Chapter 10

Internetworking
 Internet Protocol
• The Network Layer protocol for TCP/IP is the
Internet Protocol (IP).
• It uses IP addresses and the subnet mask to
determine whether the datagram is on the local or
a remote network.
• If it is on the remote network, the datagram is
forwarded to the default gateway which is a router
that links to another network.
• IP keeps track of the number of transverses
through each router that the datagram goes
through to reach its destination
 Internet Protocol
• IP keeps track of the number of transverses
through each router that the datagram goes
through to reach its destination
• Each transverse is called a hop
• If the hop count exceeds 255 hops, the datagram is
removed and the destination considered
unreachable
• IP's name for the hop count is called Time To Live
(TTL).
 IP Addressing
• An important prerequisite to internetworking is
having an efficient address architecture that is
adhered to by all users of that network
• Address architecture can take many different
forms.
– Network addresses are always numeric, but
they can be expressed in
• Binary
• decimal or even hexadecimal
– The address architecture implemented by the IP
has evolved substantially over the last 20 years
 IP Addressing

• The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) elected to use

machine friendly numeric addresses to identify IP networks and
hosts.
– Thus, each network in the internet would have its own
unique numeric address (network address).
• The original version of the IP address, IP version 4 (IPv4), uses
32-bit binary addresses (IPv6 uses 128-bits more on this latter).
• Each address is organized as four 8 bit numbers
• Each 8-bit number is called an octet
• Binary numbers are extremely machine friendly, but are not user
friendly.
– Thus, provisions were made to support the use of more
intuitive decimal number system for internetwork
addressing.
 IP Addressing

• The original 32-bit IPv4 address architecture meant that the

Internet could support 232 (4,294,267,296) possible addresses, a
number originally deemed ridiculously excessive
• But, now the number is not sufficient due to a number of
wasteful practices.
 IP Addressing

• IP address Format
– IP was standardized in September 1981.
– It uses dotted decimal format.
– The lowest possible value is 0.0.0.0 and
– The highest possible value is 255.255.255.255.
• This address was then broken into classes, to accommodate
large, medium, and small networks
• The differences between the classes were the number of bits
allocated to network versus host addresses.
• There are five classes of IP addresses of which three are in
common use.
• They are named class A, class B, class C, class D, and class E.
 IP Addressing

Class A addresses
• The class A address was designed to support extremely large networks.
• Class A IP address uses only the first octet to indicate the network
address.
• The remaining three octets enumerate host addresses
• The first bit of a Class A address is always a 0.
– This mathematically limits the possible range of class A network
addresses to 126
– That is 27-2 is subtracted because all 0’s and 1’s are reserved.
• The last 24 bits (three dotted decimal numbers) of class A address
represent possible host address.
• The range of possible class A network address is, therefore, from
1.0.0.0 to 126.0.0.0.
• Each class A address can support 16,777,214 (224 -2) unique host
addresses.
 IP Addressing

Class A addresses
• Subtracting 2 is necessary because IP reserved the all zeros address for
identifying the network and the all ones address for broadcasting
within the network.
• Class A address architecture is :
• {Network.Host.Host.Host}
 IP Addressing

Class B address
• Class B addresses was designed to support the needs of
moderate to large sized networks.
• It uses two of the four octets to indicate the network address.
• The other two octets enumerate host addresses. The first two
bits of the first octet of a class B address are 10.
• The remaining six bits may be populated with either ones or
zeros.
• This mathematically limits the possible rang of the Class B
address space to 16,382 (214 – 2),
– 2 is subtracted because all 0’s and all 1’s are reserved.
• The last 16 bit (two dotted decimal numbers) identifies potential
host addresses.
 IP Addressing

Class B address
• The range of possible class B network address is, therefore,
– from 10000000.00000001.0.0 to 10111111.11111110.0.0 i.e.
128.1.0.0 to 191.254.0.0.
• Each class B address can support 65,534(216-2) unique host
addresses.
– 2 subtracted because the 0’s and 1’s are reserved.
• Class B address architecture is:
– {Network.Network.Host.Host}
 IP Addressing

Class C Address
• The class C address space was intended to support lots of small
networks.
• It uses 3 of the 4 octets to indicate network addresses.
• The remaining one octet is used for host numbering.
• The first three bits of the first octet of class C address are 110.
• The first two bits sum to a decimal value 192 (128+64).
• This forms the lower mathematical boundary of the class C
space.
• The third bit equates to a decimal value 32.
• Forcing this bit to the value zero establishes the upper
mathematical boundary of the address space to 223(11011111).
 IP Addressing

Class C Address
• Thus the range of possible class C network address is from
192.0.1.0 to 223.255.254.0.
• The last octet is used for host addressing.
• Each class C address can support 254 unique host numbers.
• There can be 2,097,150(221 – 2) different class C network
numbers.
• Class C address architecture
– {Network.Nework.Network.Host}
 IP Addressing

Class D
• The first four bits of class D must be 1110
– giving 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.254 as address space.
• Class D addresses always have bits 0-3 set to 1110, bits 4-
31 are used as the Multicast address
• Class D network addresses are used by multicasting
E Address
• The first four bits Class E address must always be set to 1111
– giving 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255 as the address space.
• Class E is used for IETF’s research purpose.
Sub netting