple of 60; 30; 20; 15; 12; 10; 6; 5; 4; 3; 2 and 1.

A natural number greater than one which has only two factors, namely itself and 1, is called a prime
number. For example, 2 is a prime number, since it only has the factors 1 and 2. Similarly 7 is a prime
number, because it has only 1 and 7 as its factors. 1 is not a prime number. It has only one factor.
 46

Any natural number greater than 1 can be written as a product of its prime factors. This process is called
prime factorisation. For example
24 D 2 2 2 3:

In the case of 24 it is easy to identify the prime factors, because we can think of 24 as the product of 8 and 3,
and then we can think of 8 as the product of 2, 2 and 2. If we do not immediately know what the prime factors
of a number are, we can find them by successively dividing the number by the prime numbers, starting from
2. We carry on dividing until we end with the number 1.

For example,
2 24
2 12
2 6
3 3
1

i.e. 24 D 2 2 2 3:

Are prime factors just a vague mathematical concept? Do they have any use? They are useful in the creation
of codes (cryptography). On a less complicated level, we can consider the following example. A class of
45 students will sit in rows with the same number of students in each row. Each row must contain at least 2
students. There must be at least 2 rows. How many arrangements are possible?

Since 45 D number of rows number of students per row, the question can be answered by finding how
many different ways we can write 45 as a product of two positive integers, each of which is greater than 1.
(The integers must be bigger than 1 because there are at least two rows, and there are at least two students
per row.) So we write 45 as a product of prime numbers: 45 D 3 3 5: By combining two of these factors
at a time we obtain 45 D 9 5I 45 D 3 15I 45 D 5 9 or 45 D 15 3: Thus there are only 4 possible
arrangements: 9 rows with 5 students in each row; 3 rows with 15 students in each; 5 rows with 9 students in
each or 15 rows with 3 students in each.

Highest common factor (HCF)

We sometimes need to know whether two different numbers have any factors that are common to both num-
bers. For example, 16 and 24 both have the factors 2, 4 and 8 in common. The biggest of these common
factors is called the highest common factor, abbreviated by HCF.

There is a simple method of finding the HCF of two or more numbers.

METHOD FOR FINDING THE HCF

I Factorise each number into its prime factors.

I Identify the factors which are common to all factorisations.

 47 MAT0511/001

I Write down the product of all the common factors. If a factor appears more than once in any factori-
sation it must be written down the least number of times that it occurs in any one of the factorisations.

EXAMPLE 2.1.2

We find the HCF of 120 and 36.

Step (1): We factorise 120 and 36 into their prime factors.

120 D 2 2 2 3 5
36 D 2 2 3 3
2 2 3
HCF D 2 2 3
D 12

Step (2): Pick the prime factors that occur in the multiples of 120 and 36 as shown above.

HCF may be seen as the intersection of the prime factors of 120 and 36:

Least common multiple (LCM)

We also need to identify a number that is a multiple of two or more numbers. For example, if we consider
2 and 10, then 10 is a multiple of both, but so are 20, 30, etc. We call the smallest such number the least
common multiple, abbreviated by LCM.

We have a simple method of finding the LCM of two or more numbers.

METHOD FOR FINDING THE LCM

I Factorise each number into its prime factors.

I Write down the product of all the factors which appear. If a factor appears more than once in any
factorisation, it must be included the greatest number of times that it occurs in any one of the factori-
sations.

EXAMPLE 2.1.3

We find the LCM of 120 and 36.

Step (1): We factorise 120 and 36 into their prime factors.

120 D 2 2 2 3 5
36 D 2 2 3 3
2 2 2 3 3 5
LCM D 2 2 2 3 3 5
 48

Step (2): Pick all the prime factors that occur in the multiple of both 120 and 36 without repeating any prime
factor as shown above LCM may be considered as the union of the prime factors of 120 and 36:

ACTIVITY 2.1.1

Find the HCF and LCM of 4, 20 and 24.

SOLUTION
4 D 2 2
20 D 2 2 5
24 D 2 2 2 3
2 2
HCF D 2 2 2 3 3 5
4 D 2 2
20 D 2 2 5
24 D 2 2 2 3
LCM D 2 2 2 5 3
D 2 2 2 3 5
D 120

Can you think of an everyday situation where we apply the concept of LCM? Look at the following example.

It takes Eric 20 minutes to inspect a car. John only needs 15 minutes to inspect a car. If they both start
inspecting cars at 09:00, what is the first time at which they will finish inspecting a car at the same time?

We make use of variables to help our reasoning. Suppose that, at the time at which they finish an inspection
together, Eric will have inspected k cars, and John j cars (k and j represent natural numbers). Eric will finish
k cars after k 20 minutes. John will finish j cars after j 15 minutes. They will both finish at the same
time when k 20 D j 15: Since k and j are natural numbers, this question requires us to find a common
multiple of 20 and 15. Since the question asks for the first time at which they finish together, we need to find
the least common multiple. Now 20 D 2 2 5; 15 D 3 5 and hence LCM D 2 2 3 5 D 60: Thus
the first time Eric and John will finish an inspection together will be after 1 hour, i.e. at 10:00.

When we considered the operation of division earlier we saw that if a 2 N; b 2 N and b 6D 0; then a b can
be written as ab : Sometimes b “goes into” a exactly, with no remainder. At other times, when a is divided by
b there is a remainder. When there is no remainder, we say a is divisible by b.

Hint
To help us in arithmetic calculations remember that

I all even integers are divisible by 2

I all integers whose digits add up to any multiple of 3 are divisible by 3 (for example 711 is divisible by
3 since 7 C 1 C 1 D 9; and 9 is divisible by 3)
 49 MAT0511/001

I all integers ending in 5 or 0 are divisible by 5

I all integers ending in 0 are divisible by 5 and by 10.

FRACTION

If 10 apples are shared among 5 children, each child gets 2 apples, and there are no apples left over. We say
10 is divisible by 5. We write 10 5 D 2 or 10 5
D 2: However, if 10 apples are shared among 3 children, each
child will have 3 apples, but there will be one apple left over. We can write 10 3 D 3 rem 1 (where “rem”
stands for remainder) but this is a clumsy way of expressing the answer. Of course children will not need
any mathematical knowledge to know that the remaining apple can also be shared. If this one apple is shared
equally among the three children, each child will have one third of the apple. One third is called a fraction
and it can be written as 31 because it occurs when we divide 1 by 3: Thus we write 10 3 D 3 13 : We see that
the concept of fractions occurs naturally. A fraction is a part of a whole. For calculation purposes we need to
study fractions in more detail.

We began studying fractions in Study Unit 1.1A. The figure below shows some examples of fractions.

Not knowing “how to say something” can get in the way when we try to work with the “something”. This
may be a problem in the case of fractions.

Equivalence of fractions

We now discuss the important concept of equivalent fractions. Look at the following four fractions: 13 , 26 30
3
,
50
150
. They all describe one third. There are infinitely many different ways that we can write down the fraction
“one third”. The fractions in this “family” of fractions are called equivalent fractions.

We know that any integer can be written as a fraction if we use 1 as the denominator. Now

3 _9
3 = _ Multiply numerator and denominator by 3.
1 3

2
_a = _c
3 b d
3 = _ _6
1 2
Multiply numerator and denominator by 2. ad D bc

2
 50

9
Now 3
D 62 ; and we call these two fractions equivalent. We give the following definition.

Definition 2.1.1
a c
Two fractions and are equivalent if ad D bc;
b d
i.e. if their cross products are equal.

EXAMPLE 2.1.4

2 16
(a) D since 2 40 D 80 D 16 5:
5 40
2 4
(b) 6D since 2 9 D 18 and 3 4 D 12; but 18 6D 12:
3 9

Classification of fractions

In the following table we classify fractions according to their structure.

CLASSIFICATION OF FRACTIONS
Name Description Example

2
Proper fraction The numerator is less than the denominator.
7

7
Improper fraction The numerator is bigger than the denominator.
2

1
Mixed fraction A fraction in the form of an integer and a proper fraction. 3
3

3=4
Complex fraction A fraction whose numerator and denominator are both fractions.
2=3

Table 2.1.2

Note: All improper fractions are greater than 1.

Mixed fractions can be converted to improper fractions, and vice versa. For example,

1 1 9 1 10
3 D3C D C D I
3 3 3 3 3
and
7 6 1 1 1
D C D3C D3 :
2 2 2 2 2
 51 MAT0511/001

In this example we have used the concept of equivalent fractions. We have already seen that
3 9 3 6
D ; and D :
1 3 1 2
We have not yet discussed why 93 C 13 D 10
3
; or why 62 C 21 D 72 ; but it should be clear that we can add thirds,
or halves, in the same way that we can add other items. For example, 9 eggs C 1 egg D 10 eggs; 6 books C
1 book D 7 books.

Simplification of fractions

When the numerator and denominator of a fraction have no common factors the fraction is said to be in its
lowest terms, or in its simplest form. Thus, when we are asked to simplify a fraction, we divide the numerator
and denominator by their common factors. In this way we obtain a new fraction equivalent to the fraction
with which we began. What this means is that we

I factorise the numerator and denominator

I cancel identical factors that occur in the numerator and denominator.

EXAMPLE 2.1.5

Cancelling:
15 31 51 1
D D
45 31 3 51 3

When we cancel the 3 in the top line with a 3 in the bottom line we are removing a “hidden” multiplier whose
value is 1 ( 33 D 1). Multiplying by 1 has no effect, so we can remove 33 from the fraction. If we analyse this
process in detail we see that once we have obtained the factors, we reason as follows:

Again consider
1 5
1 3 5

Also when we cancel the 5 in the top line with the 5 in the bottom line we are removing a “hidden” multiplier
whose value is 1 ( 55 D 1). Multiplying by 1 has no effect, so we can remove 55 from the fraction.

ACTIVITY 2.1.2

Explain why the following is wrong.

3C4 4 4
D D
3C2C1 2C1 3
 52

SOLUTION

It is easy to see that this is wrong. The fraction on the left represents 76 ; whereas the answer on the right is 34 :
We know that 76 6D 43 ; because their cross products, i.e. 21 and 24, are not equal.

If you do not fully understand the concept of equivalent fractions, on which the cancelling process depends,
you may reason that “we can cancel the 3’s that occur in the numerator and denominator”. We cannot do this,
because “cancelling” means dividing both numerator and denominator by common factors. In this case 3 is
not a factor of both the numerator and denominator (3 is not a factor of 7, even though it is a factor of 6).
You can only cancel when the numerators and denominators are in factors form.

Comparing fractions

Equivalent fractions are also useful when we want to compare fractions. When we look at two fractions it is
not always easy to see which is the smaller of the two. For instance, how do we know whether 32 < 54 ; or
whether 54 < 23 ? In order to answer this we express each fraction as an equivalent fraction, and we choose
the denominator in such a way that the two fractions have the same denominator. It is convenient to choose
the smallest possible denominator. This number will be the LCM of the two denominators, and we thus
refer to it as the LCD (lowest common denominator). In the case of 32 and 54 the LCD is 15. Now

2 10 Because we multiply the denominator by 5 to obtain 15; we must

D
3 15 multiply the numerator by 5 as well.
and
4 12 In this case the denominator, and thus also the numerator, are
D
5 15 multiplied by 3.
2
Now it is easy to see that 3
< 45 ; because, in terms of their equivalent fractions, we see that 10
15
< 12
15
; because
10 < 12:

Remember that the numerator counts “how many” and 10 fifteenths is less than 12 fifteenths.

ACTIVITY 2.1.3

Replace the ? with < or >, in order to obtain correct relationships.

10 9
(a) ?
13 13
3 3
(b) ?
4 5
5 9
(c) ?
8 16
8 6
(d) ?
9 5
 53 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

In each case (except (a)) we convert each of the two fractions to equivalent fractions, with the same denom-
inator.

10 9
(a) The fractions already have the same denominator. Hence 13
> 13
(since 10 > 9/.

(b) The LCD of 4 and 5 is 20.

3 15 3 12 3 3 15 12
Now 4
D 20
and 5
D 20
; and thus 4
> 5
because 20
> 20
(since 15 > 12/:

(c) The LCD of 8 and 16 is 16.

5 10 5 9 10 9
8
D 16
; thus 8
> 16
because 16
> 16
(since 10 > 9/:

(d) The LCD of 9 and 5 is 45.

8 40 6 54 8 6 40 54
9
D 45
and 5
D 45
: Thus 9
< 5
because 45
< 45
(since 40 < 54/:

USEFUL HINT

Do not always apply methods blindly. Consider whether there may not be an easier way of solving a problem.
In the case of (d) of Activity 2.1.3 it is not necessary to find the LCD.

8 6 8 6 8
It is immediately clear that 9
< 1; and 5
> 1: We have 9
<1< 5
and hence 9
< 65 :

EXERCISE 2.1

1. (a) Factorise 54 into its prime factors.

(b) Find the HCF and LCM of
(i) 16 and 56 (ii) 28 and 35
(iii) 12 and 20 (iv) 10 and 21
(v) 9; 18 and 27 (vi) 12; 90 and 120.

2. How can you find out, without dividing 6 into 216, that 216 is a multiple of 6?

3. Write down six elements in the family of fractions that describes “one eighth”.

4. Replace ? with >; D or <, in order to obtain correct relationships.

2 6 2 5
(a) ? (b) ?
5 15 3 9

7 9 2 3
(c) ? (d) ?
7 9 3 4

8 5 1 7
(e) ? (f) 1 ?
9 6 3 5
 54

5. (a) Explain why it is correct to write

31 4
D 4:
31
(b) Explain the incorrect reasoning process involved in the following.

3C4 31 C 4
D D 5:
3 31

6. Decide which of the following statements is/are true. Correct those which are false.

(a)
4C3 4C3 5
D D
6 6 2 2

(b)
7 4 7 42
D D2
14 142
(c)
16 C 8 4 16 C 8 4
D D 23
4 4
(d)
20 3 20 3 202 1
D D D1
30 3010 10

2.2 Rules that Numbers Obey

2.2.1 Operations Involving Integers

Most people have an intuitive sense of how to combine natural numbers, i.e. how to add, subtract, multiply
and divide them. When we work with natural numbers we find that

adding two natural numbers results in a natural number

but

subtracting one natural number from another does not necessarily

result in a natural number.

When a and b are any two natural numbers, the fact that a C b 2 N allows us to say that “N is closed with
respect to addition”. We see that N is not closed with respect to subtraction; N is closed with respect to
multiplication; N is not closed with respect to division.

For example 3 C 5 D 8; and 3; 5 and 8 are all natural numbers. However 8 5 D 3 and 3 2 N; but 5 8 is a
calculation that cannot be performed in N:
 55 MAT0511/001

We also see that

the product of two natural numbers is always a natural number

but

the quotient of two natural numbers need not result in a natural number.

For example 6 2 D 12; and 2, 6 and 12 are all natural numbers. However, 12 6 D 2; and 2 2 N; but
2 62 = N.

We now consider the rules that apply when we carry out various calculations involving integers.

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF INTEGERS

In order to make sense of the idea of adding integers, we need to think about them in terms of directed
numbers. By this we mean that a positive or negative sign attached to a number indicates the direction in
which we travel on the number line. For example, we can write 3 C 2; to indicate that we start at 3 on the
number line, and then travel 2 units in the negative direction, so that we reach 1. Thus

3 C 2 D 1:

Similarly, when we subtract negative integers, a number line is very helpful.

We do not usually write numbers in this way (i.e. 2/ but it is useful initially to help us see the difference
between negative numbers, and the operation of subtraction. Later we will use 2 instead of 2:
 56

SUMMARY OF ADDITION RULES FOR INTEGERS

a and b are integers; a 6D 0 and b 6D 0
Conditions that Rule for Example
apply to a and b finding a C b

1. a > 0 and b > 0 The answer will a D 3; b D 5

(i.e. a and b are be positive. a C b D C8 D 8
both positive) Write down “C”
and add the
magnitudes of
the numbers.

2. a < 0 and b < 0 The answer will be a D 3; b D 5

(i.e. a and b are negative. Write aCb D 8
both negative) down “ ” and add
the magnitudes
of the numbers.

3.1 a > 0 and b < 0 The answer will a D 3; b D 5

or have the sign aCb D 2
3.2 a < 0 and b > 0 of the number or
with the bigger a D 3; b D 5
magnitude. a C b D C2 D 2
Write down the
sign and subtract
the smaller
magnitude from
the bigger one.

Table 2.2.1

We make use of the same table for subtraction, by first applying the fact that subtraction can be considered as
the opposite of addition. We can define a b as aC (the opposite of b), i.e.

a bDaC b

for any integers a and b:

Instead of using the notation for directed numbers, we write

a b D a C . b/:
 57 MAT0511/001

Note the use of brackets. We will explain how we use brackets more fully later, but now it is easy to see that
in this case brackets help to make the meaning clear. It is rather confusing to read or write a C b; so we
prefer to use brackets.

Remember that b simply means “the number with the opposite sign to the sign of b”. So the number 3
has the opposite sign to C3I the number . 2/ has the opposite sign to 2; i.e. it is C2: Brackets are used
around negative numbers to seperate the minus signs attached to the number from the symbols used for the
arithmetic operations.

We now consider the operation a b in terms of the operation a C . b/, subject to the following conditions.

It is often assume that b must be a negative number. You see here that this need not be true.

1. Consider
a > b > 0:
Now if b > 0 then b < 0 and we can apply 3.1 or 3.2 of Table 2.2.1. For example, if

a D 5; b D 3 (i.e. bD 3/

then
5 3 D 5 C . 3/ D 2:

2. Consider
b > a > 0:
Again b > 0 means that b < 0; and we can apply 3.1 or 3.2 of Table 2.2.1.
For example, if
a D 3; b D 5 (i.e. bD 5/
then
3 5 D 3 C . 5/ D 2:

3. Similarly, consider
a > 0 and b < 0:
Now if b < 0; then b > 0 and we can apply 1 of Table 2.2.1. For example, if

a D 5; b D 3 (i.e. b D 3/

then
5 . 3/ D 5 C .3/ D 8:

4. Finally, consider a < 0 and b > 0: Now if b > 0 then b < 0 and we can apply 2 of Table 2.2.1. For
example, if
a D 5; b D 3 (i.e. b D 3/
then
5 3D 5 C . 3/ D 8:
 58

We have now seen that “subtracting a positive number” is the same as “adding a negative number”, e.g.
7 3 D 7 C . 3/ D 4I and “subtracting a negative number” is the same as “adding a positive number” e.g.
7 . 3/ D 7 C 3 D 10:

In the same way that we think of subtraction as the “opposite” or “inverse” of addition, we think of division
as the “inverse” of multiplication, and we can define the division of two numbers in terms of multiplication.

MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF INTEGERS

If a and b are integers then a b will be an integer if we can find an integer c such that c b D a. For
example
6 2 D 3; because 3 2 D 6:

However, division of two integers will not always result in an integer. If we consider the rational numbers
then we can define a b for all a; b 2 Z where b 6D 0. The quotient may not be an integer, but it will be a
rational number. In this case we have
a
a b D
b
1
D a :
b

We consider this in more detail later (Study Unit 2.2B) when we work with fractions. However, you can see
that
14
14 2 D
2
1
D 14
2
D 7:

This is easy to understand if we relate it to a real–life situation: if there are 14 books, to be shared between 2
people, then two people each get 12 of the total number of books, i.e. 7 books.

What happens when we multiply or divide integers? Small children do not know that they are multiplying
when they work out how many sweets there are altogether if each child has a certain number. For example,
suppose 4 children each have 6 sweets. We can work out the total number of sweets by calculating 6C6C6C6;
i.e. there are 24 sweets altogether. Examples such as this show that we can think of multiplication as repeated
addition (i.e. adding the same number a given number of times). Of course the everyday examples children
encounter involve only natural numbers, but the principle also holds when we work with integers. Think
about the following example.

Suppose that every 5 minutes there is a 2o C drop in temperature of a cooling substance. By how much will
the temperature have dropped after 15 minutes?

Note: Temperature can be measured in degrees Celsius (C) or degrees Fahrenheit (F).
 59 MAT0511/001

We can denote the temperature change for each 5 minute period by 2o C. We use 2 to show that the
temperature is decreasing. We know that 15 minutes consists of three 5 minute periods. We thus have three
“lots” of 2o C drops in temperature, so the temperature drops by 6o C (since 2 C 2 C 2 D 6). The total
temperature change is thus 6o C; and we find this by calculating 3 . 2/. The product 3 . 2/ D 6
illustrates a rule you probably know already: the product of a positive integer and a negative integer is a
negative integer.

Apart from being concise and precise, another important aspect of mathematics is that it must be consistent.
Any new rule, definition or theorem that is developed must create mathematical theory that does not contradict
theory previously known to be true.

When we study different aspects of mathematics we often see different patterns emerging. When we analyse
these patterns we reach the underlying theoretical principles. Let us use mathematical patterns to illustrate
the rules that apply to the multiplication of integers. We consider the integers from 5 to 5; and we multiply
them by 2.
5 2 D 10 The answers are
4 2D8 all integers, and they
3 2D6 are decreasing by 2.
2 2D4
1 2D2
0 2D0
. 1/ 2 D 2 Even if we did not know what
. 2/ 2 D 4 answers we would get after
. 3/ 2 D 6 the answer 0, we know
. 4/ 2 D 8 that the pattern
. 5/ 2 D 10 must continue.
Suppose that we now take one of these rows and change the order in which we write the numbers. Instead of
writing . 2/ 2 D 4; we write
2 . 2/ D 4:
We also saw (from the temperature example) that
Note: Multiplying a number
3 . 2/ D 6: by a negative number changes the
sign of the number we begin with.
If we make up a table with these two products, and include additional integers, the resulting pattern will be
consistent with patterns we already have.
3 . 2/ D 6 The answers are all
2 . 2/ D 4 integers, and they
1 . 2/ D 2 are increasing by 2.
0 . 2/ D 0 Even if we did not know
. 1/ . 2/ D 2 what answers to expect,
. 2/ . 2/ D 4 we know that the pattern
. 3/ . 2/ D 6 must continue.
 60

Once you have understood the logic of the comments made so far, all you need to remember are the rules that
we apply when we multiply integers. You do not have to be able to prove these rules, but it is important that
you realise they have not been arbitrarily decided. The sign rules that apply to multiplication also apply to
division. We summarise these rules in Tables 2.2.2 and 2.2.3.

SUMMARY OF MULTIPLICATION RULES FOR INTEGERS

a and b are integers, a 6D 0 and b 6D 0
Conditions that apply to a and b Rule for finding a b Example
1. a > 0 and b > 0 ab > 0 a D 3; b D 6
Write down “C”. Multiply the 3 6 D C18 D 18
magnitudes of a and b

2. a < 0 and b < 0 ab > 0 a D 3; b D 6

Write down “C”. Multiply the ( 3/ . 6/ D C18
magnitudes of a and b: D 18

3.1 a > 0 and b < 0 ab < 0 a D 3; b D 6

or Write down “ ”. Multiply the 3 . 6/ D 18
3.2 a < 0 and b > 0 magnitudes of a and b: or
a D 3; b D 6
. 3/ 6 D 18
Table 2.2.2
SUMMARY OF DIVISION RULES FOR INTEGERS
a and b are integers, a 6D 0 and b 6D 0
Conditions that apply to a and b Rule for finding a b Example
1. a > 0 and b > 0 a b>0 a D 12; b D 6
Write down “C”. Divide the 12 6 D C2 D 2
magnitude of b into the
magnitude of a:

2. a < 0 and b < 0 a b>0 a D 12; b D 6

Write down “C.” Divide the . 12/ . 6/ D C2 D 2
magnitude of binto the
magnitude of a:

3.1 a > 0 and b < 0 a b<0 a D 12; b D 6

or Write down “ ”. Divide the 12 . 6/ D 2
3.2 a < 0 and b > 0 magnitude of b into the or
magnitude of a: a D 12; b D 6
. 12/ 6 D 2
Table 2.2.3
 61 MAT0511/001

ACTIVITY 2.2.1

Write down the answer in each case. Do not use a calculator.

(a) 13 7 (b) 13 C 7
(c) 14 . 6/ (d) 6 C . 11/
(e) 8 C . 9/ (f) 3 . 2/
(g) 5 . 1/ (h) 1 4
(i) 15 . 3/ (j) 10 . 2/

SOLUTION

(a) 6 (b) 6
(c) 8 (d) 17
(e) 17 (f) 6
(g) 5 (h) 4
(i) 5 (j) 5

In Tables 2.2.2 and 2.2.3 we considered that a and b were integers, but these sign rules apply to all real
numbers. However, we began by excluding zero. In the “patterns” that we used before we formulated the
rules in Table 2.2.2, we included zero: we had 0 2 D 0; and 0 . 2/ D 0; and these answers were
consistent with the rest of the pattern. However, we need to be certain how the number zero behaves with
respect to the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. The following table summarises
the behaviour of zero.

THE BEHAVIOUR OF ZERO

a is a real number; a 6D 0
Operation How zero behaves

1. Addition aC0Da 0Ca Da

2. Subtraction a 0Da 0 aD a

3. Multiplication a 0D0 0 aD0

4. Division a 0 D? 0 aD0
This calculation
cannot be per-
formed. We say
a
a 0 (or /
0
is undefined.

Table 2.2.4
 62

Item 4 may be surprising. Make sure you understand the difference between a 0 and 0 a:
We say a 0 is undefined, i.e. we cannot divide by 0.
To help you understand why division by 0 is undefined, look at the following table.

5 5 5 5 5 5
10 5 1 0;1 0;01 0;001

1
2
1 5 50 500 5 000

Do you see that as the divisor gets smaller (closer to zero) the answer actually gets bigger, and the pattern
will carry on like this indefinitely.

1
We cannot divide by zero. However, 0 aD0 a
D 0, hence division into 0 is possible for any non–zero
real number.

For convenience, we began this discussion on the rules that integers obey when we add, subtract, multiply or
divide. It should be easy to see that the same rules must apply to all real numbers, and not only to integers.
However, we must take into account the rules in Table 2.2.4 whenever there is the possibility that one or more
of the numbers may be zero.

2.2.2 Properties of Real Numbers with Respect to Arithmetic Operations

We have said that we can

add
subtract
multiply
divide
real numbers by applying the same sign rules that apply to integers. However, when we extend our arithmetic
operations to R we need to introduce a few more manipulative procedures. We first need to understand them;
later on they can become rules that we apply automatically.

As soon as we begin working with different operations within the same calculation it is important that we all
agree on the order in which the operations will be carried out. For example, if we have the calculation

5C2 3

someone may obtain 11 while someone else may obtain 21. Confusion like this can be avoided if we use
brackets which show clearly the order in which the operations must be performed, for example

5 C .2 3/ D 11:

Confusion may also be avoided if we have a convention that determines the order in which we apply the
operations. A convention is a rule which has been agreed upon, and which everyone applies.

In the example above we have used brackets. We have also used brackets as one way of denoting multiplica-
tion. In any calculation where we want to make sure that there is no confusion about the order of operations,
we also use brackets to show that certain numbers are grouped together, and should be treated as one entity.
 63 MAT0511/001

We use the BODMAS convention if there is any doubt about the order in which calculations should be done.
Scientific calculators also apply this rule. The BODMAS convention lays down the following order in which
operations are carried out:

B: Brackets Carry out operations inside brackets.

