CES 1213 TESL METHODOLOGY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

ASSIGNMENT:

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE

TEACHING (CLT)
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 Background History of Communicative Language Teaching

(CLT) 1-4

2.0 Theoretical Study of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) 4

2.1 Learning Principles of CLT 5

2.2 Hymes’ Theory of Communicative Competence 5-6

2.3 Halliday’s 7 Functions of Language

6-7

3.0 Strengths and Weaknesses of CLT 8

3.1 Advantages of Communicative Language Teaching 8-9

3.2 Disadvantages of Communicative Language Teaching 9

4.0 Criticisms of CLT by Michael Swan (1985) 9 - 12

5.0 Activities and Techniques Involved in CLT 12

5.1 Techniques in CLT 12

5.2 Materials in CLT 13 - 14

5.3 Types of Activities in CLT 14 - 15

5.4 Examples of Activities in CLT 15 - 18

References 19
1.0 Background History of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

The importance of communicative competence in language teaching was brought to light

in the 1970’s when the Audio lingual method and Situational Language Teaching were no

longer deemed useful. This impetus was caused due to various researchers questioning

the essentiality of grammatical competency as some argued that the ability to

communicate itself should be put as first priority. CLT stoked a great deal of enthusiasm

and excitement during its first appearance as a new approach to language teaching in the

1970’s and 1980’s. This new profound discovery led towards remodelling of teaching

methods, syllabuses as well as classroom materials by almost all language teachers and

teaching institution.

In order to give a detailed background of the history of CLT, three phases of language

teaching shifts are made:

First Phase :

Traditional approaches of language teaching (up to the late 1960s)

During this era, grammatical competency was given the utmost priority as in all of the

traditional approaches to language teaching. A belief formed by former linguists was that

the complexity of grammar could be learnt directly through massive drilling and

practicing which was done repetitively. The teaching of grammar was taught in a

deductive approach whereby students were made knowledgeable about grammar rules

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and then learned how to make use of it.

Techniques commonly used were memorization of dialogues, question-and-answer

practice, substitution drills and diverse guided speaking and writing practice. Accurate

pronunciation and mastery of grammar was stressed on from the very beginning of

language learning to avoid errors. During this time period, the syllabuses consisted of

word lists and grammar lists which were graded across levels of proficiency.

Second Phase :

Classic communicative language teaching (1970s to 1990s) occurs due to

conflicts arises around traditional teaching approaches

In the 1970’s, educators began to question whether the goals of language teaching were

fulfilled with the implementation of the traditional teaching approaches. They observed

that majority of the students are unable to genuinely communicate outside classrooms and

were only able to utter the right sentences during lessons. It was concluded that the ability

to communicate is not limited to become linguistically competent but also requires the

students to become communicatively competent.

The planning of language courses that embedded a communicative mode of learning is

needed during this era. Hence, a couple of syllabus were invented to pursue the ultimate

results of CLT such as a skills-based syllabus (focusing on the four skills of reading,

writing, listening and speaking that breaks into further micro skills), a functional

syllabus (teaching the functions of English language as a communication device to

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express the learners’ feelings, thoughts or knowledge), a notional syllabus (lessons

consists of content and notions that a learner would have need to express themselves) and

a task syllabus (specification of tasks and activities for students in a classroom).

A syllabus bear the necessity to identify all of parts of a language, and the first widely

adopted communicative syllabus developed within the framework of classic CLT was

termed Threshold Level (Van Ek and Alexander 1980). It gave a description of different

level of proficiency in which learners needed to obtain to cross the threshold and begin

real conversation. The threshold syllabus mentioned specifies topics, functions, notions,

situations, as well as grammar and vocabulary.

Third Phase :

Current communicative language teaching (late 1990s to the present)

Current communicative language teaching theory and practice thus draws a number of

different educational paradigms and traditions. And since it draws on a number of diverse

sources, there is no single or agreed upon set of practices that characterize current

communicative language teaching. Rather, communicative language teaching today refers

to a set of generally agreed upon principles that can be applied in different ways,

depending on the teaching context, the age of the learners, their level, their learning goals,

and so on.

Yalden (1983) proposes the majority of communication syllabus used today. Below are

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the types of syllabuses used today and built by following the guidelines by referring from

past researchers.

Table 1: Types of syllabuses according to researchers

Type of Syllabuses Reference

1 Structures plus functions Wilkins (1976)

2 Functional spiral around structural Brumfit (1980)

core

3 Structural, functional, instrumental Allen (1980)

4 Functional Jupp and Hodlin (1975)

5 Notional Wilkins (1976)

6 Interactional Widdowson (1979)

7 Task-based Prabhu (1983)

8 Learner generated Candlin (1976), Henner-Stanchina

and Riley (1978)

2.0 Theoretical Study of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

The use of communicative approach in language teaching was induced from the

perception that language is a tool for communication. The goal of language teaching is to

achieve “communicative competence”.