O: Of Work out “of”s. Remember that “of” indicates
multiplication when the multiplier is a fraction
e.g. 32 of 15, 10 percent of 50.
D: Divide
M: Multiply
A: Add
S: Subtract

You will not necessarily have all BODMAS operations in one calculation. If, for example, there is no D
(division) we go on to the next operation.
If we look at the calculation
5C2 3
we had earlier, we now see that according to the BODMAS convention

5C2 3 D 5C6 First multiply.

D 11: Then add.

However, using brackets changes the picture:

.5 C 2/ 3 D 7 3 Brackets first.
D 21: Then multiply.

Nested brackets
You have probably seen calculations where more than one set of brackets is used. For example, we may need
to calculate
2[3 C .4 1/]:
The two different sets of brackets may be denoted in two different ways, such as we have here, where square
brackets: [: : :] and curved brackets: .: : :/ are used. Brackets used in this way are called nested brackets.
The name is unimportant, but it is important to remember that we perform the calculation working from the
innermost brackets outwards.

The above calculation then becomes

2[3 C .4 1/] D 2[3 C 3] The operation in the innermost set of brackets
has been performed.
D 2[6] The operation in the next set of brackets has
been performed.
D 12. We know brackets denote multiplication.
 64

We have mentioned two properties that real numbers have with respect to arithmetic operations. (We have
spoken about closure and commutativity.) There are four properties that we often use, and we summarise
them in Tables 2.2.5 and 2.2.6. These properties apply mainly to addition and multiplication, but “closure”
applies to all four of the arithmetic operations we have discussed.

SOME PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBERS

a; b and c are any real numbers
Property and
how to use Addition Multiplication
the word

Closure
We say R is closed with respect aCb 2R a b2R
1
to addition, multiplication, For example, 6 C 0; 5 D 5; 5 For example, 2
10 D 5
subtraction. and 5; 5 2 R: and 5 2 R:

Commutativity
We say that multiplication and aCb DbCa a bDb a
addition are commutative For example, . 6/ C 2 D 2 C . 6/: For example, 3 2 D 2 3
operations. This means that Both ways of adding give the answer (both calculations give 6 as
the order in which we multiply 4: the answer).
or add numbers does not
change the answer we obtain.

Associativity
When we add or multiply .a C b/ C c D a C .b C c/ .a b/ c D a .b c/
more than two numbers For example, For example,
we first carry out the 4C3C7C8 2 1 5
operation on two numbers; D .4 C 3/ C 7 C 8 D .2 1/ 5
we then add or multiply D7C7C8 D2 5
the answer with the next D .7 C 7/ C 8 D 10
number, and so on. D 14 C 8
D 22
or or
The associative property 4C3C7C8 2 1 5
allows us to pair the D 4 C .3 C 7/ C 8 D 2 .1 5/
numbers in any way D 4 C 10 C 8 D2 5
we choose. D 4 C .10 C 8/ D 10:
D 4 C 18
D 22:

Table 2.2.5
 65 MAT0511/001

One of the most important properties is summarised in Table 2.2.6 (in which we assume a 6D 0/:

THE DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY

a; b; c 2 R and a 6D 0
Distributive Multiplication over Division over
addition or subtraction addition or
subtraction

We say that multiplication a.b C c/ D ab C ac .b C c/ a

and division are distribu- or D .b a/ C .c a/
tive over addition and .b C c/a D ba C ca or
subtraction. or .b c/ a
a.b c/ D ab ac D .b a/ .c a/
or
.b c/a D ba ca

Table 2.2.6

The way in which people talk about the distributive property is sometimes misleading. At times people read

3.a C b/

as “three into a C b": We have already seen how the word “into” usually refers to division, so that we would
interpret “three into a C b" as
aCb
:
3

This reinforces the value of mathematical notation, which makes clear which operation is involved.

The following example shows us that the distributive property is consistent with the BODMAS rule.

EXAMPLE 2.2.1

(a) Calculate 3.4 C 2/ using

(i) the BODMAS rule

(ii) the distributive property.

(b) Calculate 4 3.5 1/ using

(i) BODMAS
(ii) the distributive property.
 66

SOLUTION

(a) (i) Brackets first: 3.4 C 2/ D 3.6/

Multiply: 3.6/ D 18

(ii) If we apply the distributive property, then

3.4 C 2/ D .3 4/ C .3 2/ D 12 C 6 D 18

i.e. we obtain the same answer.

We are using the fact that multiplication is distributive over addition.

(b) (i) 4 3.5 1/ D 4 3.4/ First do the operation inside the brackets.

D4 12 Then multiply.

D 8 Then subtract.
By the distributive property. We introduce additional
(ii) 4 3.5 1/ D 4 ..3 5/ .3 1//
brackets to prevent careless mistakes.

D4 .15 3/ Then multiply.

We have two different ways of thinking about this.

(1) 4 .15 3/ D 4 12 We perform the operation inside the brackets.

D 8 Then we subtract.
(2) 4 .15 3/
When no number is written before a bracket we can
D4 .1/.15 3/
assume that the number 1 is in that position.

Subtracting a number is the same as adding the

D 4 C . 1/.15 3/ opposite of the number. In this case “the opposite”
of 1.15 3/ is . 1/.15 3/:

Using nested brackets, and applying the property

D 4 C .. 1/.15/ . 1/.3//
that multiplication is distributive over subtraction.

D 4 C .. 15/ . 3// A negative number multiplied by a positive

number is negative.
Subtracting a negative number is the same as
D 4 C . 15 C 3/
adding the corresponding positive number.

D 4 C . 12/ We perform the operation inside the brackets.

D 8 We perform the last operation.

 67 MAT0511/001

It is easy to see that using BODMAS directly (as we did in (b)(i) in the solution) or indirectly (as we did in
(b)(ii)(1) of the solution) gave us the answer more easily than the method we used in (b)(ii)(2). However,
we often have to use the more involved method when it is not possible to find a numerical answer for the
operation inside the brackets. Fortunately, provided you understand why the method is valid, there is a “short
cut” that we can apply, instead of writing out the solution in such a lengthy way.

Look again at the signs in the calculation 4 .15 3/: We can reason as follows.

4 - (15 - 3) = 4 - (+ 15 - 3)

= 4 - 15 + 3 = - 8

1 "- " "+ " = "- " 2 "- " "- " = "+ "

Hint

When you remove brackets, remember

I If there is a “C” before a bracket, the signs inside the brackets do not change. For example

4 C .15 3/ D 4 C 15 3:

Similarly,

2 C 3.2 1/ D 2 C 6 3:

I If there is a “ ” before a bracket, the signs inside the bracket change.

For example

4 .15 3/ D 4 15 C 3:

Similarly,

2 3.2 C 1/ D 2 6 3:

The examples we have looked at so far have shown the distributive property of multiplication over addition
or subtraction. Let us consider an example where division is involved.
 68

EXAMPLE 2.2.2

Calculate 4 C . 18 C 3/ 3 using

(a) BODMAS

(b) the distributive property.

SOLUTION

(a)
4 C . 18 C 3/ 3 D 4 C . 15/ 3 Brackets first.
D 4 C . 5/ Then division.
D 1 Then addition.

(b)
4 C . 18 C 3/ 3 D 4 C .. 18 3/ C .3 3// Division is distributive over addition.
D 4 C . 6 C 1/ Now we must simplify inside brackets.
Apply the sign rules for division.
D 4 C . 5/
D 1

Note that when division was first mentioned, we said that a b and ab denote the same operation. This always
applies, regardless of whether a and b are single real numbers, or whether they represent some combination
of real numbers. For example, we may write .8 C 4/ .2 3/ or 28C43 :

EXAMPLE 2.2.3

Calculate 1 C .8 C 4/ .2 2/ using

(a) BODMAS

(b) the distributive property.

SOLUTION

(a)
1 C .8 C 4/ .2 2/ D 1 C 12 4 Brackets first.

D 1C3 Then division

D 4 Then addition.
 69 MAT0511/001

(b) 1 C .8 C 4/ .2 2/ D 1 C .8 C 4/ 4 Simplify 2 2 to obtain a single

number with which to divide:
D 1 C .8 4/ C .4 4/ Division is distributive over addition.

D1C2C1

8C4
The method we followed in Example 2.2.3(b) applies in the same way if we write .8 C 4/ .2 2/ as :
2 2
We have
8C4 8C4 8 4
1C D 1C D 1C C
2 2 4 4 4
D 1C2C1
D 4:

Consider one more example, where the signs involved make the problem seem more complicated.

EXAMPLE 2.2.4
Use the distributive property to calculate

5 2. 9 C 6/ .12 15/:

Do not interprete this as .5 2/ . 9 C 6/ .12 15/

SOLUTION

Even though we will be using the distributive property we need to keep the BODMAS convention in mind.
In this example we use the fact that division is distributive over addition.

5 2. 9 C 6/ .12 15/

D5 2. 9 C 6/ . 3/ We simplify 12 15 in order to be able

to divide.

D5 2.. 9/ . 3// C .6 . 3// Division is distributive over addition. We use

additional brackets for convenience.
D5 2.3 C . 2// We apply the sign rules for division.

D5 2.1/ Adding 3 and 2:

D5 2 Multiplying 2 and 1:

D3 Subtracting 2 from 5.
 70

In this solution we could have applied the distributive property to multiplication instead of division. From the
second step we could then have proceeded as follows.

5 2. 9 C 6/ . 3/
D 5 .2 . 9/ C 2 6/ . 3/
D 5 . 18 C 12/ . 3/
D 5 . 6/ . 3/
D 5 2
D 3

It is a mistake to think that

multiplication and division are distributive over multiplication or division.
An example will easily illustrate this. We know that

3.2 3/ D 3.6/ D 18:

If we incorrectly apply a distributive property we may obtain

3.2 3/ D .3 2/ .3 3/ D 6 9 D 54:

Similarly
.6 2/ 2 D 12 2D6

but if we incorrectly try to apply a distributive property we may obtain

.6 2/ 2 D .6 2/ .2 2/ D 3 1 D 3:

You have now looked at enough examples to see that the distributive property and BODMAS give the same
results. Try to do the next activity to consolidate what you have learnt so far.

WORKED EXAMPLES

Perform the following calculations using

(i) BODMAS

(ii) the distributive property of real numbers.

(a) 2 3.5 1/
(b) 3[.6 C 2/4 1]
(c) .15 C 5/ 5
(d) 4 C .3 9/ 3
 71 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

(a)(i) 2 3.5 1/ D 2 3.4/ Brackets first.

D 2 12 Multiply.

D 10 Subtract.

(ii) 2 3.5 1/ D 2 15 C 3 Distributive property.

D 10

(b)(i) 3[.6 C 2/4 1] D 3[8 4 1] Innermost brackets first.

Add 6 and 2 to obtain 8.
Apply BODMAS inside
next pair of brackets.
Multiply before subtracting.
D 3[32 1]

D 3.31/

D 93 Multiply.

(ii) 3[.6 C 2/4 1] D 3[24 C 8 1] Multiplication is distributive

over addition
D 72 C 24 3

D 93

(c)(i) .15 C 5/ 5 D 20 5 Brackets first.

D 4 Divide.

(ii) .15 C 5/ 5 D .15 5/ C .5 5/ Division is distributive

over additiona
D 3C1

D 4
 72

(d)(i) 4 C .3 9/ 3D 4 C . 6/ 3 Brackets first.

D 4 C . 2/ Then divide.

D 6 Then add.

(ii) 4 C .3 9/ 3D 4 C .3 3/ .9 3/ Division is
distributive over
subtraction.
D 4C1 3

D 6

In all the examples in which we have applied BODMAS or the distributive property we have used integers
a and b such that a b 2 Z, where Z is the set of all integers. We know that Z is closed with respect to
multiplication, but not closed with respect to division. We thus need to consider how we manipulate a b
when a b 2 = Z: Hence we move on to the next study unit, which deals with the manipulation of fractions.

2.2.3 Rules that Fractions Obey

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF LIKE AND UNLIKE FRACTIONS

Fractions with the same denominator are called like fractions (because they have the same “name”). To add
or subtract like fractions we reason this way.
2 5 1 1
C D 2. / C 5. /:
3 3 3 3
We understand this as (2 lots of one third) C (5 lots of one third).
This gives us 7 lots of one third, i.e. 7. 13 /, which we write as 73 : We thus have
2 5 7
C D :
3 3 3

We can illustrate this using a number line.

5 thirds further on

0 _1 _2 1 _4 _5 2 _7 _8 3
3 3 3 3 3 3

Figure 2.2.3
 73 MAT0511/001

7 3
Similarly 8 8
represents 7 eighths 3 eights, which is the same as 4 eights, i.e.

7 3 4 1
D D :
8 8 8 2
The following sketch illustrates this calculation.

_7 _4 _1
8 8 = 2

Figure 2.2.4

What we have actually done in these calculations is to

I write down the denominator

I add or subtract the numerators

I simplify if possible.

When we have unlike fractions (i.e. fractions whose denominators are not the same), we

I convert each fraction to a suitable equivalent fraction so that all the equivalent fractions are like
fractions (i.e. have the same denominator)

I then follow the procedure for like fractions.

For calculation purposes we prefer to have the smallest suitable denominator, which is the Lowest Common
Denominator (or LCD). We also use LCD when we want to compare fractions.

EXAMPLE 2.2.5

3
(a) Calculate 4
C 16 :
1 2 5
(b) Calculate 5
C 3 6
:
 74

SOLUTION

3 1
(a) The LCD of 4
and 6
is the LCM of 4 and 6. Now

4 D 2 2 and 6 D 2 3:

Hence
LCM D 2 2 3 D 12:

We then have
3 3 3 9
D D
4 4 3 12

1 1 2 2
D D
6 6 2 12
and hence
3 1 9 2 11
C D C D :
4 6 12 12 12
We usually express the calculation more concisely, i.e. we write
3 1 .3 3/ C .1 2/ 9C2 11
C D D D :
4 6 12 12 12

(b)
1 2 5 . 1 6/ C .2 10/ .5 5/ 6 C 20 25 11
C D D D :
5 3 6 30 30 30
The LCM of 5; 3 and 6 is 30: If you are uncertain about this, remember that 3 D 1 3; 5 D 1 5;
6 D 2 3: Thus LCM D 2 3 5 D 30:

MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS

Multiplying fractions can be confusing because of the language we need to use. When we read 2 8 and
say “two times eight” we understand that this means “two lots of eight”. But when we read 21 38 we cannot
easily grasp what is involved. Reading this as “one half of three eighths” is not much help, but it is easier if
we read this as “one half of three eighths”. A diagram may help.
 75 MAT0511/001

The region is divided The region is divided

horizontally into eight vertically into two
equal rectangles. Each equal rectangles. Each
shaded rectangle represents shaded rectangle represents
one eighth of the whole. one half of the whole.

Figure 2.2.5(a) Figure 2.2.5(b)

The area that has been shaded twice represents

one half of three eighths.
When we count the blocks we find that there are
three double-shaded blocks out of a total of 16
blocks. Thus one half of three eighths is
three sixteenths, i.e. 12 38 D 16
3
.

Figure 2.2.5(c)

We can state this in general terms as

a c a c ac
D D
b d b d bd

where a, b, c, d 2 Z ,

b 6D 0 and d 6D 0:
 76

Note that the multiplication rule is not affected by whether fractions are like or not.

Examples such as this lead to the following simple rule for multiplying fractions.

I Multiply all the numerators.

I Multiply all the denominators.

I Simplify the resulting fraction.

EXAMPLE 2.2.6

2 3
Calculate 3 4
by

(a) thinking of multiplication as “of” and using diagrams similar to the ones used in Figure 2.2.5

(b) using the rule stated above.

SOLUTION

2 3 6 1
(a) 3 4
D 12
D 2
from the diagram in Figure 2.2.5
or

(b)

2 3 2 3
D Multiply the numerators.
3 4 3 4

2 3
D Multiply the denominators.
3 2 2

1
D Cancel:
2

ACTIVITY 2.2.3

Perform the following calculations.

5 2
(a)
9 3
3 1 7
(b) C
4 2 5
 77 MAT0511/001

5 2 1 3
(c)
7 3 2 5

SOLUTION

5 2 5 2 10
(a) D D
9 3 9 3 27
Notice that the answer cannot be simplified any further, since 10 and 27 have no common factors.
3 1 7
(b) C
4 2 5

3 1 7
D C According to BODMAS we first multiply.
4 2 5

3 7
D C
4 10

.3 5/ C .7 2/
D The LCM of 4 and 10 is 20.
20

15 C 14
D
20

29
D
20

29 9
We can leave this answer as an improper fraction 20 or we can write it as a mixed fraction 1 20 : The
context of the calculation usually determines the form in which we give our answer.
5 2 1 3
(c)
7 3 2 5

15 14 5 6
D Brackets first. In each set of brackets we
21 10
find the LCD. We do not need to find the
same LCD for both sets of brackets.

1 . 1/
D
21 10

1
D Applying the sign rules for multiplication.
210

1 1 1
D We prefer to write 210
as 210
:
210
 78

DIVIDING FRACTIONS

It is important to note that we do not find the LCD when we multiply, because multiplication does not
depend on first creating like fractions.

We considered division of integers in Study Unit 2.2A. When we include the rational numbers, we can
consider “a divided by b” (i.e. a b) as “a multiplied by b1 ”.

We can see intuitively that this rule is valid for all real numbers. Suppose we have three apples. How many
halves can we cut from these three apples? Obviously we will have six halves, i.e.
1 2
3 D3 D 6:
2 1

We can extend this idea to the division of fractions, and we have, in general,
a c a d
D
b d b c

where a; b; c; d 2 Z; b 6D 0; c 6D 0; d 6D 0:

This gives us the rule that, to divide by a fraction

I invert the fraction

I then multiply.

The word “invert” means “turn upside down”.

This really means that when we divide by a fraction we multiply by the reciprocal of that fraction. (Note that
0 is the only real number that has no reciprocal.) One fraction is the reciprocal of another if their product is
1.

a
The reciprocal of b
is ab : Hence the reciprocal of 2
3
is 32 I the reciprocal of 2 is 1
2
(because 2 1
2
D 1/:

EXAMPLE 2.2.7

Calculate

3 7
(a)
5 10
3 1 7
(b) C
4 6 8
 79 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

3 7 3 10 7 10
(a) D To divide by 10
we multiply by 7
:
5 10 5 7

3 10
D Applying the rule for multiplication.
5 7

3 2 5 Cancelling in order to give the answer in

D
5 7 its simplest form.

6
D
7
In practice we do not use so many steps. We normally write

3 7 3 102 6
D D :
5 10 51 7 7

3 1 7 3 1 4C7 3
(b) C D Brackets first.
4 6 8 4 24
LCM of 6 and 8 is 24:

3 25
D Now it is appropriate to leave
4 24
25
24
as an improper fraction.

3 24 6
D
41 25

18
D
25

ACTIVITY 2.2.4

(a) Why does the number zero not have a reciprocal?

3 1 5
(b) Calculate 4 3 6
:

SOLUTION

(a) 0 D 01 : If the reciprocal existed, it would be 10 ; which means 1 0: Division by 0 is an undefined

operation, and hence 01 does not exist.
 80

(b)

3 1 5 3 1 2 5
D
4 3 6 4 6

3 3
D
4 6

3 63
D
42 3 1
1 3
D
2 . 1/

3
D
2

3
D
2

3 3
Note that it is not wrong to write 2
but it is preferable to write 2
:

In cases where ab 2= Z; we need to pay attention to the way we write the fraction down. For example, if
a D 2 and b D 3; then a b D ab D 32 : We know that a negative number divided by a positive number is
negative, and we prefer to write this fraction as 23 : Similarly if a D 5 and b D 6; we have ab D 56 D 65 :
In this case we understand 56 to mean C 65 ; and we do not need to write down the “C”. If a D 3 and b D 7,
then we write ab D 37 D 37 :

The sign is aligned with the line separating the numerator and denominator.

The examples and activities we have been considering have dealt with proper or improper fractions. How
do we perform operations on fractions when mixed or complex fractions are involved? We can apply the
following rules.FS

OPERATIONS WITH MIXED AND COMPLEX FRACTIONS

Mixed fractions

I To multiply or divide mixed fractions, first convert the fractions to improper fractions, then apply the
appropriate rules.

I To add mixed fractions, add the integer parts and the fraction parts separately; if the fraction part results
in an improper fraction, change the improper fraction to a mixed fraction, and combine the integer part
with the existing integer part.

I To subtract mixed fractions, subtract the fraction parts and the integer parts separately.
 81 MAT0511/001

Complex fractions

I To add or subtract complex fractions, first apply the division rule (multiply by the reciprocal) to change
the complex fractions to ordinary fractions, then add or subtract in the usual way.

I To multiply or divide complex fractions, first apply the division rule (as above) to change the complex
fractions to ordinary fractions, then continue to multiply or divide in the usual way.

This is all much easier to understand if we look at the next two examples.

EXAMPLE 2.2.8

(a) Multiplication of mixed fractions

1 1 9 3 13 39 1
4 4 D D D 19
2 3 2 3 1 2 2
(b) Division of mixed fractions
1 1 10 5 102 2 4 1
3 2 D D D D1
3 2 3 2 3 51 3 3
(c) Addition of mixed fractions

2 1 2 1
3 C2 D .3 C 2/ C C
3 2 3 2

4C3
D 5C
6

7
D 5C
6

1
D 5C1C
6

1
D 6
6
 82

(d) Subtraction of mixed fractions

1 1 1 1
4 2 D 4C 2C
3 2 3 2

1 1
D .4 2/ C
3 2

2 3
D 2C
6

1
D 2C
6

12 1
D
6

11
D
6

5
D 1
6
After the fourth step in the above solution we can also reason as follows:
1 1 6 1 5 5
2C. /D1C1C. /D1C D1C D1 :
6 6 6 6 6

In (a) and (b) of Example 2.2.8 we first converted the mixed fractions to improper fractions, before carrying
on. In (c) and (d) we left the fractions as mixed fractions.

In practice it is easier if we

I first convert all mixed and complex fractions to improper fractions

I then perform the required operation(s) in the usual way.

We do this in the next example.

EXAMPLE 2.2.9

Calculate

1 1 3 2
(a) 2 3 2 C1
4 2 5 3
1
5 2 1
3
C 3
4
3 3
(b)
1
4
 83 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION
(a) Addition, subtraction and multiplication of mixed fractions
1 1 3 2 9 1 13 5
2 3 2 C1 D 3 C
4 2 5 3 4 2 5 3

9 1 39 C 25
D 3
4 2 15

9 1 64
D 3
4 2 15

9 32
D 3
4 15

9 45 32
D
4 15

93 13
D
4 15 5

39
D
20

19
D 1
20

(b) Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of mixed and complex fractions
1
5 2 1
3
C 3 We change the complex fractions to ordinary fractions by applying
4
3 3
the rule that division by ab is the same as multiplication by ab
1
4 (because a 6D 0 and b6D 0).
1 4 2 9 1 4
D C
5 3 3 3 1

4 2 8 4
D C
15 3 3 1

4 16 4
D C
15 9 1

12 C 80 4
D
45 1

92 4
D
45 1

368
D
45

8
D8
45
 84

Although we first learn these manipulation skills in an abstract way, we do use them in many everyday
situations.

EXAMPLE 2.2.10

Suppose it takes a worker 40 minutes to make one basket. If the working day is 7 21 hours, how many baskets
will the worker make?

SOLUTION

We need to divide the time it takes to make one basket into the total time available. The first problem we have
is that one of the time units is minutes, and the other is hours. In order to divide these two time quantities
to get an answer regarding the number of baskets, we need the time units to “cancel” as well, so we change
minutes to hours.

1 40 2
Note: Since 60 mD 1 h; 1 min D 60
h, hence 40 min D 60
hD 3
h.

2
Now 40 minutes D 3
hour. The problem then requires us to divide 7 12 by 32 : We have

1 2 15 2
7 D Change the mixed fraction to an improper fraction.
2 3 2 3

15 3
D Division is the same as multiplication by the reciprocal.
2 2

45
D
4

1
D 11 : Note:
4
1
60 min D 1 hr. Thus 1 min D hr.
60
40 2
40 min D hr D hr. Notice that we do not write
60 3
7 12 hours
2
: Since the units for time “cancel” we do not
3
hour
have to write them down.

In word problems, calculations often result in just a number. However, this number relates to the problem in
some way. Thus we always end the problem by stating what the number represents. Hence we now say:

Thus the worker makes 11 14 baskets in one day.

Suppose we have many calculations to do, and the numbers involved are large. We would then probably
choose to use calculators. How can we do the calculation in Example 2.2.8(a) using a calculator?

We first need to know how to enter fractions.

 85 MAT0511/001

Note: Many calculators do not have this function so, the following activity is just for enrichment.

Using a Calculator

To enter: a mixed fraction

For example: enter 2 87

Keying sequence:
2 a bc 7 a bc 8

Display shows: 2d7d8 or 2c7c8

To enter a proper or improper fraction, proceed in the same way but use a bc only once.

19
For example: enter 4

Keying sequence:
19 a bc 4

Display shows: 19d4 or 19c4

ACTIVITY 2.2.5

Try to do Example 2.2.9(a) now on your calculator, and check that you obtain the same answer.

SOLUTION

DAL calculator:

Keying sequence:

2 a bc 1 a bc 4 . 3 1 a bc 2 .

2 a bc 3 a bc 5 C 1 a bc 2 a bc 3 / / D

Display shows: 1d19d20

We interpret 1d19d20 as 1 19
20
.

This is the answer we obtained in Example 2.2.9(a).

Non–DAL calculator:

Keying sequence:
 86

The sequence is the same as for the DAL calculator except that you must press

before . wherever . occurs.

If this does not produce the correct result, or if the display shows [ when you try to enter the second
(open) bracket (i.e. . ), then your calculator is not powerful enough to do this calculation in this way. You
must then change the order of operations as if you were doing the calculation without using a calculator. In
order to calculate
1 1 3 2
2 3 2 C1
4 2 5 3
you then do the following.

(a) Calculate 2 35 C 1 23 .

(b) Multiply the result of (a) by 12 .

(c) Change the sign of the result of (b).

(d) Add 3 to the result of (c).

1
(Note 3 2
2 35 C 1 32 D 3 C 1
2
2 35 C 1 23

(e) Multiply the result of (d) by 2 41 : We do all this by means of the following keying sequences.

2 a bc 3 a bc 5 C 1 a bc 2 a bc 3

D 1 a bc 2 D C= C 3 D

2 a bc 1 a bc 4 D

Your display should show 1d19d20 which we interpret as 1 19

20
:

Note: The use of a calculator is not allowed in the examination and

writing the assignments in this module.

DECIMAL CALCULATIONS

In real–life situations data often appear in the form of decimal fractions rather than proper, improper or
mixed fractions, and we need to be able to manipulate these numbers as well. We normally use calculators,
particularly because it is easier to enter decimals than other fractions, but also because calculators are usually
quicker and more reliable than we are. However, it is also important to understand how to manipulate
decimal fractions without a calculator.

Decimal addition follows the same rules as addition of whole numbers. We summarise the rules.
 87 MAT0511/001

Adding decimals (without a calculator)

I Arrange the numbers in a column so that the decimal commas are vertically aligned, i.e. so that the
digits that represent the tenths, hundredths, thousandths, etc., are in line with one another.

I Add the digits in each column, starting from the right.

I For every 10 in a given column, carry one to the next column on the left, and write down the remaining
number.

This is easier to follow if you read it and look at the example at the same time.

For example, consider how we calculate 103; 42 C 0; 8 C 3; 0051.

1 1 unit D 10 tenths carried from the tenths column.

103; 42
0; 8 In the tenths column we have 4 C 8 C 0 D 12 D 10 C 2:
3; 0051 12 tenths D 10 tenths C 2 tenths D 1 unit C 2 tenths
107; 2251

Now let us consider subtraction of decimals. The process is similar to that of addition.

Subtracting decimals (without a calculator)

I Arrange the numbers in a column as for addition.

I Insert zeros so that every decimal has an entry in each column to the right of the comma.

I Perform the subtraction and “borrow” if necessary.

For example, to subtract 2; 001 from 5; 1:

Remember to note which number to write down first.

Write 5; 1 first, since we are subtracting from 5; 1: We write it down as 5; 100, since there are three digits
after the comma in 2; 001 :
5, 100
2, 001

In the last column subtraction is not yet possible. We need to convert 0; 100 (one tenth) into thousandths, in
 88

order to subtract 0; 001 (one thousandth) from it. We have

0; 100 D one tenth C no hundredths C no thousandths

D no tenths C 10 hundredths C no thousandths
D no tenths C 9 hundredths C 10 thousandths

We thus have
10 10
5,=100 which becomes =
5, 090
2, 001 2, 001

and now subtraction in the last column is possible. When we subtract we obtain

5, 100
2, 001
3, 099

Multiplying decimals (without a calculator)

I Multiply the numbers as though no decimal digits occur.

I From the right, count the total number of decimal places that occur in the separate numbers, and insert
the decimal comma.

For example, to multiply 1,25 with 21,3:

1,25
21,3
25000
1250
375
26,625

Calculators make this process much easier.

Dividing decimals (without a calculator)

I Write the denominator as an integer by multiplying it by 10; 100; or 1 000 etc., depending on the
number of places the decimal comma must move to the right.

I Multiply the numerator by the same number.

I Divide in the usual way (using long division if necessary).

 89 MAT0511/001

1 1
Note: This really means that we once again write decimal as integers multiplied by 10
or 100
etc.

For example, to calculate 43; 8 0; 75 we write

We have multiplied the denominator by 100, and

43; 8 4380
D hence also the numerator by 100 before we do
0; 75 75
long division below.

Now

58,4
75 4380,0
375
630
600
300
300

Hence, 43; 8 0; 75 D 58; 4

Converting fractions to decimals

The rule for division shows us how we can write any fraction as a decimal fraction. For example,
3
D 3 4 D 0; 75 We divide the numerator by denominator
4
0; 75
1 4 3; 00
D 1 2 D 0; 5
2 28
2 20
D 2 3 D 0; 666 ::: D 0; 6 20
3
::
1
1 D 1; 2:
5 0; 666
3 2; 000
18
20
18
20
18
2

We can carry out these calculations manually or by means of a calculator. When the fractions involved are
more complicated, a calculator easily converts a mixed fraction to its decimal equivalent.
 90

Note: Again, many calculators do not have this function and the following is just for enrichment.

To find: the decimal equivalent of a fraction

For example: Find the decimal equivalent of 17 87

Keying sequence:
17 a bc 7 a bc 8 D a bc

Display shows: 17:875

Converting decimals to fractions

We have seen that we can convert fractions to decimals. We can also convert decimals to fractions. For
example
4 2
0; 4 D D
10 5

21
10; 21 D 10 ; which cannot be further simplified
100

7
0; 007 D ; which cannot be further simplified.
1 000

It is interesting to see how a recurring (repeating) decimal can be written as a fraction. Please do not try to
memorise the process. We include this for interest only. Consider a familiar recurring decimal such as 1; 3P
(which you know is the fraction 1 31 /: We show how we convert 1; 3P to 1 13 :

To multiply by 10, move the comma one place to the right.

1 1; 3P D 1; 333:: : : : : : : .1/
10 1; 3P D 13; 333 : : : : : : .2/ Note that .2/ D .1/ 10:

.10 P
1; 3/ .1 P D 13; 333:::
1; 3/ 1; 333::: Subtract: (2) (1).
i.e.
1; 3P [.10 1/ .1 1/] D 13; 333::: 1; 333::: By the distributive
i.e.
1; 3P [10 1] D 12

Now
property.
i.e.
12
1; 3P D Dividing both sides by 9:
9
i.e.
1
1; 3P D 1 :
3
 91 MAT0511/001

The same principles apply to all recurring (repeating) decimals. The following example shows how we write
10; 213 as a fraction.

10; 213 D 10; 2131313 : : :

10 10; 213 D 102; 131313 : : : The comma is now immediately
before the recurring digits.

100 10 10; 213 D 10 213; 131313 : : : Shift the decimal comma 2 places
to the right.

Now

1 000 10; 213 10 10; 213 D 10 213; 131313 : : : 102; 131313 : : :

i.e.
990 10; 213 D 10 111; 000::: By the distributive property.
i.e.
10 111
10; 213 D . Dividing both sides by 990:
990

These examples show us why recurring decimals are also rational numbers: we see that any recurring decimal
can be written in the form ab , where a and b are integers and b 6D 0:

ACTIVITY 2.2.6

(a) (i) Calculate 3; 1.5; 29 C 6; 3.7 0; 4// without a calculator.

(ii) Check your answer by means of a calculator.

(b) Write the following fractions as decimals.

7 14
(i) (ii)
8 100

(c) Write the following decimals as fractions.

(i) 0; 25 (ii) 1; 8

SOLUTION
 92

(a) (i) 3; 1.5; 29 C 6; 3.7 0; 4// By subtraction of decimals:

7, 0
D 3; 1.5; 29 C 6; 3.6; 6// 0, 4
6, 6

D 3; 1.5; 29 C 41; 58/ By decimal multiplication:

66
63 6; 3 6; 6 D 41; 58
198
3 960
4 158

D 3; 1.46; 87/ By addition of decimals:

5, 29
C 41, 58
46, 87

D 145; 297 By multiplication.

(ii) We enter the numbers and operations using the following key strokes:

3:1 .: : : 5:29 C 6:3 .: : : 7 :4

: : :/ : : :/ D

and we obtain 145:2970000 on a calculator set in fixed mode with 7 decimal places.

7
(b) (i) D7 8 D 0; 875
8

14
(ii) D 14 100 D 0; 14
100

25 1
(c) (i) 0; 25 D D
100 4

18 8 4
(ii) 1; 8 D D1 D1
10 10 5
 93 MAT0511/001

It is useful to remember the decimal equivalents of commonly used fractions.

DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF COMMONLY

USED FRACTIONS

1 1 1
D 0; 01 D 0; 125 D 0; 5
100 8 2

1 1 3
D 0; 02 D 0; 2 D 0; 6
50 5 5

1 1 2
D 0; 04 D 0; 25 D 0; 6P
25 4 3

1 1 3
D 0; 05 D 0; 3P D 0; 75
20 3 4

1 2 3
D 0; 1 D 0; 4 D 1; 5
10 5 2

Table 2.2.7

In this table we have two fractions that are represented by recurring (repeating) decimals. From the discus-
sion on rational numbers (Study Unit 1.1A in Unit 1) we already know that not all fractions can be expressed
as terminating decimals. For example 23 D 0; 666 : : : ; and we write this as 0; 6:
P Other examples of recurring
decimals are
1
D 0; 142857142857 : : :
7
D 0; 142857

and
1
D 0; 09090909 : : :
11
D 0; 09:

If calculations result in recurring or non–terminating decimals, we need rules that enable us to limit the
number of decimal places. Suppose we have a number such as 1; 3157982 : : : and it carries on without
any pattern in the digits. We cannot perform calculations with numbers such as these. How do we decide
whether to work with 1; 3 or 1; 31 or with even more digits? Fortunately there are specific rules that control
approximation of numbers.

Useful Hint

Suppose you are performing a calculation and have converted fractions to decimals, and that one or more of
these results in a non–terminating decimal. For accuracy it is better to work with the normal fraction (for
example 17 / rather than the decimal equivalent.
 94

2.2.4 Approximation and Estimation

Many decimal calculations we deal with involve money. In everyday situations we often need to know “more
or less” how much a trolley load of supermarket items will cost, or “about” how much all items of a school
uniform will cost.

Suppose you go to a sports shop and want to buy the following items at the prices given.

1 pair of running shoes R379; 98

1 pair of running shorts R 82; 50
1 pair of sports socks R 11; 99

If you know you only have R500 to spend, you want to know approximately what the total of these three
items will be, to decide whether or not to make the purchase. You can quickly estimate the total by approxi-
mating the amounts, and then adding.

R379; 98 R380
R 82; 50 R 80
R 11; 99 R 10
Total R470

Now you know that you will have enough money, since R470 is less than R500. Note also that is the sign
for “is approximately equal to”.

ROUNDING

We have approximated these numbers by a process called rounding. In this example we have rounded each
of the numbers to the nearest ten. We rounded 379; 98 up to 380; we rounded 11; 99 down to 10. In the
rounding process we also have rules that numbers obey.

To round to the nearest ten

Rounding to a given unit

I If the units digit is 5 or more, then round the number up by increasing the tens digit by 1 and replacing
the units digit by 0. For example, 326 rounds up to 330 to the nearest 10.

I If the units digit is 4 or less, round the number down by replacing the units digit by 0. For example,
1 213 rounds down to 1 210 to the nearest ten.

The principle involved in rounding to the nearest 10 applies in the same way when we round to the nearest
100, 1 000, etc. In cases such as these, though, we do not only consider the unit digit, but we look at a group
of digits. The following example helps to make this clear.
 95 MAT0511/001

EXAMPLE 2.2.11

Round 2 347 to the nearest

(a) hundred (b) thousand.

SOLUTION

(a) Because we want to round to the nearest hundred, we look at the number formed by the two digits in
the tens and units columns. We have 47; we know 47 < 50; hence we replace both these digits by 0
and we have 2 300; to the nearest hundred.

(b) Because we want to round to the nearest thousand, we look at the number formed by the three digits
in the hundreds, tens and units columns. We have 237 < 500; hence we replace these three digits by 0
and we have 2 000, to the nearest thousand.

The principle involved in rounding to the nearest 10, 100 and so on also applies when we round to the nearest
tenth, hundredth, etc. For example 2 354; 92 is equal to

I 2 000 rounded to the nearest thousand

I 2 400 rounded to the nearest hundred

I 2 350 rounded to the nearest ten

I 2 355 rounded to the nearest one

I 2 354; 9 rounded to the nearest tenth.

Note that in 2 354; 92 we have

0; 9 > 0; 5

hence we round up one unit (and obtain 2 355 to the nearest one), and

0; 02 < 0; 05

hence we round down one unit (and obtain 2 354; 9 to the nearest tenth).

Rounding to a fixed number of decimal places

We can also round numbers to a specific number of decimal places, following similar rules. For example
12; 382 is equal to
 96

I 12; 4 correct to one decimal place (because 82 > 50; we change 382
to 400/

I 12; 38 correct to two decimal places (because 2 < 5; we drop 2/

I 12; 382 correct to three decimal places.

Rounding to a given number of significant digits

In the experimental sciences, we usually record results by rounding numbers to a given number of signifi-
cant digits, instead of decimal places. Measurement is very important in all experimental science. The most
useful way of expressing the accuracy of a measurement is to make use of significant digits. We use the
convention that, in a given measurement,

I the number of significant figures (digits) includes all the digits we are certain about, and one doubtful
digit. We refer to the doubtful digit as the least significant digit.

We use the following convention for determining the number of significant digits in any number.

I The leftmost non–zero digit is always the most significant digit.

I If a number has no decimal comma, the rightmost non–zero digit is the least significant digit.

I If a number has a decimal comma, the rightmost digit is the least significant digit, even if it is zero.

I All the numbers between the least and most significant digits are regarded as significant digits.

EXAMPLE 2.2.12

Consider the number 2 3470. It does not have a decimal comma. The significance of the digits is shown
below.
2 34 70

most significant digit least significant digit

Zero is not regarded as a significant digit. The number thus has 4 significant digits.
 97 MAT0511/001

EXAMPLE 2.2.13

Now consider the number 234; 70. It does contain a decimal comma. The significance of the digits is shown
below.

234 , 70

most significant digit least significant digit

The number has 5 significant digits.

Suppose we are measuring the volume of a liquid in a calibrated cylinder. Observation may show clearly that
the meniscus of the liquid lies “more or less half way between” 5 ml and 6 ml. We can say with certainty
that the volume can be represented by 5,: : : ml since observation tells us it is more than 5 ml and less than 6
ml. However, we do not know the exact value of the next digit. We can write this as 5; 5 ml, and say that the
answer contains two significant digits. If the measuring apparatus is more sophisticated, we may be able to
see that the liquid level lies between the 5; 60 and 5; 70 marks. We can then give the answer as 5; 65 ml, and
say that the answer contains three significant digits.

ACTIVITY 2.2.7

Complete the following table.

Number Number of significant digits Number of decimal places

10,10
0,010
40030
0,0030

SOLUTION

Number Number of significant digits Number of decimal places

10,10 4 2
0,010 2 3
40030 4 0
0,0030 2 4

The following example illustrates the difference between an answer that is given correct to three significant
digits, and an answer given correct to three decimal places.

EXAMPLE 2.2.14

Suppose the following measurements are given for a rectangular piece of metal. Length D 23; 94 cm and
 98

breadth D 5; 20 cm. Calculate the area of the piece of metal correct to three significant digits.

SOLUTION

Area D length breadth

Area D .23; 94 5; 20/ cm2
D 124; 488 cm2
124 cm2 Approximate answer, correct to
three significant digits.

Note that if we had been asked to give the answer correct to three decimal places, it would have been
124; 488 cm2 .

When calculations are performed on experimental data, the resulting answer must also be recorded with an
acceptable number of significant digits. The general rules regarding acceptable numbers of significant digits
are dealt with in the practical components of physics and chemistry.

ESTIMATION

Estimating to make a decision

Estimation is a useful practice when we need to make a quick decision and complete accuracy is unnecessary.
Suppose, for example, that you have R100 to spend, and that you want to buy three items which cost R36,38,
R43,25 and R31,99 respectively. If you round each amount to the nearest whole number, it is clear that you
do not have enough money:

R36; 00 C R43; 00 C R32; 00 D R111; 00:

Estimating to check for errors

Another good reason for estimating is to check the accuracy of an answer. Suppose you bought items to
the value of R1 512; 99 and R302,50 on account. At the end of the month you receive an account from the
store stating that you owe R4 537; 99. You should immediately see that this is wrong, by estimating that
R1 512; 99 + R302,50 must be less than R2 000. (The mistake arises by accidentally shifting the decimal
point: 1 512; 99 C 3 025; 00 D 4 537; 99.)

Estimation involves manipulation of numbers, but recognising whether answers “look” right or wrong also
involves everyday knowledge. For example, if you solve a problem and find that a woman’s walking speed is
60 km/h, you should realise that this is not possible, and check the calculation again.

Estimation is also useful to check whether we have used a calculator correctly. For example, if you use a
calculator to find 1 296 C 134; and the answer on the calculator display is 2 630 you should recognise that
 99 MAT0511/001

you must have entered one of the numbers incorrectly, since

1 296 1 300
134 130
sum 1 430

and 1 430 6D 2 630:

Suppose you calculate 58 74, and obtain 2 726. It is clear that this must be wrong, since

58 74 60 70 D 4 200:

675
Similarly we can check that D 25 is probably correct, because
27
675 675 67; 5
D D 22; 5:
27 30 3

EXAMPLE 2.2.15

How many times does a bicycle wheel rotate in a 10 km ride?

100 cm D 1 m and 1 000 m D 1 km

SOLUTION

Assume that the wheel has a diameter of 50 cm, which is 0; 5 m. Now

10 km D .10 1 000/ m D 10 000 m:

The wheel’s circumference is about .3 0; 5/ m. (The formula for circumference is diameter. We know
22
7
3/: Now 3 0; 5 D 1; 5; and we have

Distance (in metres) 10 000 100 000

D D 6 666:
Circumference (in metres) 1; 5 15

Thus the wheel rotates approximately 6 666 times.

If we repeat this calculation using a calculator we can begin in the same way, assuming the diameter of the
bicycle’s wheel is 50 cm (unless you want to measure a real wheel!). Then we find that the circumference of
the wheel is ( 0; 5/ m. Using the calculator keys

0:5 D

we obtain 1; 570796327 (on a fixed mode 9 decimal place calculator).

 100

Now
Distance (in metres) 10 000
D :
Circumference (in metres) 1; 570796327

When we enter these numbers and divide we obtain the answer

6366; 197722, and we may say that the wheel rotates approximately 6 366 times. Our estimate was out by
300 rotations.

EXAMPLE 2.2.16

How many multiples of your body weight will you eat in a year?

SOLUTION

Assume that your body weight is 75 kg, and that you eat 1; 2 kg of food per day. In a year you would then
eat (365 1; 2/ kg of food. It is easy to calculate this exactly if you remember that 1; 2 D 1 15 D 1 C 15 : Thus
(applying the distributive law) we see that

1
365 1; 2 D 365.1 C /
5
D 365 C 73
D 438:

Now we need to divide 75 into 438 to answer the question. We know that 42 7 D 6; so we estimate that
438 75 is approximately 6; i.e. I eat 6 times my body weight in one year.

On a calculator we enter
365 1:2 75 D

and we obtain 5; 84.

Thus the weight of the food I eat in one year will be approximately 6 times my body weight.

Without a calculator we can make use of ordinary long multiplication and long division.

Firstly, 365 1; 2 : Then 438 75 :

5,84
75 438,00
365
375
1,2
630
3650
600
730
300
438,0
300
 101 MAT0511/001

Now try the next exercise for some additional practice.

EXERCISE 2.2

1. Fill in the missing items in the following table, which refers to the number 203; 0049.

The place value of the (a)

digit 4 is
The product of this (b)
number and 100 is
The quotient when (c)
this number is divided
by 1 000 is
The number rounded (d)
to two significant
digits is
The number rounded (e)
to the nearest tenth
is
The number rounded (f)
to 3 decimal places
is

2. Replace the ? with > or < in order to obtain the correct inequality.

(a) 34; 012 ? 34; 102

(b) 0; 002 ? 0; 003

3. Calculate the following without using a calculator.

6 C 4.5 2/
(a)
3
3 .16 C 9/ 5
(b)
2
4. Simplify each of the following.

1 2 4
(a) C
4 3 15
1 5 7
(b) 2
3 6 2
2 3 7 1 1
(c)
5 4 3 2 2
2 3 7 1 1
(d)
5 4 3 2 2
3 2 1 1
(e) 1 3
4 3 2 4
 102

5. Without using a calculator, find

(a) 100.3; 24 3/
3; 24 0; 03
(b) .
1 000

6. You may use a calculator to find

(a) 301; 12 C 1; 0034 C 0; 191

(b) 5; 001 0; 99
(c) 34; 02 0; 003.

7. Suppose I have R60. I spend R16; 24 at the supermarket and give R15; 00 to a friend. How much
money will I have left?

8. Suppose it takes Emma 50 minutes to ice one birthday cake. She has orders for 8 similar cakes on a
given day. Will she be able to ice all the cakes if she begins at 09:00 and must leave at 16:00? (Assume
she has a half hour lunch break.)

9. (a) Calculate 2; 5.1; 3 0; 3.0; 6 0; 07// exactly.

(b) Write down the answer correct to the nearest hundredth.
(c) Write down the answer correct to three decimal places.
(d) Write down the answer correct to three significant digits.

10. A fruit cake recipe requires 43 kg of mixed nuts. If I buy almonds, hazel nuts and cashew nuts in 100 g
packets, and mix them so that equal quantities of all types are used, how many packets must I buy to
be able to make two cakes? Suppose I want to make 3 cakes. How many packets of each type would I
need to buy? How much would be left over? (1kg D 1000g)

11. (a) Tanya and Joel want to paint the inside of their house. They have 35; 75 litres of paint. Each of
the 3 bedrooms needs 5; 25 litres of paint, the dining room needs 9 litres, the lounge needs 10; 25
litres and the kitchen and bathroom both need 1; 75 litres. Do they have enough paint? If so, how
much paint is left over? If not, how much more must they buy?
(b) Suppose the paint they are using costs R58 per litre if it is sold in one litre tins, and R16; 50 per
250 ml tin. If they need to buy more paint, will it be cheaper to buy it in one litre tins, or in a
combination of one litre and 250 ml tins? (1L D 1000ml)

12. Explain why

10 5
.10 C 5/ 3D C
3 3
is correct, and why
15 15
15 .10 C 5/ D C
10 5
is incorrect.
 103 MAT0511/001

APPLICATION

Consider Max’s expenses for February.

Rent for his flat R1 520; 00

Food R 565; 00
Municipal rates, water
and electricity R 432; 79
Petrol R 600; 00
Clothing R 169; 50
Car payment R 290; 00
Telephone R 75; 90
Entertainment R 65; 00
Credit card payment R 423; 90

Note that salary is often described as gross or net. Gross is the total, before any deductions are made (such as
for income tax). Net is the amount available after all deductions are taken into account.

1. Estimate the total of these expenses by rounding each number to the nearest 100.

2. Calculate the exact total. What is the difference between the exact total and estimated total?

3. Max earns a net salary of R59 000 per year. Does he earn enough to meet his February expenses? If
so, how much money can he save at the end of February? If not, how much of his February expenses
would he need to pay by credit card?

4. Suppose Max still owes R48 000 on his car. His car payment plan was originally arranged through
Bank A. A different bank, Bank B, advertises a car payment plan that makes it possible for someone to
pay off an amount of R48 000 in 8 years. Would Max pay more, or less, per month than he does now,
if he changed his car payment plan to Bank B.

5. In March, Max’s sister will be getting married and two of the wedding guests will come to stay with
him for 1 week. Suppose the visitors each eat about the same amount of food that he does. Based on
the February food expenses, by how much will the food expenses increase in March?

6. If Max had let the second bedroom of his flat to a friend, by how much would Max’s February expenses
have decreased? (Assume the friend would have paid an equal share of the rent, and the municipal rates,
water and electricity.)

7. Max’s car needs to go to the panel beater to fix a dent. The panelbeater has quoted R403; 95 to do the
work, but he has asked Max to pay a deposit of 52 of this amount before he begins. Can Max afford this
in February?
 104

UNIT SUMMARY

The unit summary for Unit 2 will, where appropriate, give examples to illustrate each concept, rather than an
abstract statement of rules.

Basic arithmetic operations

Operations Important words

Addition: C add, plus, sum
Subtraction: subtract, minus, difference
Multiplication: ; ; ( ) multiply, times, product
Division: divide, quotient

Factors and multiples

For example:

2 is a factor of 10; 10 is a multiple of 2

3 is a factor of 12; 12 is a multiple of 3

Prime numbers

A natural number greater than 1 is prime if it has only two factors, namely 1 and itself. The first 10
prime numbers are 2; 3; 5; 7; 11; 13; 17; 19; 23; 29.

Prime factorisation

For example:

24 D 2 2 2 3
35 D 5 7

HCF and LCM

For example: Consider 16 and 70.

16 D 2 2 2 2
70 D 2 5 7
HCF D 2
LCM D 2 2 2 2 5 7 D 560
 105 MAT0511/001

Fractions
Important terms Example

1 5
like ;
3 3

3 3
unlike ;
4 7

1
proper 2

3
improper 2

mixed 1 25

1=2
complex 2=3

2 6 10
equivalent 3
D 9
D 15

Simplification of fractions by cancelling

For example:
12 2 2 3 3
D D
28 2 2 7 7
Comparing fractions
For example: 9
2 4 2 10 >
< ; since D >
3 5 3 15 >
= Convert to equivalent fractions
> with the same denominator.
4 12 >
>
;
and D
5 15
Rules for addition of integers

Numbers both C Write down “C”.

Add number magnitudes.
e.g. C2 C 3 D C5
Numbers both Write down “ ”.
Add number magnitudes.
e.g. 5 2 D 7
Numbers with Write down sign of the
opposite signs the number with the bigger
magnitude.
Subtract smaller number
magnitude from bigger
number magnitude.
e.g. 5 C 2 D 3
 106

Rules for subtracting an integer

Add the integer with the opposite sign, i.e.

to subtract 7; add C 7
to subtract 3, add 3

For example:

10 . 7/ D 10 C 7 D 17
10 3 D 10 C . 3/ D 7

Rules for multiplication of integers

Numbers both C Answer C

Multiply number magnitudes.

Numbers both Answer C

Multiply number magnitudes.

Numbers with Answer

opposite signs Multiply number magnitudes.

Rules for division of integers

Numbers both C Answer C

Divide number magnitudes.

Numbers both Answer C

Divide number magnitudes.

Numbers with Answer

opposite signs Divide number magnitudes.

Behaviour of zero

aC0 D 0Ca D a
a 0 D a
0 a D a
a 0 D 0 a D 0
0 a D 0; a 6D 0
a 0 undefined
 107 MAT0511/001

Order of operations
By convention we apply
B brackets
O of
D divide
M multiply
A add
S subtract

Some properties of real numbers

Closure
R is closed with respect to addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Commutative property
a C b D b C aI a bDb a
Associative property
.a C b/ C c D a C .b C c/
.a b/ cDa .b c/
Distributive property
a.b C c/ D ab C ac D ba C ca D .b C c/a
a.b c/ D ab ac D ba ca D .b c/a
For a 6D 0 :
bCc b c
D .b C c/ a D .b a/ C .c a/ D C
a a a
For a 6D 0 :
b c b c
D .b c/ a D .b a/ .c a/ D
a a a
NB: Pay attention to the effect of “ ” outside a bracket.

3 .4 8/ D 3 4C8
7 2.4 C 2/ D 7 8 4

Operations with proper and improper fractions (without a calculator)

Addition
For example:
2 5 4 2C3 5 8 C 15 23
C D D D
3 4 12 12 12
Subtraction
For example:
9 1 2 9 5 1 18 5 13
D D D
10 4 20 20 20
 108

Multiplication
For example:
2 3 6
(i) D No cancelling possible.
5 7 35

31 41 1
(ii) D Cancel first.
82 93 6
Division
For example:
2 4 21 5 5
D D
3 5 3 42 6
5
4
is the reciprocal of 45 :

Operations with mixed or complex fractions (without a calculator)

Convert to proper or improper fractions and proceed as above.