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2.1 Learning Principles of CLT

There are three learning principles of Communicative Language Teaching to promote

learning:

I. Communication principle: Activities that impels real life conversations promote

learning

II. Task principle: Activities that use language to carry out meaningful tasks such as

requesting and denying promote learning

III. Meaningfulness principle: Learning process occurs when the meaning of language

is understood.

Hymes (1972) coined the term “communicative competence” to show the contrast

between a communicative view of language and Chomsky’s theory of competence. Two

theories made regarding CLT by Dell Hymes (1972) and Michael Halliday (1970) are

presented in this paperwork.

2.2 Hymes’ Theory of Communicative Competence

Hymes's theory of communicative competence defines the knowledge of a speaker needed

to attain in order to be communicatively competent. In Hymes's view, a person who

acquires both knowledge and ability for language use are communicatively competent with

respect to

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1. FEASIBILITY: Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible;

2. SYSTEMATIC POTENTIAL: Whether (and to what degree) something is feasible in

virtue of the means of implementation available;

3. APPROPRIACY: Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate,

happy,successful) in relation to a cont.ext in which it is used and evaluated;

4. OCCURRENCE: Whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually

performed, and what its doing entails.

2.3 Halliday’s Theory of Functions of Language

“Linguistics...is concerned...with the description of speech acts or texts,

since only through the study of language in use are all the functions of

language, and therefore all components of meaning, brought into focus”

Halliday elaborated a powerful theory about the functions of language child’s language

acquisition. His elaboration of language functions complements Hymes's view of

communicative cornpetence for many writers on CLT (e.g., Brumfit and Johnson 1979;

Savignon 1983). He described (1975: 11-17) seven basic functions that language performs

for children learning their first language:

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Table 2: Functions of language as proposed by Halliday

Functions Definitions of Functions

1 Instrumental Language is used to express a need, directly concerned with

obtaining food, drink and comfort.

2 Regulatory Language is used to direct others by the act of persuading,

commanding and requesting others to do things.

3 Interactional Language is used to make contact and form relationships with

others.

4 Personal Language is used to express personal feelings.

5 Heuristic Language is used to gain knowledge about the environment.

6 Imaginative Language is used to tell jokes or stories as well as creating an

imaginary world.

7 Representational Language is used to convey facts or information. A child uses

language to relay or request facts and information.

Learning a second language was similarly viewed by proponents of Communicative

Language Teaching as acquiring the linguistic means to perform different kinds of

functions.

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3.0 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF CLT

3.1 Advantages of Communicative Language Teaching

There are some advantages for Communicative Language Teaching such as the

interaction between the students and teachers, to inform the basic knowledge and ability

to skillfully combine the development and greatly improved the student's interest.

The interaction between the students and teachers in the communicative teaching is

becoming an increasingly clear feature that the change in the way as the internship,

students develop the subject, initiative and become increasingly important.

Teacher-student relationship is an interactive, harmonious relationship, rather than the

traditional education, the kind of master-servant relationship.

Not only that, the other advantage of Communicative Language Teaching is to

inform the basic knowledge and ability to skillfully combine the development. Traditional

classroom teaching of English in the main body of the expense of home study, only

emphasizes the teachers on the knowledge of the systematic and integrity, which is a

teacher-centered method where students ability or knowledge towards the subject cannot

be seen by the teachers. The communicative teaching emphasizes the learner's cognitive

ability and operational capabilities, which allow the students themselves to think about

and express their views, thus trained in real life the ability to use language to

communicate.

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 CLT greatly improves the students’ interest to participate in, by the accompaniment

of scenes or simulated scenarios, so that students will be able to adapt to real life

situations in which the students became the main character. Naturally they become more

interested in the language, to learn it with pleasure.

3.2 Disadvantages of Communicative Language Teaching

The disadvantages in Communicative Language Teaching are that there is not enough

emphasis on the correction of pronunciation and grammar error. It is because too much

focus on meaning at the expense of form. Besides that, Communicative Language

Teaching approach focuses on fluency but not accuracy in grammar and pronunciation

and the Communicative Language Teaching approach is great for intermediate student

and advanced students, but for Beginners some controlled practice or guidance is needed.

The monitoring ability of the teacher must be very good and the teacher must be very

knowledgeable person in first language and second language. The teacher and student

must understand each other. Grammar Teaching Practices make application of this

approach difficult.