Operations with decimal fractions (without a calculator)

Addition
For example:
2 013; 05 C 0; 092 C 10; 9

2 013, 05
0, 092
C 10, 9
2 024, 042

Subtraction
For example:
84; 63 78; 972

84, 630
78, 972
5, 658

Check:
5; 658 C 78; 972 D 84; 63

Multiplication
For example:
0; 09 1; 001
|{z} | {z } 1 001
2 decimal 3 decimal
9
places places
9 009
 109 MAT0511/001

Answer requires 2 C 3 D 5 decimal places, thus

0; 09 1; 001 D 0; 09009:

Division
For example:
16; 08 0; 003

16; 08 16 080 Multiply numerator and

D
0; 003 3 denominator by 1 000:

D 5 360

Check:
5 360 0; 003 D 16; 08

Conversion of fractions to decimal fractions

For example:
4 4; 0
(i) D D 0; 8 Divide 5 into 4.
5 5
Since 4 < 5, write 0:
Divide 5 into 40.
Answer is 8I write 8 after the
decimal comma.
Answer is a terminating decimal.

7 7; 000
(ii) D D 0; 777 : : : D 0; 7P Answer is a recurring decimal.
9 9

Conversion of decimal fractions to fractions

For example:
3
(i) 0; 3 D No simplification possible.
10

208
(ii) 2; 08 D
100

52
D
25

2
D2
25

131
(iii) 1; 32 D
99
 110

The answer to (iii) is obtained as follows.

1 1; 32 D 1; 3232 : : :
100 1; 32 D 132; 3232 : : :

Thus
99 1; 32 D 131; 0000 : : :

i.e.
131
1; 32 D :
99
Rounding numbers
Rounding, for example to the nearest 100, 10, unit, tenth.
For example:
(i) 6 326 6 300 to the nearest hundred
6 326 6 330 to the nearest ten

(ii) 6; 081 6; 08 to the nearest hundredth

6; 081 6; 1 to the nearest tenth
6; 081 6 to the nearest unit
Rounding numbers to a given number of decimal places
For example:
(i) 6; 081 6; 08 correct to two decimal places

(ii) 6; 081 6; 1 correct to one decimal place

Rounding numbers to a given number of significant digits
For example:
(i) 11; 314 11 correct to two significant digits

(ii) 11; 314 11; 31 correct to four significant digits

(iii) 0; 00301 0; 0030 correct to two significant digits

(iv) 1 210 has three significant digits.

Estimation
Estimation to assist decision making
Estimation to check answers
 111 MAT0511/001

CHECK LIST

Now check that you can do the following.

2.1: Combining numbers

1. Factorise numbers into their prime factors.

Example 2.1.1

2. Find the HCF and LCM of several numbers.

Examples 2.1.2, 2.1.3; Activity 2.1.1

3. Find out whether one fraction is smaller than, equivalent to, or bigger than, another.
Activity 2.1.3

4. Cancel only where appropriate.

Activity 2.1.2

2.2 Rules that numbers obey

1. Add, subtract, multiply and divide integers.

Activity 2.2.1

2. Peform calculations using BODMAS and applying the properties of real numbers (i.e. closure, com-
mutative property, associative property and distributive property).
Examples 2.2.1, 2.2.2, 2.2.3, 2.2.4; Activity 2.2.2

3. Add, subtract, multiply and divide fractions without using a calculator.

Examples 2.2.5, 2.2.6, 2.2.7, 2.2.8, 2.2.9; Activities 2.2.3, 2.2.4

4. Apply knowledge of fraction operations to everyday problems.

Example 2.2.10

5. Use a calculator to perform operations on fractions.

Activities 2.2.5, 2.2.6
8
>
> the nearest tenth, hundred, etc.
>
>
< a given number of decimal places.
6. Round numbers to
>
> a given number of significant digits.
>
>
:
Examples 2.2.11, 2.2.12, 2.2.13, 2.2.14; Activity 2.2.7

7. Use estimation techniques.

Examples 2.2.15, 2.2.16
 112

UNIT 3: Ratio, Proportion and Percentage

OUTCOMES
After studying this unit you should be able to do the following.

3.1: Ratio

I Express a ratio in words, using the ratio sign, and as a fraction.

I Find the ratio of two or more numbers.

I Divide a quantity in a given ratio.

3.2: Proportion

I Know the difference between direct and indirect proportion.

I Solve word problems using proportion.

3.3: Percentage

I Calculate a given percentage of a number.

I Write a percentage as a fraction and as a decimal fraction.

I Write a decimal fraction as a percentage.

I Solve word problems which involve percentages. These include problems dealing with VAT.
 113 MAT0511/001

3.1 Ratio

3.1.1 Ratios Involving Two Quantities

A ratio is a way of comparing one quantity with another. In newspapers we often read about an unacceptably
high pupil–teacher ratio: this means we are comparing the number of pupils in a certain school with the
number of teachers in that school, (: is the ratio sign).

Suppose we have a pupil–teacher ratio of 40 to 1. What does this mean? The expression

the ratio of 40 to 1

can be symbolically written as

40 : 1

or it can be expressed as the fraction

40
:
1
These are three different ways of saying that there is 1 teacher for every 40 pupils. In general terms, if a 2 N
and b 2 N, the ratio of a to b may be expressed

in words: a to b
using the ratio sign: a:b We read this as “a to b":
a
as a fraction: Note that the number mentioned first is the
b
numerator, and the second number is the
denominator.

It is not always clear that a ratio is a fraction. For example, we may read that a school has the “unacceptable
pupil–teacher ratio of 65”. We interpret this to mean the ratio 65 : 1, which is then the fraction 651
. A lack
of understanding of the meaning of mathematical terms such as ratio can lead to the incorrect use of the
terminology, and we may read of the “alarming teacher–pupil ratio of 65” which actually means 65 teachers
for every 1 pupil.

Sometimes ratios can be simplified. For example, a ratio of 10 to 5 is the same as the ratio of 2 to 1, because
10 2
D :
5 1

EXAMPLE 3.1.1

(a) A ratio of 2 lecturers to 143 students is written as

2
2 to 143 or 2 : 143 or :
143
However, the ratio of 143 students to 2 lecturers is written as
143
143 to 2 or 143 : 2 or :
2
 114

(b) A ratio of 6 cups of flour to 2 cups of sugar is written as

6
6 to 2 or 6 : 2 or :
2
This can be simplified and written as
3
3 to 1 or 3 : 1 or
1
6 3
because the fractions 2
and 1
are equivalent.

The concept of equivalent fractions is important, and we use it often.

It is not always the case that ratios are formed by comparing one natural number with another, or by comparing
only two quantities. For example, if we have a recipe for a salad dressing that uses 16 cup of sugar, 21 cup of
vinegar and 31 cup of oil, and we want to make up a much larger quantity, it is necessary to find the ratio of
these ingredients to one another. We consider ratios of more than two quantities in the next study unit.

Before we look at the salad dressing example, let us consider separately two different methods of finding
ratios where fractions are involved. Example 3.1.2 shows the first method.

EXAMPLE 3.1.2

Find the ratio of 5 12 to 3 31 :

SOLUTION

We first write the ratio as a fraction, where the number given first is the numerator, and the second number is
the denominator. We have
5 12 11
2
D Change to improper fractions.
3 13 10
3

11 3
D Division by a fraction is the same as multiplication by the
2 10
reciprocal of that fraction.

33
D : We multiply fractions by multiplying the numerators and
20
the denominators.
33
Thus the ratio is 20
(i.e. 33 : 20).

In order to find the ratio of a to b, we divide a by b, regardless of the types of numbers involved (e.g. natural
numbers, fractions). See Study Unit 2.1A of Unit 2 if you have forgotton the difference between “divide a by
b” and “divide a into b”.

We may also use the concept of equivalent of fractions to solve the above example.
1 11 1 10
5 D and 3 D . Convert to improper fractions.
2 2 3 3
 115 MAT0511/001

The Lowest Common Denominator (LCD) is 6. Now

11 33 10 20
D and D : We use the concept of equivalent fractions to ex-
2 6 3 6
press the original fractions as fractions with the
same denominator.

Thus the ratio of 5 12 to 3 31 is the same as the ratio of 33

6
to 20
6
; and we have
33
6 33 6 33
20
D D ;
6
6 20 20
33
i.e. the ratio is 20
(i.e. 33 : 20).

Note that the answer is the ratio of the numerators of the two equivalent fractions.

USEFUL HINT

Suppose you convert two fractions to equivalent fractions having the same denominator. The ratio of the two
fractions is then the ratio of the numerators of the equivalent fractions.

3.1.2 Ratios Involving more than Two Quantities

Let us now look at the salad dressing example we mentioned before.

EXAMPLE 3.1.4

A salad dressing uses 16 cup of sugar, 21 cup of vinegar and 13 cup of oil. Altogether this will only give us 1
cup of salad dressing. Find the ratio of these ingredients to one another so that we can make larger quantities
of salad dressing when we need to, for example 5 cups or 7 21 cups.

SOLUTION

We must find the ratio of 16 to 12 to 13 : The LCD of these fractions is 6. We leave 61 as it is, since it has the
denominator we need. We have 12 D 36 and 13 D 26 : Since the fractions that represent sugar, vinegar and oil
respectively are 61 ; 36 and 62 , the ratio of sugar to vinegar to oil is

1 : 3 : 2:

From this we can say, for example, that the ratio of sugar to vinegar is 1 : 3, the ratio of sugar to oil is 1 : 2,
the ratio of oil to vinegar is 2 : 3. (Make sure you realise why the last ratio is “reversed” – we had sugar,
vinegar, oil, in that order, so when we consider oil first, and then vinegar, we have to work in the opposite
direction.)

Thus in order to make the salad dressing we will always use ingredients in the ratio of 1 part of sugar to 3
parts of vinegar to 2 parts of oil. But now we may have another problem. How much is “a part”? When we
first considered this example, the measurements were given in terms of cups, so we now consider “parts of
cups”.
 116

If we add up the parts, we have 1 C 3 C 2 D 6: One part is thus 16 of the total; 2 parts is 26 of the total and 3
parts is 63 of the total. For 5 cups I will thus use ( 16 of 5/ cups of sugar, ( 36 of 5) cups of vinegar and ( 26 of 5)
cups of oil, i.e. 56 cups of sugar, 2 12 cups of vinegar and 1 23 cups of oil.

ACTIVITY 3.1.

In Example 3.1.4 we also considered the possibility of having to make up 7 12 cups of salad dressing. In your
workbook, see whether you can divide 7 21 cups in the ratio 1 : 3 : 2 so that you know how much of each
ingredient to use.

SOLUTION

The salad dressing consists of “parts” of different ingredients, and in the example we noted that there were 6
parts.

We use ( 16 of 7 12 / cups of sugar, ( 36 of 7 21 / cups of vinegar and ( 26 of 7 21 / cups of oil. Thus we have the
following calculations.

1 1 1 15 5 1
7 D D D1
6 2 6 2 4 4

You may have done these calculations using a

3 1 3 15 15 3
7 D D D3 calculator, and you will then have the decimal
6 2 6 2 4 4
equivalent of each of these fractions.

2 1 2 15 5 1
7 D D D2
6 2 6 2 2 2

For 7 21 cups of salad dressing we require 1 14 cups of sugar, 3 43 cups of vinegar and 2 12 cups of oil.

Note that, as usual, we end the problem by stating in words what the calculations represent.

These problems are not difficult, but we have to concentrate and think carefully about what we are doing, and
why. If you understand a concept well, you can explain it to someone else.

It is never enough to try to memorise a method, and apply it blindly. In any case, there will eventually be a
problem with “memory space” if you try to memorise every method you come across. If we try to store too
much on a computer file we see a message “insufficient memory space” on the screen, and we have to upgrade
the computer’s memory, or make another arrangement. It would be useful if we could each “upgrade” our
own memory, but since we cannot do so, we should probably not abuse it by trying to memorise unnecessary
facts.
 117 MAT0511/001

ACTIVITY 3.1.2

Suppose you have a field of 20 m2 : You want to plant carrots, spinach and tomatoes, and you decide that
carrots and tomatoes should each take up the same amount of space, but that you want double the amount of
space for spinach as you do for each of carrots and tomatoes. How many square metres of field will you set
aside for each type of vegetable?

Suppose you had never heard about ratios before. Try to solve the problem in any way you like. Then solve
the same problem using ratios. (You will first need to state the problem again, in terms of ratios, before you
try to solve it.)

SOLUTION

METHOD 1

Whenever you can, draw a diagram, so that you can visualise the problem better.

Suppose we do this here. We draw a rectangle that can be divided into 20 blocks of the same size (because
there are 20 square metres). You might like to draw it like this:

Perhaps you would rather draw it like this:

Consider the second sketch. We have to plant three different types of vegetables, but the area in which one of
them (spinach) must be planted, is double the area in which each of the other two will be planted.
 118

This means that we can shade in half the rectangle to represent the area for spinach.

Spinach

What is left must be equally shared between carrots and tomatoes, and we can then complete the shading so
that the sketch looks like this:

Carrots Tomatoes

Spinach

We can then answer the question by counting up the blocks. Each block represents 1 m2 ; and we have

area for spinach D 10 m2

area for carrots D 5 m2
area for tomatoes D 5 m2 :

METHOD 2

It is easy to draw a diagram and count up blocks because we have a manageable number (20) that must be
divided in the ratio 2 : 1 : 1. (Two parts for spinach, to one part for carrots, to one part for tomatoes.) If
the numbers were not as easy to work with, we would have to solve the problem by applying what we know
about ratios.

We can state the problem in terms of ratio as follows.

Divide 20 in the ratio 2 : 1 : 1.

Since 2 C 1 C 1 D 4; we need to find out what 2 parts and 1 part of the total will be, in square metres. We
see that ( 24 of 20/ m2 will be used for spinach, ( 41 of 20) m2 will be used for carrots, and ( 14 of 20) m2 will be
used for tomatoes.

These are simple calculations, and again we conclude that we need 10 m2 for spinach and 5 m2 each for
carrots and tomatoes.
 119 MAT0511/001

ACTIVITY 3.1.3

For every novel in the school library there are two science books; for each science book there are seven
economics books. How would you write the ratio of the number of economics books to science books to
novels?

Note: We need to compare the number of economics books to 2 science books since we know that for every
2 science books there is 1 novel.

SOLUTION

The ratio of the number of economics books to science books is 7 : 1. Note that we begin with the economics
books, because that is the ratio we are asked to write down first. Thus there are 14 economics books for every
2 science books. Also, for every 2 science books there is 1 novel.

Thus the ratio of the number of economics books to science books to novels is 14 : 2 : 1.

ACTIVITY 3.1.4

High School X M R has 880 pupils. If the ratio of the number of boys to girls is 7 : 4, how many girls are
there in the school? How many more girls would need to enrol if the school authorities want the ratio of the
number of boys to girls to be 1 : 1:

Note: When two quantities are in a 1 : 1 ratio, they are equal.

SOLUTION

4 4
The girls represent 11 of the total number of pupils. There are thus . 11 880/ girls, i.e. 320 girls and hence
560 boys (since 880 320 D 560/:

If the school authorities want the number of girls and boys to be equal (i.e. in a 1 : 1 ratio) there must also be
560 girls.

Thus 240 more girls need to enrol (because 560 320 D 240/:

EXERCISE 3.1

1. Divide 300 in the ratio 3 : 2.

2. Find the ratio of 6 14 to 5 13 :

3. Find the ratio of 2 12 to 3

7
to 3 43 :

4. A manufacturer uses three main ingredients to make polish. These ingredients are melted wax, water
and white spirits, and they are used in the ratio 43 : 1 12 : 56 : How many litres of each ingredient must be
used in order to make 50 litres of polish? (Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.)
 120

3.2 Proportion

3.2.1 Definition of Proportion

In problem solving we often consider relationships between different quantities, and the proportions of the
quantities involved. A proportion is simply the equating of two ratios. If we have one ratio a : b; and
another ratio c : d, then the equation
a c
D
b d
represents a proportion.

In the salad dressing example which we discussed earlier, we were able to work out the amount of each
ingredient required to make a specific amount of salad dressing, such as 5 cups or 7 21 cups. However, if we
know that a certain recipe is enough for 4 people, and we need to feed 40 people, then we know that we have
to make 10 times as much (because 40 D 10 4/: If we want to make 10 times as much salad dressing, we
must increase all the ingredients proportionally, so that the ratios of the ingredients to one another remain
the same.

Suppose we make up salad dressing for 4 people using 1 measure of sugar, 3 measures of vinegar and 2
measures of oil. Since
1 : 3 : 2 D 10 : 30 : 20 We multiply each term by 10.
we see that we need 10 measures of sugar, 30 measures of vinegar and 20 measures of oil.

Different quantities may be represented by means of different variables. The quantities may be related to
each other in some way, for example there is a relationship between how much you eat and what you weigh;
or between height above sea level and the amount of oxygen available. We are particularly interested in two
special kinds of proportion, which we call direct proportion and indirect proportion. These two types of
proportion relate quantities to each other in a special way.

Definition 3.2.1
When two variables are related in such a way that their ratio remains
constant, they are said to be in direct proportion to each other.

y y
If y is in direct proportion to x (we sometimes denote this by y / x/ we write D c: If D c; then
x x
y D cx: You may know that this equation represents a straight line.

When we say that y and x “are related to each other in such a way that their ratio remains constant” we
mean, for instance, that if you double the one variable, the other one doubles as well, or if you halve the one
variable, the other one halves as well.

It is not always easy to recognise a well–known word from an unfamiliar form of the word. “Half” is probably
familiar to many people, for example we use it in a sentence such as “I would like half a cup of soup”. The
word “halve” is possibly less familiar. It is a verb, for example “halve the quantities in the recipe” means
“use half the quantity given for each ingredient”.
 121 MAT0511/001

Definition 3.2.2
When two variables are related in such a way that their product
is constant, they are said to be in indirect proportion to each other.

c
If the variables are x and y; this means that x y D c: Another way of writing this is y D :
x
c
The equation y D represents a hyperbola. This may be an unfamiliar concept, and we will look again at
x
hyperbolas and indirect proportion in Unit 5 of Module 3.

We illustrate the concepts of direct and indirect proportion by means of the following example.

EXAMPLE 3.2.1

Suppose you go on a journey and travel at a constant speed, say 100 km/h. We know that distance D speed
time. From the equation
dDs t

where d represents distance, s represents speed and t represents time, we have

d
D s D 100:
t

From this equation we see that d and t are in direct proportion to each other, since they are “related to each
other in such a way that their ratio remains constant”.

Another way of saying this is

as d increases, so t increases
or
the bigger d gets, the bigger t gets.

Now suppose you travel between Pretoria and Johannesburg (say the distance is 55 km) every day. Your
average speed will vary, depending on the traffic, but now the distance is constant.

From the equation

s t Dd

we have
s t D 55

i.e. s and t are “related in such a way that their product is constant”. Thus s and t are in indirect proportion
to each other. Another way of saying this is

as s increases, so t decreases
or
as s gets bigger, so t gets smaller.
 122

This example has shown that when speed is constant, distance and time are in direct proportion to each other,
and when distance is constant, speed and time are in indirect proportion to each other.

3.2.2 Problem Solving

The problems we will look at in this study unit only deal with direct proportion.

The concept of proportion helps us to solve certain types of problems. For example, if 4 nights at a holiday
resort cost R360, what will a stay of 7 nights cost? We solve the problem by selecting a symbol for the
unknown quantity. Let the cost of 7 nights accommodation be Rx: We expect that the increase in cost must
be in proportion to the increase in the length of time spent at the resort. We have two different ratios: the
ratio of the two time periods, i.e. 4 : 7 and the ratio of the two different costs, i.e. 360 : x. Note: We often
say that two variables are “in proportion” to each other when we mean that they are “in direct proportion” to
each other.

In order to find out what x is, we take the ratio of costs, and put it equal to the ratio of the periods of time
spent at the resort. We have the equation

x 7
D : The order is important. R360 relates to 4 nights, so the
360 4
numbers 360 and 4 must either both be the denomina-
tors, or both be the numerators.

USEFUL HINT

It will be easier to find x if we write it as the numerator on the left of the equation.

x
When we write the equation 360 D 74 we do not include the units. However, a useful way to check whether
the equation is correct, is to include the units and see whether they “cancel”. For example

Rx 7 days
=
R 360 4 days

In this example cross multiplication means: multiply both sides of the equation by 360 and then multiply both
sides of the equation by 4.

We solve the equation by means of cross multiplication, and we have

x = 7
360 4
 123 MAT0511/001

4x D 7 360.
Thus
7 360
x D
4
D 7 90
D 630.

Hence the cost of a stay of 7 nights will be R630.

Have a look at the next example.

EXAMPLE 3.2.2

Suppose I need 5 eggs to bake 2 cakes. How many eggs will I need to bake 14 cakes?

SOLUTION

Let x be the number of eggs I need for 14 cakes. We now consider two different ratios: the ratio of the number
of cakes (i.e. 14 : 2) and the ratio of the number of eggs (i.e. x : 5). The number of eggs I use will be in
proportion to the number of cakes I want to bake, and we can thus equate the two ratios. We have
x 14
D Note the position of x. It is the numerator
5 2
of the fraction on the left.
and thus
14 5
xD
2

D7 5

D 35:

Hence I need 35 eggs.

We can check that the equation is correct if we include units:

x eggs 14 cakes
=
5 eggs 2 cakes

ACTIVITY 3.2.1

You want to buy the cheapest brand of washing powder. Washing powder A is sold in 1 kg boxes, at a cost of
R6; 41 per box; washing powder B is sold in packets of 300 g, at a cost of R2; 60 per packet. How do you
decide which one to buy?
 124

SOLUTION

In order to make a meaningful comparison, we must compare the same things in each case, so we need to
decide whether to compare cost per gram or cost per kilogram. Let us compare cost per kilogram.

Washing powder A costs R6; 41 per kilogram.

We need to find out how much washing powder B costs per kilogram. We first need to convert the measure-
ment of 300 g to a measurement in kilograms. Since 1 000 g D 1 kg, we have 300 g D 0; 3 kg (because
300
1 000
D 0; 3/: We know that the increase in cost must be in proportion to the increase in mass so we need to
set up an equation involving cost and mass.

Since the “unknown quantity” is the cost per kilogram for washing powder B we begin by saying: Let Rx be
the cost per kilogram of washing powder B: Then we have the ratio of costs (i.e. Rx : R2; 60) and the ratio
of masses (i.e. 1 kg : 0; 3 kg).

We have
x 1
D
2; 6 0; 3

Remember that although we include the last zero after the decimal when we consider money (because we say
this as “two rand sixty”) we do not need to write it down when we are working with the number only.

i.e.
x 1
D Multiply both denominators by 10 so that we do not
26 3
have to work with decimals (this is the same as mul-
1
tiplying both sides of the equation by 10
/:
i.e.
1 26
xD
3

26
D
3

P
D 8; 6:

P and we thus say

Because the answer represents money, it does not make sense to write R8; 6,

1 kg of washing powder B costs approximately R8; 67

(since 8; 6P D 8; 666 ... 8; 67/:

Now we can easily see that washing powder A is cheaper, since it costs R6; 41 per kg, whereas washing
powder B costs R8; 67 per kg.
 125 MAT0511/001

EXERCISE 3.2

1. If 5 apples cost R2; 75, how many apples can I buy for R6; 60?

2. If 5 ml of medicine is prescribed per 20 kg of body weight, how much medicine must a woman weighing
60 kg take?

3. If it takes Surita 2 12 hours to paint a quarter of a room, how long will it take her to paint the whole
room?

4. Catherine earns R1 400 if she works for 7 days. How much does she earn if she works for 4 days?

5. Godfrey uses 25 litres of paint to paint 80 m2 of a roof. How many litres of paint will he need to paint
320 m2 of the roof?

6. Show that if y is in direct proportion to x; then x is in direct proportion to y:

y
(Hint: If y is in direct proportion to x; then D c; where c is some constant. What equation will
x
show that x is in direct proportion to y?)

3.3 Percentage

3.3.1 Why are Percentages Important?

Everyone has heard about or read about percentages, for example in newspaper articles or advertisements
such as these:
 126

In each of these cases a percentage is involved. In the case of inflation, the newspaper report implies that the
inflation rate was a higher figure, and the rate of inflation is now less than 10%, say 8; 7%, (% is the symbol
for percent.)

Do you know what inflation means? Look up the word “inflation” in a dictionary, and see whether you can
explain it again in your own words. According to one dictionary inflation refers to the general increase in
prices and fall in purchasing power of money.

For example, if you had R100 to spend in 1990, you may have been able to buy a T–shirt and a pair of shoes,
but if the rate of inflation increases, you may now only be able to buy the T–shirt with your R100.

The inflation rate is accurately determined by economists on a regular basis, taking into account many dif-
ferent factors. We will not need to calculate it, but we need to know what it means, and remember that it is
always expressed as a percentage. If the inflation rate was 10% in 1996, and we are told that it decreased 2%
in 1997, then the rate in 1997 was 8%. This is also at times stated as a “drop of 2 percentage points”.

In the wage example, percentage is also used to make a comparison. We have an existing wage, compared
with a possible new wage that will be 15% more than the old wage. In the ABC Cash Loan example, we
need to understand what an interest rate of 20; 5% means. We also need to know whether we are dealing with
simple interest or compound interest.

In order to make sense out of reports like these, we must understand various mathematical concepts. We also
need to be able to interpret certain language phrases that are linked to the mathematical concepts and express
them in a mathematically acceptable way.

Certain words are always represented by specific mathematical symbols. When we “translate” language state-
ments into mathematical statements we also represent various quantities by means of letters of the alphabet,
and we can choose whatever letters we prefer.

When we read “inflation is below 10%” we know that

below means less than

less than is always written as < (reading from left to right)
inflation may be represented by I

and we can write this as

I < 10%:
 127 MAT0511/001

When we read “the wage increase is 15%” we know that

the increase is 15% of the old wage

of means multiply
multiply is always written as ; or : ; or ( )
old wage may be represented by w
increase may be represented by i

and we can write this as

i D 15% w (or 15%(w/ or 15% : w/:

When we read “interest rates from 20; 5%” we know that

from means the same as or more than

which is always written as (reading from left to right)
interest rate is usually represented by r

and we write this as

r 20; 5%:

Working with percentages rather than with actual numbers often helps us to make comparisons. Suppose we
66
know that Sarah has a mark of 90 for her English test, and Simon scores 55
65
for his English test. How does the
teacher know which of these pupils has done better? The easiest way to compare these results is by changing
each mark to a percentage. We do this later.

3.3.2 The Meaning of Percentage

The word “percent” comes from the Latin phrase “per centum” which means “out of one hundred”. So a
mark given out of a total of 100, for example 20 out of 100, will be a mark of 20 percent, and our mathematical
notation for this is 20%.

Even if the mark was not originally given out of a total of 100, we can use the concept of equivalent fractions
to express it as a percentage.

15
For example, if Elsa scores 25
(i.e. she obtains 15 marks out of a maximum of 25 marks), we have
15 60
D
25 100
and thus Elsa has 60%.

If you have not dealt with percentage before, it may be useful to visualise the situation as follows.

If we draw a rectangle, and divide it into 100 small blocks of the same size, then 20% can be represented by
shading in 20 of these small blocks. See Figure 3.3.1. Figure 3.3.2 represents 15; 5 %, since 15 12 blocks have
been shaded in.
 128

Diagrammatic representation of 20%

Figure 3.3.1

Diagrammatic representation of 15,5%

Figure 3.3.2

From Figure 3.3.2 we see that percentages are not necessarily whole numbers. For example, we may read in
a report that 46; 8% of all teachers are unqualified to teach a particular subject.

What does this really mean? Suppose there are 1 420 teachers teaching mathematics in a certain group of
schools. If 46; 8% of them are unqualified, we need to know what number we obtain when we calculate
46; 8% of 1 420, i.e. we need to calculate

46; 8% 1 420:

Because the percentage symbol denotes “out of 100” we can write a percentage as a fraction with 100 as the
denominator.

4 1
For example, 4% D 100
: (This fraction can be simplified further, and we can write it as 25
:/ We can also write
 129 MAT0511/001

4
4%, or 100
, as a decimal fraction:
4
4% D D 0; 04:
100

In the example we have just considered, we see that there are different ways of calculating 46; 8% of 1 420.

We can write 46; 8% as a fraction in its simplest form. Then we have

46; 8
46; 8% of 1 420 D 1 420
100

468
D 1 420 Multiply numerator and denominator by
1 000
10 to avoid working with a decimal.

117
D 1 420 Dividing 4 into 468 and into 1 000:
250

D 664; 56: Using a calculator.

Since the answer represents a number of teachers, we prefer to round it to the nearest whole number. Thus
we say that there are approximately 665 unqualified mathematics teachers in the schools we have been con-
sidering.

We can also begin by writing 46; 8% as a decimal. Then we have

46; 8
46; 8% D D 0; 468:
100

Now
46; 8% of 1 420 D 0; 468 1 420
D 664; 56 Using a calculator.

which is the answer we expect.

In the next activity you can see whether you have understood what you have been reading.

ACTIVITY 3.3.1

In your workbook, calculate 7; 5% of 200 by

(a) writing 7; 5% as a fraction in its simplest form

(b) writing 7; 5% as a decimal.

 130

SOLUTION

7; 5 75 3
(a) We have 7; 5% D D D .
100 1 000 40
3
Thus 7; 5% of 200 D 200 D 15:
40
Hence 7; 5% of 200 is 15.
7; 5
(b) We also have 7; 5% D D 0; 075.
100
Thus 7; 5% of 200 D 0; 075 200 D 15.
Obviously we obtain the same answer.

Now, still without relating percentages to some specific real–life situation, try to do the following problems.

ACTIVITY 3.3.2

Write each of the following percentages as

(a) a fraction in its simplest form

(b) as a decimal fraction.

(i) 12%
(ii) 128%
(iii) 33%
(iv) 12; 8%
(v) 1%
(vi) p%

SOLUTION

12 3
(a) (i) 12% D 100
D 25
128 32
(ii) 128% D 100
D 25
33
(iii) 33% D 100
12;8 128 16
(iv) 12; 8% D 100
D 1 000
D 125
1
(v) 1% D 100
p
(vi) p%D 100

12
(b) (i) 12% D 100
D 0; 12
128
(ii) 128% D 100
D 1; 28
 131 MAT0511/001

33
(iii) 33% D 100
D 0; 33
(iv) 12; 8% D 12;8
100
D 0; 128
1
(v) 1% D 100 D 0; 01
p
(vi) p% D 100 D 0; 01 p D 0; 01 p

Do you think you can work “backwards”? If you are given the decimal representation of a certain percentage,
can you see what percentage it represents. Have a look at one example, then try to do the activity that follows.

EXAMPLE 3.3.1

What percentage does 1; 125 represent?

SOLUTION
1 125
1; 125 D Multiply numerator and denominator by 1 000 so that
1 000
no decimal is involved.

112; 5
D Rewrite the fraction so that the denominator is 100:
100
(This means we divide both the numerator and the de-
nominator by 10:/
D 112; 5%
ACTIVITY 3.3.3

Find the percentage that is represented by each of the following decimals.

(a) 0; 45 (b) 1; 25 (c) 1; 08 (d) 0; 025 (e) 0; 5

SOLUTION

45
(a) 0; 45 D 100
D 45%
125
(b) 1; 25 D 100
D 125%
108
(c) 1; 08 D 100
D 108%
25 2;5
(d) 0; 025 D 1 000
D 100
D 2; 5%
5 50
(e) 0; 5 D 10
D 100
D 50%

Look again at the decimals you found in Activity 3.3.2(b), and the percentages you found in Activity 3.3.3.
Do you see a link between the percentages and decimals in the first case, and between the decimals and
percentages in the second case? If you look carefully at the answers in each case, from Activity 3.3.2(b) you
should be able to recognise the rule that to convert a percentage to a decimal
 132

I leave out the % symbol

I move the decimal comma two places to the left.

Note: Dividing by 10 is the same as moving the decimal comma one place to the left. Dividing by 100; is
the same as moving the decimal comma two places to the left, and so on.

From Activity 3.3.3 you should be able to recognise the rule that to convert a decimal to a percentage

I move the decimal comma two places to the right

I write % after the number.

It is clear that the second procedure simply reverses the first one.

In Example 3.3.1, and in Activities 3.3.2 and 3.3.3 we see a few cases where a percentage is bigger than 100.
Do you find this confusing? Sometimes people think of 100% as a kind of maximum. For example, when
you get full marks in a test, you score 100%. So does it make sense to have, for instance, 125%, or 108%?

Suppose the price of a certain book increases from R50 to R110. By what percentage has the price of the
book increased?

The increase in the price of the book is R60 (since R110 R50 D R60). We now determine the fraction
increase in price in rands
old price in rands
as a percentage.

We have
60 6
D D 1; 2 D 120%: We apply the second rule discussed af-
50 5
ter Activity 3.3.3.

Hence it is possible to have percentages greater than 100%.

3.3.3 Calculations Involving Percentages

In this study unit we look at a few examples similar to ones we may find in everyday life. Once again we
point out that it is important to identify the specific mathematical symbols or operations that are implied by
the ordinary language in which the problem is stated.

EXAMPLE 3.3.2

Suppose a 6–pack of beer cost R13; 60 a while ago, and that the price of beer rises by 7%. How much will a
6–pack of the same beer cost now?
 133 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

We analyse the problem.

Mathematical symbols given: R13; 60

7%

Mathematical operations implied:

C from the word “rises”
because the increase is 7% of R13; 60,
and we know that “of” means multiply.

We need to find the new price of the 6–pack of beer. We introduce symbols.

Let P1 rands (which we write as RP1 / represent the old price and P2 rands (RP2 / represent the new price.
Then

RP2 D RP1 C increase in RP1

D R13; 60 C .7% of R13; 60).

When we do the calculations we can leave out the symbol for the units (in this case R for rands), and we have

7
P2 D 13; 6 C . 13; 6/ Remember that zeros at the end of a decimal can
100
be left out.

D 13; 6 C .0; 07 13; 6/ We use brackets to make the order of operations

clear, although BODMAS tells us in what order
to work.
D 13; 6 C 0; 952
D 14; 552:

Because this answer relates to money, and because in our currency we express rands and cents using two
decimal digits, we conclude the following.

The new price of a 6–pack of the same beer will be approximately R14; 55. (We have rounded 14; 552 to
14; 55.)

EXAMPLE 3.3.3

Mary obtained 8 marks out of 15 for one test, and 25 out of 45 for the second test. In which test did she do
better?

SOLUTION

We may compare the fractions directly, by converting them to equivalent fractions as we did in Study Unit
2.1B. However, we may also use percentages.
 134

8
To compare the two marks, namely 15 and 25
45
, we can convert both to percentages, and see which percentage
is bigger. This suggests we state the problem differently, and ask ourselves the following questions.

What percentage is 8 out of 15?

What percentage is 25 out of 45?
Which of these is bigger?

Now

8 8 25
D 0; 5333 : : : We use a calculator to write 15
and 45
as decimals.
15
D 0; 53P Remember that the dot above the digit 3 means that 3 is
a recurring digit.
0; 53
and
25
D 0; 555 : : :
45
D 0; 5P Likewise 5P means that 5 recurs.

0; 56.

To write a decimal as a percentage, we move the comma two places to the right, and put in the percentage
symbol. We then have
8 25
53% and 56%
15 45
and hence Mary did better in the second test.

Equivalent fractions
8 16 160 53;33:::
15
D 30
D 300
D 100
D 53; 3%

and
25 50 500 55;55:::
45
D 90
D 900
D 100
D 55; 5%

25 8
Hence 45
is a beter mark than 15
:

ACTIVITY 3.3.4

At the end of Study Unit 3.3A we gave the marks that Sarah and Simon obtained for their English tests, and
suggested that we could compare the marks more easily if we could write both of them as percentages. Do
this now, and see which pupil did better.
 135 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

66 66 66 660 73;33::::
Sarah’s mark is 90
, and 90
D 0; 73P 73%: (or 90
D 900
D 100
P
D 73; 3%/

55 55 55 11 1100 84;615
Simon’s mark is 65
, and 65
0; 8462 85%. (or 65
D 13
D 1300 100

84; 6%/

Thus Simon did better than Sarah.

EXAMPLE 3.3.4

A waitress in a restaurant receives a commission of 2% of the total cost of the orders she takes. If her
commission on one evening was R50; 50, what was the total cost of the orders she handled?

Note that commission is always expressed as a percentage.

SOLUTION

Commission is 2% of the total amount. Let us call the total amount T rands. Then we can write

2% of RT D R50; 50:

If we rewrite this without the units we write

2
T D 50; 5:
100
Hence
0; 02T D 50; 5
and so
50; 5
T D
0; 02

5 050
D
2

D 2 525:

Thus the total cost of the orders the waitress handled was R2 525; 00.

Using Calculator

In many of the examples we have looked at so far, we have converted percentages to decimal fractions and
then used a calculator in order to find the answer. There may be times when we have to work in this way.
However, many calculators (all scientific calculators) are able to calculate percentages directly.
 136

To find: a percentage of a number

For example: 8% of 200 D?

Keying sequence:

DAL calculator:

8 % 200 D
Non–DAL calculator:

8 200 % D
Display shows: 16

Remember: if % is a second function, enter SHIFT first.

Hence 8% of 200 D 16.

EXAMPLE 3.3.5

Use your calculator to find

(a) 16; 2% of 125

(b) 0; 01% of 150.

SOLUTION

(a) We follow the required procedure for DAL or non–DAL calculators, and we find that 16; 2% of 125 is
20; 25.

(b) Similarly, we find that 0; 01% of 150 D 0; 015:

ACTIVITY 3.3.5

Suppose the management of factory X Y Z offers workers an across–the–board wage increase of 7; 5%. Work-
ers on a certain level earn R300 per week; at a higher level certain employees earn R3 500 per month. Both
groups of workers want to know how much they will now earn each month. (We assume that calculations
are based on a 4–week month.)

Calculate the answer in your workbook, then compare your answer with our solution.
 137 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

To make it easier to recognise which workers we are referring to, let us call them workers in group A and
group B.

Group A workers earn R300 per week, i.e. R1 200 per month. (We need to consider their monthly income,
because they want to know how much they will earn each month.)

Group B workers earn R3 500 per month.

Group A’s increase is 7; 5% of R1 200. Group B’s increase is 7; 5% of R3 500.

Group A’s new monthly income:

1 200 C .7; 5% 1 200/ D 1 200 C 90 D 1 290:

Group B’s new monthly income:

3 500 C .7; 5% 3 500/ D 3 500 C 262; 5 D 3 762; 5:

Hence group A workers will now earn R1 290 per month, and group B workers will earn R3 762; 50 per
month.

You may have done these calculations in different ways, for example writing 7; 5% as a decimal, or as a
fraction in its simplest form, and then using your calculator. Or you may have used your calculator’s % key
and found the answer more directly. All these methods are acceptable.

Note: Try to do these calculations without a calculator.

ACTIVITY 3.3.6

You want to compare the cost of a washing machine sold by two different shops. U–save sells the washing
machine for R1 205 excluding VAT. Bargains–4–U sells the same washing machine for R1 320, including
VAT. We assume VAT is 14%. At which shop can you buy the washing machine for the least amount of
money? What is the difference in the cost of the washing machine at the two shops? If U–save is prepared to
give you a 5% cash discount , will that make any difference to your decision?

Note: VAT stands for Value Added Tax. This is a tax, imposed by government, on a wide variety of goods
sold and services provided.

Try to answer these questions in your workbook, then study the solution.
 138

SOLUTION

At U–save the washing maching will cost

R.1 205 C 14% of 1 205/ D R.1 205 C 168; 70/ D R1 373; 70:

(It is sometimes convenient to write the unit symbol only once, and we can do so if we use brackets, as we do
here.)

At Bargains–4–U the washing machine will cost R1 320.

Before we consider the possible cash discount, we see that the washing machine costs less at Bargains–4–U,
and that the difference in the price at the two shops is

R(1 373; 70 1 320/ D R53; 70.

If U–save gives a cash discount of 5%, the cost of the washing maching can be found by calculating 5% of
R1 373; 70, and then subtracting the answer we get from R1 373; 70.

We find that
5% of 1 373; 70 D 68; 685:
Because this represents money, we round it to two decimal digits, and we have

5% of 1 373; 70 D 68; 685 68; 69:

Thus the discounted cost of the washing machine is approximately

R1 373; 70 R68; 69 D R1 305; 01.

Now we see that under these circumstances the washing machine would be cheaper at U–save, by R14; 99
(because R1 320 R1 305; 01 D R14; 99).

When a discount is given, does it make any difference if the discount is given on the price excluding VAT, or
on the price including VAT? (You can use Activity 3.3.6 to help you answer this question. You should find
that it makes no difference at what stage the discount is deducted.)

Now try the following activity to see if you are able to determine a price excluding VAT if you are given the
price including VAT.

ACTIVITY 3.3.7

In Activity 3.3.6 it is stated that Bargains–4–U sells a certain washing machine for R1 320, including VAT.
What is the cost of this machine excluding VAT?

SOLUTION

Suppose the price of the washing machine excluding VAT is p rands. Then

R1 320 D R( p C 14% p/
 139 MAT0511/001

i.e. the price including VAT is equal to the price excluding VAT plus 14% of the price excluding VAT. Hence

1 320 D p C 0; 14 p
i.e.
1 320 D p.1 C 0; 14/
i.e.
1 320 D 1; 14 p
i.e.
1 320
pD Divide both sides by 1,14.
1; 14
i.e.
p 1 157; 894: Using a calculator.

Thus the washing machine’s price, excluding VAT, is approximately R1 157; 89. Hence VAT is R1 320
R1 157; 89, i.e. R162; 11:

The Government increases VAT from time to time. If you are given the price of an article excluding VAT and
also the price including VAT, will you be able to work out the rate of VAT?

ACTIVITY 3.3.8

Suppose a racing bicycle costs R1 525, excluding VAT and R1 753; 75, including VAT. What is the rate of
VAT?

SOLUTION

Assume that the rate of VAT is V%. Then

R1 753; 75 D R1 525 C V % R1 525

i.e.
V
1 753; 75 D 1 525 C 1 525
100
i.e.
1 525V
1 753; 75 1 525 D
100
i.e.
228; 75 D 15; 25V
i.e.
228; 75
V D Dividing both sides by 15; 25.
15; 25
i.e.
V D 15: Using a calculator.
 140

Thus the VAT rate is 15%.

It is sometimes helpful to “work backwards” and suggest a real–life equivalent for a problem stated in math-
ematical terms.

Since we have been working with percentages, try to think of a real–life question, involving percentage, that
could be mathematically represented by the following equation (and subsequent solution).

If

x C 0; 056x D 66
then
x.1; 056/ D 66
i.e.
66
xD We divide both sides by 1; 056.
1; 056

D 62; 5: Using a calculator.

There are obviously many possible answers. We suggest two.

I The cost of an article increases by 5; 6%. If the article now costs R66, what did it cost before?
To solve this, we begin by saying

Let the old price be x rands.

Then x C 5; 6% of x D 66
i.e. x C 0; 056x D 66:

I Susan’s average mark improves by 5; 6%. If she now has a mark of 66, what was the mark before?
To solve this we begin by saying

Let the old mark be x:

Then x C 5; 6% of x D 66
i.e. x C 0; 056x D 66:

Note the use of the words “increases” and “improves” in the problems and the related “addition” in the
equations.

You may find the table given on the next page useful. It gives the fractional equivalents of frequently used
percentages.
 141 MAT0511/001

FRACTIONAL EQUIVALENTS OF
FREQUENTLY USED PERCENTAGES

1 1 3
1% D 20% D 75% D
100 5 4

1 1
5% D 25% D 100% D 1
20 4

1 1 3
10% D 33 13 % D 150% D
10 3 2

7 1
14% D 50% D
50 2

Table 3.3.1

EXERCISE 3.3

1. (a) Find 1% of 0; 025.

(b) Calculate 10% of R200.
(c) Suppose 3% of a group of 5 000 people completed a questionnaire. How many people completed
the questionnaire?

2. What percentage is 0; 04 0; 06?

3. John weighs twice as much as Maria.

Maria’s weight is 60% of Ben’s weight.
Daniel’s weight is 50% of Lizzie’s weight.
Lizzie’s weight is 190% of John’s weight.
Arrange the names of these people in order so that the person weighing the most is listed first, and the
person weighing the least is listed last.

4. (a) An employer pays 3 workers, X , Y and Z , a total of R5 000 per week. X is paid 125% of what
Y earns, and 80% of what Z earns. How much do they each earn per week? Give your answers
correct to two decimal places.
(b) Express algebraically the following statement.

X earns at least twice as much as W:

(X and W represent two workers. You can begin by saying: “Let W earn Ra per week, and let
X earn Rb per week. Then ....”, i.e. you need to write a mathematical statement linking a and b
correctly.)
 142

(c) Express algebraically the following statement.

W earns at most half of what X earns.

(Use a and b, as in (b).)

5. There were P people in a room when a meeting started. Q people left the room during the first hour,
while R people entered the room during the same time. Find an expression that gives the number of
people in the room after the first hour as a percentage of the number of people who were in the room
when the meeting started.

6. Suppose that 52% of the population are women, and that 40% of all women are voters. What percentage
of the population are women voters?

7. A company makes a profit of 6% on its first R1 000 of sales each day, and 5% on all sales in excess of
R1 000 for that day. How much profit will the company make in a day where sales are R6 000?
[Before you try to answer this question, make sure you understand the meaning of “profit” and “sales
in excess of R1 000”.]

8. A runner completes a race in 9; 5 seconds. Her previous best time was 10; 0 seconds. By what percent-
age has she improved her time compared to her previous best time?

We acknowledge the examples provided by the authors of problems that occur in Jaffe, E.D. and Hilbert,
S. (eds.) How to prepare for the Graduate Management Admission Test, 9th edition, Barron’s Educa-
tional Series, Inc., 1991.

This example is taken from Freeman, R. How to Learn Maths, NEC, 1994.

UNIT SUMMARY

a
The ratio of a to b D a : b D :
b
“x and y in direct proportion” means
y x
D c or D k.
x y
“x and y in indirect proportion” means
x y D c.

Percent means “out of 100”.

p
p% D p percent D 100
D 0; 01 p.

If VAT is 14% then

price including VAT D 1; 14 price excluding VAT

price including VAT

price excluding VAT D .
1; 14
 143 MAT0511/001

If VAT is r % then
price including VAT D .1 C 0; 01r / price excluding VAT

price including VAT

price excluding VAT D .
.1 C 0; 01r /

CHECKLIST

Now check that you can do the following.

3.1: Ratio

1. Express a ratio in words, using the ratio sign, and as a fraction.

Example 3.1.1

2. Find the ratio of two or more numbers.

Examples 3.1.2, 3.1.3; Activity 3.1.3

3. Divide a quantity in a given ratio.

Example 3.1.4; Activities 3.1.1, 3.1.2, 3.1.4

3.2 Proportion

1. Know the difference between direct and indirect proportion.

Definitions 3.2.1, 3.2.2; Example 3.2.1

2. Solve word problems using proportion.

Example 3.2.2; Activity 3.2.1

3.3 Percentage

1. Calculate a given percentage of a number.

Activity 3.3.1

2. Write a percentage as a fraction and as a decimal fraction.

Activity 3.3.2

3. Write a decimal fraction as a percentage.

Example 3.3.1; Activity 3.3.3

4. Solve word problems which involve percentages. These include problems dealing with VAT.
Examples 3.3.2 – 3.3.5; Activities 3.3.4 – 3.3.8
 144

UNIT 4: Integral (Integer) Exponents, Scientific Notation

and Roots
OUTCOMES
After studying this unit you should be able to do the following.

4.1: Integral (integer) exponents

I Know and apply the definitions of positive integral (integer) exponents, the zero exponent and negative
integral (integer) exponents.

I Write a number from the decimal system as a binary number.

I Write a binary number as a number in the decimal system.

I Apply the product rule for exponents.

I Apply the quotient rule for exponents.

I Apply the power to power rule for exponents.

I Apply the power rule for products.

I Apply the power rule for quotients.

I Apply combinations of exponent definitions and properties.

I Use a calculator to find the answer when exponents are involved.

4.2: Scientific Notation

I Write a number, given in standard notation, in scientific notation.

I Write a number, given in scientific notation, in standard notation.

I Do calculations using scientific notation.

I Estimate an answer using scientific notation.

4.3: Roots and Surds

I Know and apply the definition of the principal square root.

I Apply the product rule for principal square roots.

I Apply the quotient rule for principal square roots.

 145 MAT0511/001

I Use a calculator to find numerical answers to problems containing square roots.

I Know and apply the definitions of an n th root and the principal n th root (radical).

I Apply the product rule for radicals.

I Apply the quotient rule for radicals.

I Use a calculator to find numerical answers to problems containing radicals.

I Know what a surd is.

I Add, subtract, multiply and divide terms containing surds.

I Reduce a surd to simplest form.

I Rationalise a denominator.

4.1 Integral (Integer) Exponents

4.1.1 Integral (Integer) Exponents

In Unit 2 you saw that it is possible to write any natural number greater than 1 as a product of its prime
factors. You also saw that some of these products contain repeated factors. For example

64 D 2 2 2 2 2 2:

Rather than write 2 2 2 2 2 2 we use a mathematical shorthand and write

26 :

We read 26 in any of the following ways.

2 raised to the power 6

2 to the 6th power
the 6th power of 2
2 to the 6.

The term 26 means 2 multiplied by itself 6 times. This is not the same as
2 times 6, i.e. 2 6: In the term 26 ; 2 is called the base and 6 the exponent. The exponent indicates the
number of times that the base occurs as a factor. We say that 26 is the exponential form of 64.

Note: The word “index”is sometimes used instead of “exponent”.

 146

exponent

26

th
6 power of 2
base

ACTIVITY 4.1.1

Write each of the following in exponential form.

(a) 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

(b) 2 2 2 7 7

SOLUTION

(a) Since 5 occurs as a factor 9 times we have

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 D 59 :

(b) Since 2 occurs as a factor 3 times and 7 as a factor twice we have

2 2 2 7 7 D 23 72 :

We now give the formal definition of a positive integral (integer) exponent.

Definition 4.1.1 (Positive integral (integer) exponent)

If n is a positive integer and a is any real number then

a n D a| a a{z : : : a}
n factors

We read a n as

a raised to the power n

a to the n th power
the n th power of a
a to the n.
 147 MAT0511/001

There are two specific cases where we “say” this differently, namely the second power of a; a 2 , and the third
power of a; a 3 : We usually read a 2 as “the square of a" or “a squared”, and a 3 as “the cube of a" or “a
cubed”. For example, we say “7 squared” for 72 and “5 cubed” for 53 : To emphasise that we only have a
occurring once we may write a D a 1 .

Now try the following activity, using Definition 4.1.1, to find the value of a number when it is written in
exponential form.

ACTIVITY 4.1.2

Find the value of 34 without using a calculator.

SOLUTION

34 D 3| {z 3} 3 3
D 9| {z 3} 3
D 27 3
D 81

Powers of 10 and 2 are of particular importance since our number system is a decimal system (i.e. it has base 10)
and computers use the binary system which is a number system with base 2. Now try the following activity
which involves powers of 10 and 2.

ACTIVITY 4.1.3

Complete the following: 101 D 10

102 D 10 10 D 100
3
10 D
104 D
105 D
21 D 2
22 D 2 2D4
3
2 D
24 D
25 D
26 D
27 D
28 D
 148

SOLUTION

101 D 10
102 D 10 10 D 100
103 D 10 10 10 D 1 000
104 D 10 10 10 10 D 10 000
105 D 10 10 10 10 10 D 100 000
1
2 D 2
2
2 D 2 2D4
23 D 2 2 2D8
24 D 2 2 2 2 D 16
25 D 2 2 2 2 2 D 32
6
2 D 2 2 2 2 2 2 D 64
7
2 D 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 D 128
28 D 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 D 256

Since our number system has base 10 we can describe numbers in terms of powers of 10, i.e. units are
expressed in terms of 100 , tens in terms of 101 , hundreds in terms of 102 ; thousands in terms of 103 ; etc.
Thus the number 1 032 can be written as

.1 103 / C .0 102 / C .3 101 / C .2 100 /:

Later we define a 0 D 1 for a non–zero real number a.

We do not necessarily need to work with a base ten system. We can choose any other base if there is a good
reason to do so. One such reason was the use of electrical circuits, where only two situations are possible,
i.e. the currect can only be switched on or off. We can describe the “off” position by means of the digit 0 and
the “on” position by means of the digit 1. A number system that uses only the two digits 0 and 1 has base 2,
and we call it the binary system. The word binary is derived from the Latin word for “two”. We also have
other words such as bicycle and binoculars that have the same root.

The number 10 is the base of the decimal system, and 2 is the base of the binary system. If we want to write
the number 11 from the decimal system as a number in the binary system we must first write 11 as the sum
of powers of 2. We can write

11 D 8 C 2 C 1
D 23 C 21 C 20 See Activity 4.1.3.
3 2 1 0
D .1 2 / C .0 2 / C .1 2 / C .1 2 /:
 149 MAT0511/001

Thus we write the number 11 from the decimal system as 1011 in the binary system, since we have 1 lot of
23 ; 0 lots of 22 ; 1 lot of 21 and 1 lot of 20 :

Now, if we are given a number in the binary system, can we write it as a number in the decimal system?
Suppose we are given the binary number 10101. Then

10101 (to the base 2)

D .1 24 / C .0 23 / C .1 22 / C .0 21 / C .1 20 /
D .1 24 / C .1 22 / C .1 20 /
D 16 C 4 C 1
D 21:

Thus the binary number 10101 is the number 21 in the decimal system.

ACTIVITY 4.1.4

(a) Write the number 1 246 in the decimal system as the sum of powers of 10.

(b) Write the number 69 in the decimal system as a binary number.

(c) Write the binary number 111000 as a number in the decimal system.

SOLUTION

(a)
1 246 D 1 thousand C 2 hundreds C 4 tens C 6 ones
D 1 1 000 C 2 100 C 4 10 C 6 1
D 1 103 C 2 102 C 4 101 C 6 100

(b)

69 D 64 C 4 C 1 We write 69 as a sum of powers of 2.

D .1 26 / C .1 22 / C .1 20 /
D .1 26 / C .0 25 / C .0 24 / C .0 23 / C .1 22 /
C.0 21 / C .1 20 /
D 1000101 in binary notation.

(c) 111000 in binary notation

D . 1 25 / C .1 24 / C .1 23 / C .0 22 / C .0 21 / C .0 20 )
D 32 C 16 C 8
D 56 in decimal notation.
 150

Use of a calculator

Up to now we have not used a calculator in any of these calculations. Can you find the value of (81; 9)2 or
96 using the method given in the solution of Activity 4.1.2? You can, but it will involve long calculations and
you can easily make mistakes. In cases like these it is easier to use a calculator. On most scientific calculators
there are two keys which we can use to do problems like these. One key is the square key x 2 and the other
is the x to the y th power key x y . Although we can use the x y key to calculate squares, there is usually a
separate square key, since we often need to find the square of a number.

Note:

Some calculators have the key y x instead of the key x y

.

To find: the square of a number

For example: .81; 9/2 D ?

Keying sequence:

Remember: If x 2 is a 2nd function key press SHIFT first.

81:9 x2

Display shows: 6707:61

Hence .81; 9/2 D 6707; 61.

To find: the y th power of x

For example: 96 D ?

Keying sequence:

Press y x if you have this key instead of x y

.

y
9 x 6 D

Display shows: 531441

Hence 96 D 531441.

Now try the following activity.

ACTIVITY 4.1.5

Use your calculator to find the value of .2; 5/2 C .3; 1/4 .
 151 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

For both DAL and non–DAL calculators you use the following keying sequence.

2:5 x2 C 3:1 x y
4 D

The display should show 98:6021.

Hence .2; 5/2 C .3; 1/4 D 98; 6021:

Now think about the following problem. Can we say

32 D . 3/2 ?

Use Definition 4.1.1 to help you decide.

We hope that your answer was NO. If not, please look at the following explanation. Note that we can write
32 as .32 /: Thus we see that the exponent applies to the positive number 3, and we have 32 D .3 3/ D
9: However, in . 3/2 the exponent applies to the negative number 3, and we have . 3/2 D 3 3 D 9:
2 2
Thus we see that 3 6D . 3/ :

RULES FOR EXPONENTS

We now look at some rules that exponents obey. Before we state these rules in terms of variables a and b; try
the following activity.

ACTIVITY 4.1.6

Use Definition 4.1.1 to simplify each of the following according to the given conditions.

(a) 33 35 Write the answer in terms of a single base and single exponent.

(b) 27 24 Write the answer in terms of a single base and single exponent.

(c) .52 /3 Write the answer in terms of a single base and single exponent.

(d) .2 3/4 Write the answer as a product of numbers, each in exponential form.

3
7
(e) Write the answer as a quotient of numbers, each in exponential form.
3
 152

SOLUTION

(a)

3
| 3
{z 3} |3 3 3
{z 3 3}
33 35 D D 38
3 factors 5 factors

| {z }
8 factors

Note that 38 can be written as 33C5 :

(b)
7 factors
z }| {
7
7 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 D 4 D D 23
2 2 2 {z 2 2
| }
4 factors
Note that 23 can be written as 27 4 :

(c)
.52 /3 D 3 {z } |5
| factors
2
52
{z 5}2 D 6| factors
{z } 5| 5 5 {z 5 5 5} D 56

Note that 56 can be written as 52 3 :

(d)

.2 3/4 D 4 {z } |.2
| factors 3/.2 3/.2 3/.2 3/
{z }

D 4 {z } |.2
| factors 2
{z
2
} {z } |.3
2/ 4| factors 3
{z
3 3/ By the associative property.
}

D 24 34

(e)
3 factors
3
z }| {
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 73
D 3
| factors
{z } 3 D D
3 | 3
{z 3} 3| factors
{z } |3 {z
3 3} 33

Activity 4.1.6 illustrates the rules for exponents. Apply the methods used in Activity 4.1.6 to show that the
rules given in Activity 4.1.7 are valid.

ACTIVITY 4.1.7

Suppose a; b 2 R and m; n 2 N: Show that the following rules hold.

(a) a m a n D a mCn
 153 MAT0511/001

am
(b) D am n
where a 6D 0 and m > n
an
(c) .a m /n D a mn

(d) .ab/n D a n bn
a n an
(e) D where b 6D 0
b bn

SOLUTION

(a)

am an D m {z } .a
| factors a ::: a/ {z } .a
n| factors a ::: a/
| {z } | {z }

D |m C n{zfactors} a| a {z: : : a}

D a mCn

We do not know how big m and n are. The dots inside the brackets show that we have some “missing”
a’s, and that it is not important to write down all of them.

(b)
m factors
z }| {
a a ::: a
am an D ; a 6D 0
n {z } a| a {z: : :
| factors a}

D am n
n of the factors can be cancelled because
n < m: This leaves m n factors in
the numerator.

(c)

.a m /n D n
| factors
{z } a|
m
a m {z : : : a m}

D m {z } .a
| factors |
a
{z
::: a/
}
m {z } .a
| factors |
a
{z
::: a/
}
::: m {z } |.a
| factors a
{z
::: a/
}
| {z }
n times

D mn
| factors
{z } a| a {z: : : a} If m factors occur n times, the total
number of factors is m n; or mn:

D a mn
 154

(d)

.ab/n D n {z } |.ab/
| factors .ab/ : : : .ab/
{z }

D n {z } .a
| factors |
a
{z
:::
} {z } |.b
a/ n| factors b
{z
::: b/
}

D a n bn

(e)
a n a a a
D n| factors
{z } b :::
b | b {z b}

n factors
z }| {
a a ::: a
D
{z } |b b {z: : :
n| factors b}

an
D
bn

Activity 4.1.7 illustrates the following rules.

I To multiply two numbers with the same base, we add the exponents.

I To divide two non–zero numbers with the same base, we subtract the exponents.

I To determine the power of a power, we multiply the exponents.

I To determine the power of a product of two factors we find the product of the powers of the two
factors.

I To determine the power of a quotient, we find the quotient of the separate powers.

In Definition 4.1.1 we defined only positive integral (integer) exponents. We now want to define the zero
exponent and negative integral (integer) exponents in such a way that they also obey the rules that positive
integral (integer) exponents do.

Suppose a is any non–zero number. Then

an
D 1:
an
Now, if we want the division rule (as stated in (b) of Activity 4.1.7) to hold when m D n, then we must have
an
D an n
D a0:
an
From these two statements it follows that
a 0 D 1:

Hence we have the following definition.

 155 MAT0511/001

Definition 4.1.2 (Zero exponent)

For any non–zero real number a;

a 0 D 1:

We note that 00 is undefined.

Now let us consider how we should define a n , where n is a positive integer. If n is a positive integer then
n is a negative integer. Suppose we want to determine 52 55 : Then we have

52 5 5 1
52 55 D D D :
55 5 5 5 5 5 53
Again, if we want the division rule of positive integral exponents to hold when m < n, then

52
D 52 5
D 5 3:
55
From these two statements we conclude that

3 1
5 D :
53
This leads us to the following definition.

Definition 4.1.3 (Negative integral exponent)

For any non–zero real number a and positive integer n;

n 1
a D :
an

From Definition 4.1.3 it follows that if n is a positive integer and a is a non–zero real number then

1 1 an
D D1 D an :
a n 1 1
an

Division by a fraction is the same as multiplication by the reciprocal of the fraction.

Thus, combining Definition 4.1.3 and the above statement, we have the following property.

For any non–zero real number a and any integer n;

n 1
a D :
an
 156

For example,
3 1
2 D .n D 3 and hence nD 3/
23
and
1
37 D .n D 7 and hence n D 7/:
3 7
By using Definitions 4.1.2 and 4.1.3 we can show that the rules stated in Activity 4.1.7 also hold when n or
1
m are zero or negative integers, provided a 6D 0 and b 6D 0. For example, a 2 D 2 is not defined if a D 0;
a
since division by zero is not defined.
We summarise the rules for integral (integer) exponents in Table 4.1.1.

RULES FOR INTEGRAL EXPONENTS

Suppose a and b are non–zero real numbers and
n and m are integers.
Rule Example

1. a m a n D a mCn 37 3 11
D 37C. 11/
D3 4

am 45
2. D am n
D 45 2
D 43
an 42

3. .a m /n D a mn .3 2 /5 D 3 2 5
D3 10

4. .ab/n D a n bn .3 4/2 D 32 42

3
a n an 2 2 3
5. D n D 3
b b 7 7

6. a 0 D 1 70 D 1

n 1 3 1
7. a D 5 D
an 53

Table 4.1.1

We now apply the rules of integral (integer) exponents given in Table 4.1.1 to perform certain calculations.

EXAMPLE 4.1.1
3 3
1 1
(a) 83 D 8 By Rule 4:
4 4

D .2/3

D 8
 157 MAT0511/001

(b) For a 6D 0 and b 6D 0

2
a3b a2 a 6 b2 a 2
D By Rules 4 and 3.
a 2 b4 a 2 b4

a 8 b2
D By Rule 1:
a 2 b4

D a6b 2
By Rule 2:

a6
D : By Rule 7.
b2
2
92 32 We write 9 in terms of the base 3 so
(c) D
37 37 that we can apply the rules for exponents.

Remember that the rule states the bases must be the same.

34
D By Rule 3.
37

3
D 3 By Rule 2.

1
D By Rule 7.
33

1
D
27

(d) For a 6D 0; b 6D 0 and c 6D 0

4
a 3 b 2 c3 . 1/
D .a 3 b 2 3
c3 3 /4 By Rule 2.
a 1 b3 c3

D .a 4 b 5 c0 /4 By simplifying.

D .a 4 b 5 /4 By Rule 6.

D a 16 b 20
By Rule 3.

a 16
D . By Rule 7.
b20
 158

4.2 Scientific Notation

Numbers written in terms of powers of 10

Many numbers that occur in the Natural Sciences are either very large or very small. For example, the speed
of light is approximately 300 000 000 m/s (metres per second) and the mass of an electron is approximately

0; 30 zeros} 000000000000000000000000000000
| {z | {z } 91 kg.
These two numbers contain many zeros. It is convenient to rewrite these numbers in a form containing fewer
zeros. We can do this with the help of exponents.

For example

300 000 000 D 3 100 000 000

D 3 .10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10/
D 3 108 :

Also
215
0; 000215 D
1 000 000

215
D
10 10 10 10 10 10

215
D
106

D 215 10 6 :

We have written the numbers in terms of powers of ten.

In the process of writing 300 000 000 as 3 108 we can consider the decimal comma to have moved 8 places
to the left:

The diagram shows why this is so.

8
300 000 000 = 3 10

When the decimal comma moves to the left the exponent of 10 will be positive.

Likewise, in the process of writing 0; 000215 as 215 10 6 we consider the decimal comma to have moved
6 places to the right, as we see from the following diagram:

= 215 -6
0,000215 10

When the decimal comma moves to the right the exponent of 10 will be negative.
 159 MAT0511/001

Numbers written in standard notation and in scientific notation

Numbers such as 0; 000215 and 215 are said to be in standard notation, or standard form. When we change
a number given in standard form into scientific notation we write it in terms of powers of ten in a specific
way. We write it as the product of some number between 1 and 10 (excluding 10) and an integral power of
10, i.e. we write it as
c 10n

where 1 c < 10 and n is an integer.

Note that 3 108 is in scientific notation, but 215 10 6 is not yet in the specific form we require for scientific
notation. In order to write 0; 000215 in scientific notation we must move the decimal comma 4 places to the
right, and we obtain 2; 15 10 4 . We see that the number 0; 000215 which is in standard form is written as
2; 15 10 4 in scientific notation.

2,15
0,000215 =
10 000

When we convert a number from standard notation to scientific notation we make use of the standard posi-
tion for the decimal comma. The position immediately to the right of the first non–zero digit in a number
is called the standard position for the decimal comma. For example, in 31; 12 the first non–zero digit is the
first digit, and we can write this in scientific notation as 3; 112 10: The decimal comma is now in standard
position. Similarly, in 0; 013 the first non–zero digit is 1. Thus 0; 013 D 1; 3 10 2 with the decimal comma
in standard position.

To write a number in scientific notation, i.e. in the form c 10n , where 1 c < 10 and n 2 Z, we follow
the procedure given on the next page.

I Write the number with the decimal comma in standard position to obtain c.

I Determine the exponent n as follows.

(i) Count the number of places that the decimal comma has been moved
to the right or left in order to get it into standard position. Call this
number m:

(ii) If you have moved the decimal comma m places to the left then n will
be positive and n D m:

(iii) If you moved the decimal comma m places to the right then n will be
negative and n D m:
 160

ACTIVITY 4.2.1

Write the mass of an electron, given at the beginning of this study unit, in scientific notation.

SOLUTION

31
0; 00000000000000000000000000000091 kg D 9; 1 10 kg
Note that we have moved the decimal comma 31 places to the right.

It is easier to do calculations which involve very large and very small numbers if we use scientific notation.

EXAMPLE 4.2.1
300 000 000 0; 000215 Numbers in standard notation.

D .3 108 / .2; 15 10 4 / Write each number in scientific

notation.

D .3 2; 15/ .108 10 4 / Use the associative property.

D 6; 45 104 By Rule 1 in Table 4.1.1.

D 64 500 Multiply.
The number is now in standard form.
In Example 4.1.2 the answer has been rewritten in standard notation. In converting the answer from scientific
notation to standard notation we move the decimal comma to the right since the exponent is positive. If the
exponent had been negative we would have moved the decimal comma to the left. For example we write

7; 01 103 as 7 010

and
3
7; 01 10 as 0; 00701:
Note that in the numbers above we need to insert zeros to locate the position of the decimal comma.

Note:

Note that this is exactly the reverse of the procedure we use when we convert from standard notation to
scientific notation.

7; 01 103
D 7; 01 1 000

3
7; 01 10
7; 01
D
1 000
 161 MAT0511/001

ACTIVITY 4.2.2

The number of seconds in a year is approximately 3; 15 107 : Write this number in standard form.

SOLUTION

Since the exponent is 7, and 7 is positive, we move the decimal comma 7 places to the right. Hence

3; 15 107 D 31 500 000:

Note: The following information on calculator usage is for enrichment. Make sure you are able to convert
numbers from standard to scientific mode, and vice versa, without a calculator.

Scientific calculators can operate in scientific notation mode. The EXP key is used to enter numbers in
scientific notation.

To find: a number in scientific notation

For example: write 0; 000127 in scientific notation

Set your calculator in scientific notation mode.

Keying sequence:
:000127 D
04
Display shows: 1:2700

04
1:2700 represents 1; 27 10 4 .

Thus 0; 000127 D 1; 27 10 4 :

To calculate: the answer when numbers are given in scientific notation

For example:
1; 27 105 7; 01 10 3
D?
5; 13 1020

Set your calculator in scientific mode.

Keying sequence:

DAL calculator:
1:27 EXP 5 7:01 EXP C= 3

5:13 EXP 20 D
 162

DAL and non–DAL calculators:

1:27 EXP 5 7:01 EXP 3 C=

5:13 EXP 20 D

18
Display shows: 1:7354191

18 18
1:7354191 represents 1; 7354191 10 .

Hence
1; 27 105 7; 01 10 3
18
1; 735 10
5; 13 1020
if we round to four significant digits.

Remember is the symbol for “is approximately equal to”.

Scientific notation is a useful tool for estimating answers to certain calculations.

EXAMPLE 4.2.3

2 731; 29 0; 1234 D 2; 73129 103 1; 234 10 1

D 2; 73129 1; 234 102

Since 2; 73129 3 and 1; 234 1 we can estimate this product as

3 1 102 D 300:

A calculator in fixed mode gives the answer 337; 04 (correct to 2 decimal places). Rounded to the nearest
hundred we obtain 300, which is what we estimated the answer to be. This helps us to see that the answer we
obtained using a calculator was probably correct.

Now try the following activity.

ACTIVITY 4.2.3

The mass of the sun is 1; 99 1030 kg and the mass of a hydrogen atom is 1; 67 10 27 kg. If we assume
that the sun consists only of hydrogen atoms, how many hydrogen atoms are there in the sun?

(a) Estimate the answer.

(b) Use your calculator to find the answer correct to 4 significant digits.
 163 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION

The number of hydrogen atoms in the sun

mass of the sun
D :
mass of one hydrogen atom
Hence the sun contains
1; 99 1030
hydrogen atoms.
1; 67 10 27

(a)

1; 99 1030 1; 99 . 27/
D 1030
1; 67 10 27 1; 67

1; 99
D 1030C27
1; 67

1; 99
D 1057
1; 67

There are different approximations to the answer. We give only one.

3 7
1; 99 2 and 1; 67 1; 75 D 1 D
4 4
Hence
1; 99 2 4 8
7
D2 D 1; 143:
1; 67 4
7 7
Hence
1; 99
1057 1; 143 1057 :
1; 67
Hence an approximate answer is 1; 143 1057 hydrogen atoms.

(b) Make sure your calculator is in scientific notation mode. Use one of the following key sequences to
obtain the answer.
DAL calculator:

1:99 EXP 30 1:67 EXP C= 27 D

DAL and non–DAL calculators:

1:99 EXP 30 1:67 EXP 27 C= D

Display shows: 1:191616857

Thus there are approximately 1; 192 1057 hydrogen atoms in the sun.
 164

EXERCISE 4.2

1. Write the decimal number 54 as a binary number.

2. Write the binary number 110001 as a decimal number.

3. Without using a calculator evaluate the following. Give your answers in standard notation.

1 3 33
(a) 23 4
92
1 3
(b) 4
.16/3 C .49/2 73
2
3 125 8
(c)
27 5 24
(d) 2 3 32 4 5 1

4. Simplify each of the following and express the answer without negative exponents. Assume a; b; c 2 R
and a 6D 0; b 6D 0 and c 6D 0:
3
a 1 b2 c 3
(a)
a 2 bc
(b) .a 2 /3 b 1
.c 2 / 5

3 2
.2a/ b2 c3
(c)
abc3
.ab 2 /3 c 1
(d)
a 2 b3 c4
5. Write each of the following numbers in scientific notation.

(a) 10
(b) 134 000 000
(c) 0; 9
(d) 0; 0002
(e) 0; 017

6. The following numbers are in scientific notation. Write each one in standard notation.

6
(a) 1; 34 10
(b) 7; 999 104
(c) 4; 001 102
3
(d) 9; 999 10
1
(e) 5 10

7. The earth and the sun are approximately 144 000 000 km apart. Write this distance in scientific
notation.
 165 MAT0511/001

10
8. The radius of a hydrogen atom is 5 10 m. Write this radius in standard notation.

9. 1 mole of substance contains 6; 022 1023 molecules. (Any substance is made up of very small particles
called molecules. For example, water is made up of water molecules.) The mass of 1 mole of water is
18 grams. Assume the mass of 1 ml of water is 1 gram. How many molecules of water are there in 1
teaspoon of water? (We assume that the teaspoon contains 5 ml.)
First estimate the answer. Then use a calculator, and give your answer correct to 4 significant digits.

10. How many times is 1; 23 1010 bigger than 1; 23 107 ?

Note: A mole describes a quantity. For example, a dozen also refers to a specific quantity. It is a collection
of 12 objects. We use “ml” as the abbreviation for millilitre, which is a unit of volume. The plural is also
abbreviated by “ml”.

4.3 Roots and Surds

4.3.1 Square Roots

In the previous section we stated that we read a 2 as “a squared”. When we “square” a number we multiply it
by itself, e.g. 32 D 3 3 D 9:

Finding the square root of a number is the inverse operation of squaring a number, i.e. it is the operation
which “undoes” the squaring operation. We know that 32 D 9: Suppose we want to find a number whose
square is 9. One answer, as seen above, is 3. This is called a square root of 9. Is this the only number whose
square is 9? No: we notice that . 3/2 D 9 and hence 3 is also a square root of 9. In fact, for any positive
number there are always two square roots, one positive and the other negative. For example if one square root
p
is b then the other one is b: In the case of zero, since 0 0 D 0, we say 0 D 0.

p
The radical sign is used to represent the positive square root. We call this the principal square root. Thus
p p
9 D 3: The word “principal” is usually left out and we say the square root of 9 is 3, i.e. 9 D 3: Negative
numbers do not have real square roots, i.e. their square roots are not real numbers. A whole number that
has a whole number as its square root is called a perfect square. Examples of perfect squares are 1; 4; 9; 16;
p p p p p
25, etc., since 1 D 1; 4 D 2; 9 D 3; 16 D 4; 25 D 5, etc.

p
is the modified form of the letter r; the initial of the Latin word “radix”, meaning root.

PRINCIPLE SQUARE ROOT

We define the principal square root of a non–negative number as follows.

Definition 4.2.1 (Principal square root)

I If a is a positive real number then the principal square root of a;
p
denoted by a; is the positive real number x such that x 2 D a:
p
I 0D0
 166

p p
We note that, for example, 9 has only one value, i.e. 9 D 3: However, the equation x 2 D 9 has two
p p
solutions, i.e. x D 9 D 3 or x D 9 D 3:

Two important rules concerning the principal square roots of non–negative numbers can be obtained directly
from Definition 4.2.1. Table 4.2.1 summarises these rules and gives an example in each case.

RULES FOR PRINCIPAL SQUARE ROOTS

a; b 2 R ; a 0 and b 0
Rule Example

p p p p p p
1. a b D ab 2 3D 6

p r p r
a a 12 12 p
2. p D ; b 6D 0 p D D 4D2
b b 3 3

Table 4.2.1

Note:

p p p p p p
In general a C b 6D a C b and a b 6D a b:

For example
p p
9 C 16 D 3 C 4 D 7

but
p p
9 C 16 D 25 D 5;

i.e.
p p p
9 C 16 6D 9 C 16:

ACTIVITY 4.3.1

Show that
p p p
169 144 6D 169 144:

SOLUTION

p p
169 144 D 13 12 D 1

but
p p
169 144 D 25 D 5 6D 1:

Hence
p p p
169 144 6D 169 144:
 167 MAT0511/001

SOLUTION
p
Now suppose a is any real number. What is the value of a 2 ? (Remember that a 2 0 for all a 2 R:/ Do
p
you think that a 2 D a? This is correct if a 0: What answer do we obtain if a is negative? Remember that
p
the (principal) square root is never negative. Thus, for example, if a D 3 then a 2 D 9 but 9 6D 3,
since
p p
. 3/2 D 9 D 3:

In fact, when a < 0 we have

p
a2 D a 6D a:

p
Remember denotes the positive square root.

We summarise these facts.

p
I If a a 2 D a:
0 then
p
I If a < 0 then a 2 D a:

If a number is not a perfect square then we often need a calculator to determine the value or an approximate
p
value of the square root of the number. A scientific calculator has a key for evaluating square roots.

The use of a calculator

To find: the (principal) square root of a number

p
For example: 0; 42 D ?

Keying sequence:

DAL calculator:
p
:42 D

Non–DAL calculator:
p
:42

Display shows: 0:6480740

p
Hence 0; 42 0; 648 correct to 3 decimal places.

We stated previously that we frequently need to find the square of a number. Likewise, we also often need
the square root of a number. The following example gives an application in which squares and square roots
are calculated.
 168

EXAMPLE 4.3.1

The Pythagorean Theorem states that in a right angle triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse is
equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides.

c
use b
oten
p
hy
a

Figure 4.2.1

In terms of Figure 4.2.1 we state the Theorem of Pythagoras as

c2 D a2 Cb2 :

Suppose a ship sails 20; 7 km due east from a lighthouse and then 32; 5 km due north. How far from the
lighthouse will the ship be?

SOLUTION

We start by sketching the situation. Suppose L indicates the lighthouse and S the ship. Let the distance
between L and S be x km. Then Figure 4.2.2 illustrates the problem.

North
x km 32,5 km
West East

L
20,7 km South

Figure 4.2.2

If we use the Pythagorean Theorem we can write

x 2 D .20; 7/2 C .32; 5/2 ; where x km is the length of the hypotenuse.

Thus we have
p
xD .20; 7/2 C .32; 5/2 :

Now we use a calculator to find this square root.

For a DAL calculator you use the following keying sequence.

p
( 20:7 x2 C 32:5 x2 ) D
 169 MAT0511/001

For a non–DAL calculator you use the following keying squence.

p
20:7 x2 C 32:5 x2 D

Display shows: 38:532324

Hence the ship will be approximately 38; 5 km (correct to 1 decimal place) away from the lighthouse.

Now try the following activity.

ACTIVITY 4.3.2

Calculate the following correct to 3 decimal places.

p p
(a) 5 3
p
(b) 2 3
p
(c) 6
p
(d) 1; 44
p
(e) 2

SOLUTION

(a) DAL calculator:

p p
5 3 D

Non–DAL calculator:
p p
5 3 D

Display shows: 0:5040171

p p
Hence 5 3 0; 504 correct to 3 decimal places.

(b) DAL calculator:

p
2 3 D

Non–DAL calculator:
p
2 3 D

Display shows: 3:4641016

p
Hence 2 3 3; 464 correct to 3 decimal places.
 170

(c) DAL calculator:

p
6 D

Non–DAL calculator:
p
6

Display shows: 2:4494897

p
Hence 6 2; 449 correct to 3 decimal places.
p p
From (b) and (c) you can see that 2 3 6D 2 3:
p p p p p
In fact, 2 3 D 4 3 D 4 3 D 12 (by using Rule 1 of Table 4.2.1).

(d) DAL calculator:

p
1:44 D

Non–DAL calculator:
p
1:44

Display shows: 1:2

p
Thus 1; 44 D 1; 200 correct to 3 decimal places.
We can easily do this problem without using a calculator by using Rule 1 of Table 4.2.1. Note that
r
p p 1
1; 44 D 144 10 2 D 144
100
r
p 1
D 144 By Rule 1, Table 4.2.1.
100

1
D 12 Using the fact that
10 1 1 1
10 10
D 100 .
12
D D 1; 2:
10

(e) DAL calculator:

p or p
2 C= D C= 2 D

Non–DAL calculator:
p
2 C=

In both cases you obtain an error message on the display. This means that 2 does not have a real
square root. In fact, no negative number has a real square root.

Note: Take a few negative numbers and try to find their square roots using your calculator. Each time you
will obtain an error message.
 171 MAT0511/001

4.3.2. n th ROOTS (RADICALS)

In Study Unit 4.2A we dealt with square roots. We now extend this concept.

Definition 4.2.2
Suppose a and b are real numbers, n 2 Z and n 2. If

a D bn

then b is an/the n th root of a:

In the above definition, if n D 2 we say “a square root of a" and when n D 3 we say “the cube root of a"
(instead of saying a second or the third root of a/:

EXAMPLE 4.3.2

(a) Since .2/.2/ D 4 and . 2/. 2/ D 4, both 2 and 2 are square roots of 4. We say 2 is a square root of
4 and 2 is a square root of 4.

(b) .3/.3/.3/ D 27: Hence 3 is the cube root of 27.

Here we say “the cube root” since there is only one cube root of 27. There is no negative number that
can be multiplied by itself three times to give 27.

(c) . 4/. 4/. 4/ D 64: Hence 4 is the cube root of 64:

It is the only cube root of 64. There is no positive number that can be multiplied by itself three times
to give 64:

(d) Since .2/.2/.2/.2/ D 16 and . 2/. 2/. 2/. 2/ D 16, both 2 and 2 are 4th roots of 16.

In general we note the following.

I If a is a positive real number and n D 2 or n D 4 then there are two roots. (See (a) and (d) of
Example 4.2.2.) This is true for any even positive integer n.

I If a is any non–zero real number and n D 3 then there is only one root. This root has the same sign
as a: (See (b) and (c) of Example 4.2.2.) This is true for any odd positive integer n:

I There is no real square root of a negative real number a: If we multiply a positive number by itself
twice or a negative number by itself twice, we always obtain a positive number. In general, if n is an
even positive integer then there is no real n th root of a negative number a:
pn
I 0 D 0 for n a positive integer greater than or equal to 2, since zero multiplied by itself n times is
zero.
 172

The above discussion leads to the following definition.

PRINCIPAL n th ROOT RADICAL

Definition 4.2.3 (Principal n th root of a number)

Suppose a is a real number which has at least one n th root,
where n is an integer and n 2: The principal n th root of
p
n
a is the n th root that has the same sign as a. It is denoted by a:

p
n p
The term a is called a radical, the sign is called the radical sign and n is called the index.

index

n
radical sign a

radical

From Definitions 4.2.2 and 4.2.3, and Example 4.2.2 we conclude the following.

For a a real number and n an integer such that n 2,

p
I if a > 0 and n is even then
n
a is the positive number x such that x n D a

p
I if a < 0 and n is even then
n
a is undefined

p
I if a > 0 or a < 0 and n is odd then
n
a is the number x such that x n D a

p
I if a D 0 then
n
a D 0:

p p
2
If n D 2; we omit the index and write a instead of a: From Definition 4.2.3 and the discussion just before
it, you can see that Definition 4.2.1 is a special case of Definition 4.2.3. Table 4.2.1 gives product and quotient
rules for square roots. Corresponding rules for n th roots are summarised in Table 4.2.2.
 173 MAT0511/001

Rules for radicals

RULES FOR RADICALS
a; b 2 R; n 2 Z and n 2
Rule Example

p
n
p
n p
n p
3 p
3 p
3
1. a b D ab 2 4D 8D2

p
n r p
4 r
a n a 162 4 162 p
4
2. p
n D ; b 6D 0 p4
D D 81 D 3
b b 2 2

Table 4.2.2

p
n
p
n p
n p
n
p
n p
n
Note: In general a C b 6D a C b and a b 6D a b.

In Activity 4.2.3, which follows a little later, there is an example of a, b and n which illustrates that
p
n p
n p
n
a C b 6D a C b:

We have given the general definition and some properties of the principal n th root. However, we use square
and cube roots more frequently in real–life problems.

p
Most scientific calculators have a special key for cube roots denoted by 3 . This key is used in a similar
p
way to the square root key . Calculators also have either a key for finding the y th root of x (denoted by
p
y 1 p 1
x or x y ), or a key for finding the x th root of y (denoted by x y or y x ). Check to see which one your
py
calculator has. The x key can also be used for finding square and cube roots, but it is easier to use the
p p
and 3 keys instead.

p
y 1
In Module 2 you will learn that we can write x as x y .

The use of a calculator

To find: the cube root of a number

p
3
For example: 207 D ?

Keying sequence:

DAL calculator:
p
3
207 D

Non–DAL calculator:
p
207 3

Display shows: 5:9154817

 174

p
3
Hence 207 5; 915 correct to 3 decimal places.

p
y 1
Calculators with x or x y keys:

To find: the y th root of x

p7
For example: 100 D ?
Keying sequence:

DAL calculator:
p
y
7 x C= 100 D

Non–DAL calculator:
p
y
100 C= x 7 D

Display shows: 1:9306977

p
7
Hence 100 1; 931 correct to 3 decimal places.

p
x 1
Calculators with y or y x keys:

To find: the x th root of y

p7
For example: 100 D ?
Keying sequence:

p
x 1 p
y 1
The same as in the previous example but use the y or y x key instead of the x or x y key.

ACTIVITY 4.3.3

Use your calculator to evaluate the following expressions. Give your answers correct to 3 decimal places.

p4 p
4
(a) 4C 8
p4
(b) 12
p
3 p
9
(c) 100 91; 3

SOLUTION

(a) DAL calculator:

p
y p
y
4 x 4 D C 4 x 8 D

Non–DAL calculator:
p
y p
y
4 x 4 D C 8 x 4 D
 175 MAT0511/001

p
x
1 1 p
y
You can also use y , x y or y x if you do not have x.
Display shows: 3:0960063
p4 p4
Hence 4 C 8 3; 096 correct to 3 decimal places.

(b) DAL calculator:

p
y
4 x 12 D

Non–DAL calculator:
p
y
12 x 4 D

Display shows: 1:8612097

p4
Thus 12 1; 861 correct to 3 decimal places.

From the answers to (a) and (b) we see that

p
4 p
4 p
4
4 C 8 6D 12:

This shows that, in general

p
n p
n p
n
a C b 6D a C b:

(c) DAL calculator:

p p
y
3
100 9 x 91:3 D

Non–DAL calculator:
p p
y
100 3
91:3 x 9 D

Display shows: 2:9902732

p3 p9
Hence 100 91; 3 2; 990 correct to 3 decimal places.

4.3.3 Surds
p p
5
A surd is an irrational number in the form of a root, for example 2 or 3: A surd can also be a com-
p p5
bination of numbers which contains such a root, for example 2 3 2 or 7 C 11: We will only consider
p
square root surds in this module. Square root surds occur frequently in mathematics, for example, 2 and
p
3 appear in various expressions in trigonometry.

You know that an irrational number cannot be written as a terminating decimal, and that any decimal repre-
sentation of an irrational number is only an approximation of that number. For example 1; 4; 1; 41; 1; 414;
p
1; 4142; 1; 41421; etc. are all approximations of 2: Hence we normally leave an answer which contains
p p
surds, e.g. 22 C 5, in this form, since this is the exact answer (even though we do not know its exact
numerical value). If it is necessary to leave an answer in this form, you will be told to leave it in surd form.
 176

Since we want to be able to leave answers in surd form, we need to know how to perform various operations
on surds. We first tabulate some rules for surds (two of which come from the rules for square roots given in
Study Unit 4.2A). We will use these in further discussions.

Rules for surds

SOME RULES FOR SURDS
a; b 2 R; a 0 and b 0
Rule Example

p p p p
1. a aDa From definition of 5 5D5
square root.

a p 5 p
2. p D a; a 6D 0 From Rule 1, above. p D 5
a 5
p p p p p p
3. a b D ab Rule 1, Table 4.2.2. 2 3D 6

p r p r
a a 6 6 p
4. p D ; b 6D 0 Rule 2, Table 4.2.2. p D D 2
b b 3 3

Table 4.2.3

We note once again that in general

p p p
a C b 6D a C b
and
p p p
a b 6D a b:

We now look at examples of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division where surds are involved.

EXAMPLE 4.3.3

(a) Addition and subtraction

We can only simplify expressions involving addition or subtraction of terms that contain the same surd.
Note: This is similar to the fact that we can only simplify expressions containing addition or subtraction
of like fractions.
p p p p
2 2C7 5C3 2 3 5

p p p p
D .2 2 C 3 2/ C .7 5 3 5/ Group terms that have the same
surds (associative property).

p p
D 5 2C4 5 Simplify.
 177 MAT0511/001

p p
This answer cannot be simplified further because we cannot add 2 and 5:
p p p
2 “lots” of 2 and 3 “lots” of 2 give 5 “lots” of 2:

(b) Multiplication and division of terms containing the same surd

p p p p
(i) 7 2 3 2 This is shorthand for 7 2 3 2:

p p
D .7 3/ . 2 2/ Rearrange numbers (associative property).

D 21 2 By Rule 1, Table 4.2.3.

D 42
p p p p
(ii) . 7/3 D 7 7 7
D
p p p
D . 7 7/ 7 Associative property.
D
p
D 7 7 By Rule 1, Table 4.2.3.
D
p
D 7 7

12 4 3
(iii) p D p Write 12 as a product with 3 as a factor because
2 3 2 3 p
of 3 in the denominator.
D
4 3
D p Rearrange.
2 3
D
p
D 2 3 By Rule 2, Table 4.2.3.
D
p
D 2 3

(c) Multiplication and division of terms containing different surds

p p
(i) 2 7 3 5

p p
D .2 3/ . 7 5/ Rearrange.

p
D 6 35 By Rule 3, Table 4.2.3.

p
D 6 35
 178

p
9 21
(ii) p
3 3
p
9 21
D p
3 3
p
9 21
D p Rearrange.
3 3
p
D 3 7 By Rule 4, Table 4.2.3.

p
D 3 7

(d) Reduction of surds to simplest form

We may need to find the square root of a number which is the product of a perfect square and an integer.
In a case like this we use Rule 3 of Table 4.2.3 to reduce this surd. For example,
p p p p p p
50 D 25 2D 25 2D5 2 D 5 2:

We usually give answers which contain surds in their most reduced forms.

Now try the following activity.

ACTIVITY 4.3.4

Simplify each of the following.

p p p
(a) 3 2 10 2 15
p p p p
(b) 4 12 C 3 2 27 C 128

SOLUTION

p p p
(a) 3 2 10 2 15
p p p
D 3 2 5 2 2 5 3
p p p
D .3 2/. 2 5 2 5 3/
p
D 6 2 5 2 5 3
p
D 6 22 52 3
p p p
D 6 22 52 3
p
D 6 2 5 3
p
D 60 3
 179 MAT0511/001

p p p p
(b) 4 12 C 3 2 27 C 128
p p p p
D 4 4 3C3 2 9 3 C 64 2
p p p p p p p
D 4 4 3C3 2 9 3 C 64 2
p p p p
D 4 2 3C3 2 3 3C8 2
p p p p
D .8 3 3 3/ C .3 2 C 8 2/
p p
D 5 3 C 11 2

Rationalising the denominator

p
Suppose you are given that the approximate value of 7 is 2; 6458 correct to 4 decimal places. How will you
find the value of p17 correct to 3 decimal places, without using a calculator. It may seem necessary to divide
2; 6458 into 1, since p17 1
2;6458
: However, this will involve more work than necessary.

Instead, we can apply the following strategy. Remember that if you multiply a number by 1 you will obtain
p
the same number. Suppose we write 1 D p77 and then multiply p17 by this. We have
p p p
1 1 1 7 7 7
p Dp 1D p p Dp p D By Rule 1, Table 4.2.3.
7 7 7 7 7 7 7

Now you can see that it is easier to divide 7 into 2; 6458 to obtain an approximate value of p1 : By writing p1
p 7 7
7
as 7
we say we have “rationalised the denominator”, i.e. we have changed the form of the denominator
so that it is rational instead of irrational.

In this book we only consider rationalising denominators that contain a single surd.

USEFUL HINT

Rationalising denominators

To rationalise a denominator containing a single surd, multiply numerator and denominator by that surd, i.e.
for a > 0 p p
1 1 a a
p Dp p D :
a a a a

ACTIVITY 4.3.5

In each of the following rationalise the denominator and simplify.

2
(a) p
3
r
5
(b)
7
 180

SOLUTION

p p
2 2 3 2 3
(a) p D p p D
3 3 3 3
r p p p p p p
5 5 5 7 5 7 35
(b) Dp Dp p D D
7 7 7 7 7 7

EXERCISE 4.3

1. Simplify each of the following without using a calculator.

p
9 C 16
(a) q
49
16
p p p p
(b) p18 3 27 . 3/2
8
p
a3b
(c) p ; where a; b 2 R; a > 0 and b > 0
ab3
p
8 p
(d) p . 132 122 /
50
2. Use a calculator to evaluate each of the following, correct to 2 decimal places.
p
3 p
4
(a) 2C3 7
p
5
91; 2
(b) p4
2; 6
q
4 p3
(c) 8

3. Without using a calculator, simplify each of the following. Leave each answer in the simplest surd
form and rationalise the denominator where applicable.
p p p p
(a) 5 3 C 7 5 1 4 5 C 11 3 C 2
p p p p
(b) 3 7 C 4 2 C 2 .4 7 9 2 3/
p
(c) ( 3/7
p p p
(d) 3 2 5 3 5
p p
2 3 8 2
(e) p
4 5
p p p
(f) 2 12 C 3 27 75
p
30 abc
(g) p ; where a > 0; b > 0 and c > 0
5 a
1
(h) p
2
3
(i) p
50
 181 MAT0511/001

UNIT SUMMARY

For a 2 R and n a positive integer

a n D n| factors
{z } a| a {z: : : a}:

a is called the base and n the exponent.

For a non–zero real number a

a 0 D 1:

For a non–zero real number a and a positive integer n

n 1
a D :
an

For a and b non–zero real numbers and n and m integers we have the following.
am
1. a m a n D a mCn 2. D am n
an

3. .a m /n D a mn 4. .ab/n D a n bn

a n an
5. D 6. a0 D 1
b bn

n 1
7. a D
an
A number in scientific notation has the form

c 10n

where 1 c < 10; c 2 R and n 2 Z.

For a and b real numbers, n 2 Z and n 2, b is an/the n th root of a if

a D bn :

If a and b have the same sign then b is called the principal n th root of a and is denoted by
p
n
a:

p
B If a > 0 and n is even then
n
a is the positive number x such that x n D a:
p
B If a < 0 and n is even then a is undefined.
n

p
B If a > 0 or a < 0 and n is odd then a is the number x such that x n D a:
n

p
B If a D 0 then a D 0:
n
 182

Example:
2 is a square root of 4 since . 2/2 D 4.
2 is the principal square root of 4 since 22 D 4 and 2 and 4 have the
same sign.
p
Thus 4 D 2:

For a; b 2 R; n 2 Z and n 2 we have the following.

pn
p
n p
n
1. a b D ab
p
n r
a n a
2. pn D ; b 6D 0
b b
3. In general
p
n p
n p
n
a C b 6D a C b

and
p
n p
n p
n
a b 6D a b:

4. For n D 2;
p p
a aDa

and
a p
p D a:
a
p
To rationalise a denominator containing a single surd a; multiply the numerator and denominator by
p
a; i.e. p p
1 1 a a
p Dp p D :
a a a a

CHECKLIST

Check that you can do the following.

4.1: Integral (integer) exponents

1. Know and apply the definitions of positive integral exponents, the zero exponent and negative integral
exponents.
Definitions 4.1.1, 4.1.2, 4.1.3

2. Write a number from the decimal system as a binary number.

Activity 4.1.4

3. Write a binary number as a number in the decimal system.

Activity 4.1.4

4. Apply the product rule for exponents.

Example 1, Table 4.1.1
 183 MAT0511/001

5. Apply the quotient rule for exponents.

Example 2, Table 4.1.1

6. Apply the power to power rule for exponents.

Example 3, Table 4.1.1

7. Apply the power rule for products.

Example 4, Table 4.1.1

8. Apply the power rule for quotients.

Example 5, Table 4.1.1

9. Apply combinations of exponent definitions and properties.

Example 4.1.1

10. Use a calculator to find the answer when exponents are involved.
Activity 4.1.5

4.2: Scientific Notation

1. Write a number, given in standard notation, in scientific notation.

Activity 4.1.8

2. Write a number, given in scientific notation, in standard notation.

Activity 4.1.9

3. Do calculations using scientific notation.

Example 4.1.2; Activity 4.1.10

4. Estimate an answer using scientific notation.

Activity 4.1.10

4.3 Roots and Surds

1. Know and apply the definition of the principal square root.

Definition 4.2.1

2. Apply the product rule for principal square roots.

Example 1, Table 4.2.1

3. Apply the quotient rule for principal square roots.

Example 2, Table 4.2.1

4. Use a calculator to find numerical answers to problems containing square roots.

Activity 4.2.2
 184

5. Know and apply the definitions of an n th root and the principal n th root (radical).
Definitions 4.2.2, 4.2.3

6. Apply the product rule for radicals.

Example 1, Table 4.2.2

7. Apply the quotient rule for radicals.

Example 2, Table 4.2.2

8. Use a calculator to find numerical answers to problems containing radicals.

Activity 4.2.3

9. Know what a surd is.

First paragraph of Study Unit 4.2C

10. Add, subtract, multiply and divide terms containing surds.

Table 4.2.3; Example 4.2.4 (a), (b) and (c)

11. Reduce a surd to simplest form.

Example 4.2.4(d)

12. Rationalise a denominator.

Activity 4.2.5
 185 MAT0511/001

UNIT 5: Units of Measurement

OUTCOMES
After studying this unit you should be able to do the following.

5.1: Units

I Convert units and derived units in the metric system to other units in the metric system, e.g. km/h to
m/s.

I Convert non–metric units to metric units or vice versa if you are given the conversion factors.

I Check that you obtain the correct units for an answer.

5.1 Units

5.1.1 Metric System

Different countries have different systems of measurements. South Africa uses the metric system which is
based on the decimal number system. The advantages of this system are that it is based on multiples of 10
and it has only a few basic units, for example, metre for length and gram for mass.

Note: The word unit refers to the “portions” into which we divide the quantity we are measuring. For
example, hour is a unit of time, gram is a unit of mass.

We first consider units of length. The basic unit, the metre, is denoted by m. All other units of length are
based on this unit. Latin or Greek prefixes are used to denote fractional parts or multiples of the basic unit. (A
prefix is a group of letters attached to the beginning of an existing word. For example, in the word subset the
prefix is sub). You have already come across the terms centimetre (your ruler is marked off in centimetres)
and kilometre (road distances are given in kilometres).

There are
100 centimetres in 1 metre
and
1 000 metres in 1 kilometre.

Since metre is the basic unit we often write the other units in terms of metres.
Since
100 centimetres D 1 metre
 186

we have
1
1 centimetre D metre
100
1
D metre
102
D 10 2 metre.

Also

1 kilometre D 1 000 metres

D 103 metres.

For interest we look at the following table which gives the names of the different prefixes and the relationship
between a unit having a specific prefix and the basic unit. An example of “how to use the table” is given after
the table.

Note that these prefixes do not only apply to the unit of length.

METRIC PREFIXES
Prefix Symbol Conversion factor: Conversion fac-
prefix–unit to basic tor: basic unit to
unit prefix–unit

tera T 1012 10 12

giga G 109 10 9

mega M 106 10 6

kilo k 103 10 3

hecto h 102 10 2

1
deca da 10 10
basic unit
deci d 10 1 10
centi c 10 2 102
milli m 10 3 103
micro 10 6 106
nano n 10 9 109
pico p 10 12 1012
femto f 10 15 1015
alto a 10 18 1018

Table 5.1.1

If you are familiar with computers you may have heard of gigabytes.
 187 MAT0511/001

EXAMPLE 5.1.1

We consider the basic unit of mass, the gram, denoted by g: We interpret Table 5.1.1 as follows.

1 Tg D 1012 g 1 g D 10 12 Tg
1 Gg D 109 g 1 g D 10 9 Gg
1 Mg D 106 g 1 g D 10 6 Mg
1 kg D 103 g 1 g D 10 3 kg
1 hg D 102 g 1 g D 10 2 hg
1 dag D 10 g 1 g D 10 1 dag
1 dg D 10 1 g 1 g D 10 dg
1 cg D 10 2 g 1 g D 102 cg
1 mg D 10 3 g 1 g D 103 mg
1 g D 10 6 g 1 g D 106 g
1 ng D 10 9 g 1 g D 109 ng
1 pg D 10 12 g 1 g D 1012 pg
1 fg D 10 15 g 1 g D 1015 fg
1 ag D 10 18 g 1 g D 1018 ag

There is a relationship between corresponding statements in the two columns. For example, in the statements

9
1 ng D 10 g and 1 g D 109 ng

Note the change of sign in the exponent.

we see that the one formula can be deduced from the other one.

Since

9
1 ng D 10 g
we have
1
9
ng D 1 g Divide both sides by10 9 :
10
i.e.
109 ng D 1 g: By Rule 7, Table 4.1.1.

Similarly, from 1 g D 109 ng we can deduce that 1 ng D 10 9

g.

In mathematics we mainly use basic units and the prefixes kilo, centi and milli. Many of the other prefixes
are used in other sciences such as astronomy, physics, chemistry and computer science where very small and
very large numbers occur.
 188

ACTIVITY 5.1.1

The distance between the earth and the sun is 144 000 000 km. Determine this distance in

(a) millimetres (mm)

(b) gigametres (Gm)

SOLUTION

(a) 1 km D 103 m and 1 m D 103 mm. Hence

1 km D 103 103 mm
D 106 mm.

Thus

144 000 000 km D 144 000 000 106 mm

D 144 000 000 000 000 mm
D 1; 44 1014 mm.

(b) 1 km D 103 m and 1 m D 10 9

Gm. Hence

1 km D 103 10 9
Gm
6
D 10 Gm.

Therefore

144 000 000 km D 1; 44 108 10 6

Gm
D 1; 44 102 Gm
D 144 Gm.

Area will be dealt with in Module 4. Note that the unit for area is derived from the product of the two length
units. Since they are both cm, the unit for area is represented by cm cm which we write as cm2 :

Suppose you have a square sheet of paper that measures 10 cm by 10 cm. Then the area is 10 cm 10 cm,
i.e. 100 cm2 : We say that the area is 100 square centimetres. How many square metres do you think this is?

People often think that 100 cm2 is 1 m2 because 100 cm is 1 m. This is not the case. Have a look at the
 189 MAT0511/001

following figure.
1 cm

1m = 100 cm
1 cm

1m = 100 cm

Figure 5.1.1

Suppose that the figure represents a square that measures 1 m by 1 m and hence its area is 1 m2 : Suppose we
divide the big square into small squares each of which measures 1 cm by 1 cm, as we have illustrated. Each
small square has an area of 1 cm2 : It is easy to see that the big square contains 100 100 such little squares.
Hence
.100 100/ cm2 D 1 m2

i.e.
10 000 cm2 D 1 m2 :

From this we see that

1
1 cm2 D m2 D 10 4
m2 :
10 000

Here we have expressed 1 cm2 in terms of m2 :

Hence
100 cm2 D 100 10 4
m2 D 10 2
m2 :

2
If we think about this without using a diagram, we see that since 1 cm D 10 m we have

2 1
10 cm D 10 10 m D 10 m.

Therefore
1 1
10 cm 10 cm D 10 m 10 m

i.e.
100 cm2 D 10 2
m2 :

Now try the following activity.

 190

ACTIVITY 5.1.2

Sand is sold by volume. You want to build a garage and you need 1 cubic metre, i.e. 1 m3 ; of sand to make
enough concrete for the foundation of the garage. How many cubic centimetres of sand is this? (We use cm3
or cc to denote cubic centimetres.)

Note: The volume of a cube with sides 1 m long D 1 m 1m 1m D 1 m3 :

Volume is discussed in Module 4. The example of volume used in this activity is included here to show a
practical application of the conversion of units.

SOLUTION

Since 1 m D 100 cm D 102 cm we have

1m3 D 1m 1m 1m
2 2
D 10 cm 10 cm 102 cm
D 106 cm3 :

Thus 1 cubic metre of sand is equal to 106 cubic centimetres of sand.

you have just done an activity in which the volume of a solid was measured in cubic metres. Volumes of
liquids are usually measured in litres (`) and millilitres (ml) rather than in cubic metres (m3 / and cubic
centimetres (cm3 /: 1 ml is defined to be equal to 1 cm3 : We also have 1 ` D 1 000 ml. Hence

1 ` D 1 000 ml D 1 000 cm3 D 1 dm3 D 10 3

m3 :

As an exercise, you can show that 1 000 cm3 D 1 dm3 D 10 3

m3 :

1 mlD 1 cm3

In Activity 5.1.2 and just before it, you saw that units of length (e.g. metres) combine to give units of area
(e.g. square metres) and units of volume (e.g. cubic metres). These are known as derived units. There are
many commonly used derived units, formed by combining different units of measure. For example, we can
combine a unit of length (distance) (for example, kilometre), with a unit of time (for example, hour), to give
a unit of speed (kilometres per hour).

We have
distance
speed D :
time
You may perhaps not have considered the unit for speed as being a derived unit, i.e. the quotient of a unit
of length and a unit of time, and yet we are all familiar with the concept of “kilometres per hour”. If we
kilometres km
measure distance in kilometres and time in hours then the unit of speed is which we write as
hour h
or km/h. The abbreviation for hour(s) is h. We read this as “kilometres per hour”, which means the number
 191 MAT0511/001

of kilometres travelled in one hour. For example, suppose you travel 150 kilometres in 2 hours. Then

distance 150 kilometres

speed D D
time 2 hours

75 kilometres
D
1 hour

D 75 km.h 1 :

Thus your speed is 75 km/h.km/h can also be written as

1 km
km.h 1 : This is consistent with our notation for powers, in which we write D a 1 : Hence D km.h 1 :
a h

The next example shows how we change a speed given in km/h to a speed in m/s.

EXAMPLE 5.1.2

The usual speed limit in an urban area is 60 km/h. What is this speed in m/s?

SOLUTION

60 km
We have 60 km/h D :
1h

Since 1 km D 103 m we have 60 km D 60 103 m.

Since 1 hour D 60 minutes and 1 minute D 60 seconds we have

1 hour D 60 minutes D 60 60 seconds, i.e.

1 h D 3 600 s D 36 102 s.

Hence
60 km 60 103 m
60 km/h D D
1h 36 102 s

5 10 m
D
3s

50 m
D
3s

2
D 16 m/s.
3

Thus the speed of 60 km/h is equivalent to 16 23 m/s. This means that if you travel at 60 km/h you will be
travelling at 16 32 m/s, which means that in 1 second you will travel a distance of 16 32 metres.
 192

Thus, at this speed a motorist would have little chance of avoiding a child who suddenly runs out into the
road approximately 20 m ahead, unless the driver’s reactions are very fast and the brakes very efficient.

Now try the following activity in which you need to convert m/s to km/h.

ACTIVITY 5.1.3

A speed trap recorded that a motorist travelled 1 m (i.e. the distance between the two lines of the speed trap)
in 0; 025 of a second. Did he exceed the 120 km/h speed limit? (Hint: Find the motorist’s speed in m/s and
then convert it to km/h.)

SOLUTION

In 0; 025 s the motorist travelled 1 m.

1 1 000
Thus in 1 s he travelled m, i.e. m, i.e. 40 m. Hence his speed was 40 m/s.
0; 025 25
1
Do you see how the fraction 0;025
was obtained? If not, refer to Proportion, in Unit 3.

Since 1 m D 10 3 km we have 40 m D 40 10 3 km.

1
Also, 1 h D 3 600 s (from Example 5.1.2) and hence 1 s D h (divide both sides by 3 600). Thus
3 600
40 m
40 m/s D
1s

40 10 3 km
D
1
h
3 600
3
40 10 3 600 km
D
1h
3
4 10 10 3; 6 103 km
D
1h

4 3; 6 10 km
D
1h

144 km
D
1h

D 144 km/h.

Thus the motorist was exceeding the speed limit of 120 km/h.
 193 MAT0511/001

5.1.2 Conversion of Non–Metric to Metric Units and Checking of Units

British and American mathematics textbooks do not necessarily use metric units. They often use units such
as miles, yards, feet, inches, pounds, ounces, pints, quarts, gallons, etc. If such units are used and you want
to know what the equivalent metric units are, then you must be able to convert these units to the equivalent
metric units. Mathematics textbooks often contain conversion tables, and you can also find conversion tables
at the back of certain dictionaries. We now look at an example.

EXAMPLE 5.1.3

In British measure, 1 pint D 0; 568 litres. There are 8 pints in a gallon. How many litres are there in 1 gallon
of petrol in Britain?

SOLUTION

Since
1 pint D 0; 568 litres

we have
8 pints D 8 0; 568 litres D 4; 544 litres:

Thus, in Britain, there are 4; 544 litres in 1 gallon.

ACTIVITY 5.1.4

In American measure, 1 pint D 0; 473 litres.

How many more litres are there in one gallon of petrol in Britain, than there are in one gallon of petrol in
America?

(In America there are also 8 pints in a gallon.)

SOLUTION

In America
1 pint D 0; 473 litres

and hence

8 pints D 8 0; 473 litres

D 3; 784 litres.

Thus in America 1 gallon D 3; 784 litres.

From Example 5.1.3 we saw that in Britain 1 gallon D 4; 544 litres.
Hence there are (4; 544 3; 784) litres, i.e. 0; 76 litres more petrol in 1 gallon in Britain than in America.

Before attempting the next activity look at Example 5.1.2 and Activity 5.1.3 again.
 194

ACTIVITY 5.1.5

If 1 foot (ft) D 0; 3048 metres, convert the speed of 22 ft/s to a speed measured in
(a) m/s (b) km/h.

Give your answers correct to 4 decimal places.

SOLUTION

22 ft
(a) We have 22 ft/s D :
1s
Now 1 ft D 0; 3048 m and thus 22 ft D 22 0; 3048 m.
Hence
22 ft
22 ft/s D
1s

22 0; 3048 m
D
1s

6; 7056 m
D Using a calculator.
1s

D 6; 7056 m/s.

Thus 22 ft/s D 6; 7056 m/s.

(b) Now 1 ft D 0; 3048 m D 0; 3048 10 3 km.

Hence 22 ft D 22 0; 3048 10 3 km.
1
Also, 1 h D 3 600 s and so 1 s D h.
3 600
Thus
22 ft
22 ft/s D
1s
3
22 0; 3048 10 km
D
1
h
3 600
3
22 0; 3048 10 3 600 km
D
1h

24; 14016 km
D : Using a calculator.
1h

Thus 22 ft/s 24; 1402 km/h correct to 4 decimal places.

There are another two points which you should be aware of when you use units.
 195 MAT0511/001

The first is to make sure that you use the same units for a specific measure in a given calculation. For
example, consider the following problem.

“It took Abdul x hours to travel from Johannesburg to Durban. It took Paula 40 minutes longer to do the same
journey. Write down, in terms of x; the time it took for Paula to travel from Johannesburg to Durban”.

Since Paula travelled for a longer period of time, i.e. 40 minutes longer, you may write

“It took Paula .x C 40/ hours to do the journey”.

However, this is incorrect since 40 refers to time measured in minutes and x refers to time measured in
hours. Both hours and minutes are acceptable units of time, but they are not the same. We must first convert
40 minutes to hours.

Since
60 minutes D 1 hour

we have
1
1 minute D hour
60
and thus
40 2
40 minutes D hour D hour.
60 3

We can also convert hours to minutes, but travelling time is usually given in terms of hours.

We can now say

“It took Paula .x C 32 / hours to do the journey”.

The second point is that you should check that you obtain the correct units for your answer. For example,
suppose you think (incorrectly) that the formula for distance is
speed
distance D :
time
If speed is measured in km/h and time in hours, your unit for distance will be
km/h km
D 2 D km/h2 :
h h
Now you know that the unit for distance is not km/h2 and there is clearly a mistake in the formula you have
used. Using the correct formula, i.e.

distance D speed time,

you find the unit of distance to be

km
km/h hD h D km
h
which makes sense. Note: we cancel the units.
 196

Now try the following activity.

ACTIVITY 5.1.6

(a) You travelled at an average speed of 90 km/h for 20 minutes. How far did you travel?

(b) A train travels 150 km in 50 minutes. What is the speed of the train in kilometres per hour?

SOLUTION

(a) We have
distance D speed time.

Since speed is given in km/h and time is given in minutes we must first convert 20 minutes to hours.
20 1
Since 60 minutes D 1 hour we have 20 minutes D hour D h.
60 3
Hence
1
distance D 90 km/h h
3

90 km 1
D h
h 3

D 30 km.

Thus you travelled 30 km.

(b) Once again, different units are used. We convert 50 minutes to a time in hours.
50 5
50 minutes D hour; i.e. hour:
60 6
Now
distance 150 km 6 150
speed D D 5 D km/h D 180 km/h
time 6
hour 5
i.e. the train’s speed is 180 km/h

If you do not convert minutes to hours in Activity 5.1.6, your unit check will indicate that something is wrong.
For example, suppose you write

distance D 90 km/h 20 minutes

1 800 km minutes
D :
h

Now you cannot “cancel” the units, since they are different (i.e. minutes and hours) and your unit for distance
km min
does not make sense.
h
 197 MAT0511/001

Checking that your units are correct is particularly important in the Natural Sciences such as physics and
chemistry where many derived units and complicated formulas are used. The following example uses a
problem from physics to illustrate this point. Do not worry if you do not understand the physics involved.
Try to follow how we manipulate the units.

EXAMPLE 5.1.4

Force is equal to the product of mass and acceleration. We denote this by

F Dm a

where
the force F is measured in newtons (N)
the mass m is measured in kg
the acceleration a is measured in m/s2 :

Now 1 newton (1 N) is the force that produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2 when it acts on a mass of 1 kg. Thus
the newton is a derived unit and
1 N D 1 kg.m/s2 D 1 kg.m.s 2 :

When a force of 15 N is applied to an iron ball it produces an acceleration of 5 m/s2 : Find the mass of the
ball. Check that you obtain the correct units for mass.

SOLUTION

Since
F Dm a

we have
F
m D
a

15 N
D
5 m.s 2
2
15 kg.m.s
D
5 m.s 2

D 3 kg.

Hence the mass of the ball is 3 kg.

Notice how the units cancel to leave us an answer in kg, which makes sense for mass.
 198

EXERCISE 5.1

1. Complete the following. (Refer to table 5.1.1)

(a) 1 Mm D .......... mm
(b) 1 km D ......... cm
(c) 1 m D .......... m
(d) 1 Gg D .......... kg
(e) 1 mg D .......... kg
(f) 1 m2 D .......... mm2
(g) 1 mm2 D .......... cm2
(h) 1 m3 D .......... mm3
(i) 1 mm3 D .......... cm3

2. Show that 1 000 cm3 D 1 dm3 D 10 3

m3 :

3. Complete the following.

(a) 40 km/h D ............ m/s

(b) 30 m/s D ............ km/h
(c) 1 g/cm3 D ............. kg/m3
(d) 1 kg/m3 D ............ g/cm3
mass
g/cm3 and kg/m3 are units of density. Density = :
volume
4. 1 mile (mi) D 1; 609 km.
Complete the following (correct to two decimal places).

(a) 30 mi/h D .......... km/h

(b) 50 mi/h D .......... m/s
Some books use mph for miles per hour (mi/h).

5. A bag of sugar weighs x kg and a bag of flour weighs 400 g less than the bag of sugar. How much does
the bag of flour weigh? Give your answer in terms of x:

6. Look at Example 5.1.4.

Suppose a force of 8 N acts on a wooden block of mass 500 g. What acceleration is produced?
 199 MAT0511/001

UNIT SUMMARY

In the metric system the basic unit of length is the metre and the basic unit of mass is the gram.

The metric prefixes that we use most often are kilo, centi and milli. The relationship between these
and the basic units are given in the following table.

METRIC PREFIXES
Prefix Symbol Conversion factor: Conversion factor:
prefix–unit to basic unit to
basic unit prefix–unit

kilo k 103 10 3

basic unit
centi c 10 2 102
milli m 10 3 103

Example 1 km D 103 m 1 m D 10 3
km

1 square metre D 1 m 1 m D 1 m2 D 104 cm2

1 cubic metre D 1 m 1m 1 m D 1 m3 D 106 cm3

Tables for conversion of non–metric to metric units can be found at the back of certain dictionaries.
These must NOT be memorised.

Check units in calculations.

CHECKLIST

Check that you can do the following.

5.1 Units

1. Convert units and derived units in the metric system to other units in the metric system, e.g. km/h to
m/s.
Activities 5.1.1, 5.1.2, 5.1.3; Examples 5.1.1, 5.1.2

2. Convert non–metric units to metric units or vice versa if you are given the conversion factors.
Example 5.1.3; Activities 5.1.4, 5.1.5

3. Obtain the correct units for an answer.

Activity 5.1.6; Example 5.1.4
 200

ANSWERS
MODULE 1

UNIT 1

Exercise 1.1

1. (a) T Th Th H T U
(i) 1 0 0 0 4
(ii) 6 0 7
(b) (i) hundredths
(ii) hundreds

2.
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

0,12

0,0987

3. (a) False. 1; 3P is a recurring or repeating decimal, and hence it is a rational number.

(b) False. 0 is a non–negative number, but 0 is not positive.
(c) True. For example:
3
3 D hence 3 2 Z and 3 2 Q
1

2
2 D hence 2 2 Z and 22Q
1
(d) False. 3; 05 has 0 tenths and 5 hundredths
3; 50 D 3; 5, and has 5 tenths (and 0 hundredths).
(e) True. The bar above 05 in 3; 05 shows that these two digits are repeated, in this order, indefinitely.
(f) False. 2 hours and 40 minutes D 2 40
60
hours D 2 23 hours D 2; 666 : : : hours or
4
2; 4 hours D 2 hours and 10 of an hour
4
D 2 hours and 10 of 60 minutes
D 2 hours and 24 minutes

4. (a) Hours Minutes

Eat 48
Read 50
Work 8
Travel 1 16
Total 9 114
 201 MAT0511/001

(b) -4 1

But 114 minutes D 1 hour and 54 minutes.

Hence Total D 10 hours and 54 minutes.
Time left in a 24 hour period D 24 hours .10 hours and 54 minutes):

Hours Minutes To simplify the subtraction we write

23 60 24 hours as .23 C 1/ hours, i.e. as
10 54 23 hours and 60 minutes.
13 6

There are thus 13 hours and 6 minutes left.

5. (a) a b (or b a/
(b) b > a (or a < b/
(c) b a (or b a : since b cannot be greater than a it can be equal to a or less than aI we can also
write a b/
(d) a b (or b a/
(e) a 6D b (This can also be written as a > b or a < b.)
1 1
6. (a) 4< 1< 2
(or 2
> 1> 4)
(b) 8< 2 < 1 (or 1 > 2> 8)
1 1
(c) 4 > 1 > 2
(or 2
< 1 < 4)

7. (a) . 4; 1]

(c) All real numbers greater than or equal to zero, and less than 3:
(d)

0 3

(e) All real numbers greater than or equal to 1:

(f) [ 1; 1/

8. In interval notation, .a; b/ means that a < b: In this case 3 1, so we should write . 1; 3/. That
means that the smallest number in the relevant interval should be written first.

Exercise 1.2

1. (a) fa; b; c; d; e; f g
(b) fa; e; i; o; ug
(c) f1; 3; 5g
 202

2. (a) fx 2 N : x is odd and 1 x 5g

(b) fx 2 N : x is even and 2 x 10g
(c) fx 2 Z : x is even and x 2g

3. (a) ;
(b) f0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6g
(c) f2g
(d) f0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6g
(e) f3g
(f) f1; 2; 3; 4; 6g

4. (a) (i)

P [ Q D [ 1; 1/ [ [3; 4/
D fx 2 R : 1 x < 1 or 3 x < 4g

-1 1 3 4

(ii) P \ Q D [ 1; 1/ \ [3; 4/ D ;
This set cannot be written in any other way, neither can it be shown on a number line, since
it contains no elements.
(b) (i)

P [ Q D . 1; 1/ [ [2; 1/
D fx 2 R : x > 1 or x 2g
D fx 2 R : x > 1g
D P

-1 2

(ii)

P \ Q D . 1; 1/ \ [2; 1/
D fx 2 R : x > 1 and x 2g
D fx 2 R : x 2g
D Q

-1 2
 203 MAT0511/001

(c) (i)

P [ Q D . 2; 4] [ [0; 2]
D fx 2 R : 2<x 4 or 0 x 2g
D fx 2 R : 2<x 4g
D P

-2 0 2 4

(ii)

P \ Q D . 2; 4] \ [0; 2]
D fx 2 R : 2<x 4 and 0 x 2g
D fx 2 R : 0 x 2g
D Q

-2 0 2 4

(d) (i)

P [ Q D [ 1; 2] [ .0; 3/
D fx 2 R : 1 x 2 or 0 < x < 3g
D fx 2 R : 1 x < 3g

-1 0 2 3

(ii)

P \ Q D [ 1; 2] \ .0; 3/
D fx 2 R : 1 x 2 and 0 < x < 3g
D fx 2 R : 0 < x 2g

-1 0 2 3

5. (a) fx 2 R : 1<x 3g
(b) fx 2 R : x < 0 or x > 5g D fx 2 R : x < 0g [ fx 2 R : x > 5g
(c) fx 2 R : x < 1g
(d) fx 2 R : x < 3g

6. A \ D
 204

Exercise 2.1

1. (a) 54 D 2 3 3 3
(b) (i) HCF D 8 LCM D 112
(ii) HCF D 7 LCM D 140
(iii) HCF D 4 LCM D 60
(iv) HCF D 1 LCM D 210
(v) HCF D 9 LCM D 54
(vi) HCF D 6 LCM D 360

2. Since 216 is an even integer it is divisible by 2: Since the digits add up to 9 (i.e. 2 C 1 C 6 D 9/ and 9
is divisible by 3; it follows that 216 is divisible by 3: Hence 216 is divisible by 2 3, i.e. by 6:

3. f 18 ; 2
16
; 3
24
; 4
32
; 5
40
; 6
48
g

2 6 2 5
4. (a) 5
D 15
(b) 3
> 9

7 9 2 3
(c) 7
D 9
(d) 3
< 4

8 5
(e) 9
> 6
(f) 1 13 < 7
5

5. (a) 3 is a factor common to both the numerator and denominator and thus the 3’s can be cancelled, ie
3 4
3
D 41 D 4:
(b) It is incorrect to reason that 3 is a common factor of the numerator and denominator and that the
3’s can be cancelled. In the numerator 3 and 4 are separated by C and not by and hence 3 is
not a common factor of the numerator. In fact 3C43
D 37 6D 4:

6. (a) False
The numerator contains two terms, the numbers 3 and 4. Neither of these numbers is a factor
of the numerator. There is thus no number which is a factor common to the numerator and the
denominator, and hence we cannot cancel.
The correct statement is
4C3 7
6
D 6
D 1 16 :

(b) True
The numerator can be written as 7 2 2.
The denominator can be written as 7 2.
We thus have the factors 7 and 2 common to both numerator and denominator, and hence we can
cancel both 7 and 2, and the answer is 2.
(c) False
The number 4 that appears in the numerator is a factor of the numerator, since

16 C 8 4 D 20 D 4 5:
 205 MAT0511/001

Hence, if we rewrite the numerator in this form the fraction becomes

16C8 4 4 5
4
D 4
:

Now 4 ia a factor common to both the numerator and the denominator, and we can cancel. We
have
4C5
4
D 5:

This example shows that we must first factorise, then cancel.

(d) False
We have incorrectly regarded first 3, and then 10, as factors common to the numerator and the
denominator.
The correct staement is
20 3 17
30
D 30
:

Exercise 2.2

1. (a) thousandths (b) 20 300; 49

(c) 0; 2030049 (d) 200
(e) 203; 0 (f) 203; 005

2. (a) 34; 012 < 34; 102 (b) 0; 002 > 0; 003

3. (a) 2 (b) 1

13 5
4. (a) 20
(b) 9
11
(c) 1 (d) 10
5
(e) 12

5. (a) 972 (b) 0; 0000972

6. (a) 302; 3144 (b) 4; 011

(c) 11340

7. R28; 76

8. It will take Emma 8 50 minutes to ice the cakes.

400
8 50 min D 400 min D 60
h D 6 23 h.
1 1
She can work for [.16 9/ 2
] h D .7 2
/ h D 6 12 h.
Since 6 23 > 6 12 ; Emma will not be able to finish icing all the cakes.

9. (a) 2; 8525 (b) 2; 85

(c) 2; 853 (d) 2; 85
 206

3
10. 2 cakes require 2 4
kg of mixed nuts, i.e. 1 21 kg of nuts, i.e. 1 500 g of nuts.
1 packet contains 100 g of nuts.
1 500
Thus I need 100
packets, i.e. 15 packets of nuts.
There are 3 types of nuts.
15
Thus I need 3
packets of each type of nut, i.e. 5 packets of each type of nut.
5
If 2 cakes require 5 packets of each type of nut then 1 cake requires 2
packets, i.e. 2 21 packets of each
type of nut.
Hence 3 cakes require 2 21 3 packets, i.e. 7 12 packets of each type of nut.
Thus I need to buy 8 packets of each type of nut.
There will be 21 a packet, i.e. 50 g of each type of nut left over. Hence there will be 3 50 g, i.e. 150 g
of nuts left over.

11. (a) Litres of paint required:

Bedrooms .3 5; 25/ 15; 75
Diningroom 9; 00
Lounge 10; 25
Kitchen 1; 75
Bathroom 1; 75
Total 38; 50
Tanya and Joel have 35; 75 litres of paint. They need to buy
.38; 50 35; 75/ litres of paint, i.e. 2; 75 litres of paint.
(b) 2; 75 litres D .2 C 0; 75/ litres D 2 litres C750 ml
D 2 litres C 3 250 ml.
3 one litre tins cost 3 R58 D R174:
The cost of 2 one litre tins C 3 250 ml tins is

2 R58 C 3 R16; 50 D R116 C R49; 50 D R165; 50:

Since 165; 50 < 174; it will be cheaper to buy a combination of 1 litre and 250 ml tins of paint.

12. Division is distributive over addition. In .10 C 5/ 3 we are dividing 10 C 5 by 3 and thus we have

10
.10 C 5/ 3D 3
C 53 :

In 15 .10 C 5/ we are dividing 15 by the sum of 10 and 5 and we cannot use the distributive rule. By
BODMAS we have
15 .10 C 5/ D 15 15 D 1

and hence
15 15
15 .10 C 5/ 6D 10
C 5
:
 207 MAT0511/001

Application (Unit 2)

1. Rent R1 500
Food R 600
Municipal rates, etc. R 400
Petrol R 600
Clothing R 200
Car payment R 300
Telephone R 100
Entertainment R 100
Credit card R 400
Total R4 200

Estimated total is R4 200:

2. Exact total is R4 142; 09: The difference is R57; 91:

R59 000
3. Max’s monthly net salary is 12
R4 916; 67.
He earns enough to meet his February expenses since

R4 142; 09 < R4 916; 67:

He can save approximately .R4 916; 67
4. The monthly payments through Bank B would be
changed his car payment plan to Bank B:
R4 142; 09/, i.e. approximately R774; 58:
R 48 000
8 12
, i.e. R500. Max would pay more if he

5. In February Max pays R 565

4
, i.e. R141; 25 per week for food. In March his food expenses will increase
by 2 R141; 25; i.e. by R282; 50:

6. His expenses would have decreased by 12 R1 520; 00 C 1

2
R432; 79; i.e. by R760; 00CR216; 40 to
the nearest cent, i.e. by R976; 40 to the nearest cent.

7. Without doing any calculations it is clear that Max can afford to pay the deposit in February since the
total cost of the panelbeating (i.e. R403; 95/ is less than R774; 58, which is the difference between his
salary and his expenses.

Exercise 3.1

1. 180 to 120

2. 75 : 64

3. 70 : 12 : 105

4. Approximately 12; 16 ` melted wax, 24; 32 ` water, 13; 51 ` white spirits.

 208

Exercise 3.2

1. 12

2. 15 ml

3. 10 h

4. R800

5. 100 `

6. If y is in direct proportion to x then

y
x
D c; c 6D 0
i.e. y D cx
y
i.e. c
Dx
i.e. x D ky where k D 1c :
x
i.e. y
Dk
Hence x is in direct proportion to y:

Exercise 3.3

1. (a) 0; 00025
(b) R20,00
(c) 150 people

2. 0; 24%

3. Suppose Ben weighs x kg.

Then Maria weighs 0; 6x kg (Maria’s weight is 60 % of Ben’s weight).
John weighs twice as much as Maria.
Hence John weighs 2 0; 6x kg, i.e. 1; 2x kg.
Lizzie’s weight is 190 % of John’s weight.
Hence Lizzie weighs 1; 9 1; 2x kg, i.e. 2; 28x kg.
Daniel’s weight is 50 % of Lizzie’s weight.
Hence Daniel weighs 0; 5 2; 28x kg, i.e. 1; 14x kg.
Now 2; 28 > 1; 2 > 1; 14 > 1 > 0; 6.
Thus the order of persons according to decreasing weight is

Lizzie, John, Daniel, Ben, Maria.

 209 MAT0511/001

Alternative solution:

Maria’s weight D 0; 6 Ben’s weight

John’s weight D 2 Maria’s weight

D 2 0; 6 Ben’s weight
D 1; 2 Ben’s weight

Lizzie’s weight D 190 % of John’s weight

D 1; 9 1; 2 Ben’s weight
D 2; 28 Ben’s weight

Daniel’s weight D 50 % of Lizzie’s weight

D 0; 5 2; 28 Ben’s weight
D 1; 14 Ben’s weight

Since 2; 28 > 1; 2 > 1; 14 > 1 > 0; 6 we have

Lizzie’s weight > John’s weight > Daniel’s weight > Ben’s weight > Maria’s weight.
Thus the order of persons according to decreasing weight is

Lizzie, John, Daniel, Ben, Maria.

4. Suppose X earns x rands.

(a) X earns 125 % of what Y earns.

100
Hence Y earns 125
x rands.
X earns 80 % of what Z earns.
100
Hence Z earns 80
x rands.
Thus
100 100
xC 125
x C 80
x D 5 000
i.e.
x C 0; 8x C 1; 25x D 5 000
i.e.
3; 05x D 5 000
i.e.
5 000
xD 3;05
i.e.
x 1 639; 34.
Thus

X earns R1 639; 34
Y earns 0; 8 R1 639; 34 D R1 311; 47
 210

and
Z earns 1; 25 R1 639; 34 D R2 049; 18:

(b) Let W earn Ra per week and let X earn Rb per week. Then b 2a:
b
(c) a 2

5. After the first hour there were P Q C R people. Thus the percentage of the number of people in the
room after one hour, compared to the number present when the meeting started is

P QCR
100 %:
P

40 52
6. 100 100
of the population

2 080
i.e. 10 000
of the population

20;8
i.e. 100
of the population

i.e. 20; 8 % of the population

6 5
7. Profit D R. 100 1 000 C 100
5 000/
D R.60 C 250/
D R310

8. Improvement in speed D .10; 0 9; 5/ seconds D 0; 5 seconds

Compared to her previous best speed, the percentage improvement is

0;5 5
. 10;0 100/% D . 100 100/% D 5%:

Unit 4

Exercise 4.2

1. 110110

2. 49

3
3. (a) 8
(b) 71

25 9
(c) 6
(d) 10

b3 c10
4. (a) (b)
a 9 c12 a6b

64a 8 a5
(c) (d)
b2 b9 c5
 211 MAT0511/001

5. (a) 1 10 (b) 1; 34 108

(c) 9 10 1 (d) 2 10 4
2
(e) 1; 7 10

6. (a) 0; 00000134 (b) 79 990

(c) 400; 1 (d) 0; 009999
(e) 0; 5

7. 1; 44 108 km

8. 0; 0000000005 m

9. 1 teaspoon contains 5 ml of water.

The mass of 5 ml of water is 5 1 g, i.e. 5 g.
18 g of water is 1 mole of water and thus 18 g of water contains
6; 022 1023 molecules.
6;022 1023
Hence 1 g of water contains 18
molecules.
5 6;022 1023
Thus 5 g of water contains 18
molecules, i.e. approximately
1; 673 1023 molecules.
Thus 1 teaspoon of water contains approximately 1; 673 1023 molecules.
1;23 1010
10. 1;23 107
D 103 D 1 000

Exercise 4.3

20 5
1. (a) 7
(b) 2
a
(c) b
(d) 2

2. (a) 3; 62 (b) 1; 94
(c) 1; 19
p p p p
3. (a) 16 3 C 3 5 C 1 (b) 7 C 13 2 C 5
p p
(c) 27 3 (d) 15 30
p
4 30
p
(e) 5
(f) 8 3
p p
2
(g) 6 bc (h) 2
p
3 2
(i) 10
 212

Unit 5

Exercise 5.1

1. (a) 1 Mm D 109 mm (b) 1 km D 105 cm

(c) 1 m D 10 6 m (d) 1 Gg D 106 kg
(e) 1 mg D 10 6 kg (f) 1 m2 D 106 mm2
(g) 1 mm2 D 10 2 cm2 (h) 1 m3 D 109 mm3
(i) 1 mm3 D 10 3 cm3

2.

1 000 cm3 D 10 cm 10 cm 10 cm
D 1 dm 1 dm 1 dm D 1 dm3
1 1 1 3
D 10 m 10 m 10 m D 10 m3

3. (a) 40 km/h D 11 19 m/s

(b) 30 m/s D 108 km/h
(c) 1 g/cm3 D 1 000 kg/m3
(d) 1 kg/m3 D 10 3
g/cm3

4. (a) 30 mi/h D 48; 27 km/h

(b) 50 mi/h 22; 35 m/s

5. .x 0; 4/ kg

6. 16 m/s2
 213 MAT0511/001

REFERENCES
Barnett R.A. and Ziegler M.R.: Calculus for business, economics, life sciences, and social sciences, Macmil-
lan Publishing Company, 1993.

Christy, D.T. and Rosenfeld, R.: Beginning Algebra, Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1994.

Cilliers, H.: Data Processing and Laboratory Procedure, Manual 1 for PHY103-8, University of South
Africa, 1996.

Cook, N.P.: Introductory Mathematics, Prentice Hall Career & Technology, 1995.

Freeman, R.: How to Learn Maths, National Extension College, 1994.

Jaffe, E.D. and Hibert, S.: GMAT (9th edition), Barren’s Educational Series, Inc., 1991.

James, R.C.: Mathematics Dictionary (3rd edition), D. van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1968.

Lial, M.L., Miller, C.D. and Hornsby, E.J. Jnr.: College Algebra (6th edition), Harper Collins College Pub-
lishers, 1993.

Page S., Berry J. and Hampson H.: Mathematics. A Second Start (2nd edition), Prentice Hall, 1996.

Thomason, J.M.: Precalculus Mathematics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1987.