4.0 Criticisms of CLT by Michael Swan (1985)

The adoption of a communicative approach raises important issues for teacher

training, materials development, and testing and evaluation.

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 Questions that have been raised include whether a communicative approach can be

applied at all levels in a language program, whether it is really suited to ESL and EFL

situations, whether it requires existing grammar-based syllabuses to be abandoned or

merely revised, how such an approach can be evaluated, how suitable it is for non-native

teachers, and how it can be adopted in situations where students must continue to take

grammar-based tests. These kinds of questions will doubtless require attention if the

communicative movement in language teaching continues to gain momentum in the

future. (Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers, p. 83)

Michael Swan (1985) criticized the approach in four issues. Firstly, on the idea of a

'double level of meaning' associated with such terms as 'rules of use' and 'rules of

communication', and the related concept of appropriacy. There are two levels of meaning

in language: 'usage' and 'use', or 'signification' and 'value'. Learning grammar and words

in the dictionary is not enough to learn the basic communicative concept. The reason the

sufficiency of grammatical syllabuses state is been question is because even when we

described the grammatical and lexical meaning of a sentence, we did not said the way

how we pronounce it. The way we deliver a message may have one kind of

‘propositional’ meaning but a different kind of ‘function’. For example, the coat and the

window example. If you say 'Your coat is on the floor' to a child, you are probably telling

him or her to pick it up but the child will just think that you are telling the statement; a

person who says 'There's a window open' might be asking for it to be closed. However,

examples are not confirm to a requests, but might showing as a statements.

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 Secondly, they might be confusions regarding 'skills' and 'strategies’. As we can see

language learners cannot transfer communication skills from their own mother tongues,

and these must be taught anew if the learners are to solve the 'problem of code and

context correlation which lies at the heart of the communicative ability'. It is better to

teach the students some ‘comprehension skill’ to avoid misunderstanding the words they

hear. One of the comprehension skills we can learn is by ‘negotiating meaning’. If a

foreigner ask me where I live, I may answer 'Malaysia' or 'Sabah' or 'Penampang', or the

name of the exact road, depending on the reason that he or she asked me and how well

they think they know my state. If I answer 'Kota Kinabalu' and he answer 'Which part of

Kota Kinabalu?' they are telling me that they want more specific information. (Michael

Swan, p. 2-10)

Third, the idea of a semantic syllabus. Language courses has too many components,

and the relationships between the components are also complex, for someone to master

every structures, functions, notions, or anything else in the language. So as teachers we

need to take into consideration when we decide what to teach to a particular group of

learners. The best way to teach is how to combine eight or so syllabuses (functional,

notional, situational, topic, phonological, lexical, structural, skills) into a considerable

teaching programme such as debate or role-play. This is to teach our students to operate

key junctions such as, greeting, agreeing, warning, etc.

Lastly, the 'real life' fallacy in materials design and methodology. Sometimes teachers

feel guilty of not being communicative. For example, teachers will always ask question

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based on the school syllabus. So most of the students would tend to revise the topic

before the lesson is touch so they would know what will the teacher is going to teach the

next day, so they will put a mind set that they are no danger when the teacher ask them a

questions in the class because they are already came well prepared. But, when they go out

in the real world there will be no guidance when they are facing a random question from

a stranger. So it should be clear that effective learning can involve various kinds of

situations from school-based to real-life behaviour (Michael Swan, p. 76-84).

5.0 Activities and Techniques in CLT

5.1 Techniques in CLT

The activities that are guided by the communicative approach are characterized into

by trying to produce meaningful and real communication at all levels. Skills may be

emphasized more than systems. The lessons are learner-centered and authentic materials

may be used.

Types of exercises and activities compatible with CLT are unlimited and focused

more on information sharing, negotiation of meaning and interaction. CLT uses almost

every activity that engaged learners into authentic communication.

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5.2 Materials in CLT

There are a lot of materials that have been used to support communicative approach

in language teaching. In CLT, the materials used are a way of influencing the quality of

classroom interaction and language use. There are currently three types of materials used

in CLT, which are text-based, task-based and realia.

Text-based materials are like textbooks that are designed to direct and support CLT.

Sometimes, the table contents in these textbooks suggest a kind of grading and

sequencing of language practice, which are unlikely to be found in in structurally

organized texts.

Task-based materials on the other hand are varieties of games, role-play, simulations,

and any task based communication activities that have been prepared to support CLT

classes. They are in the form of exercise handbooks, cue card, activity cards, and

interaction booklet.

Realia are language materials authentic to native speakers in the target language or in

other word, “from life” materials. These includes newspapers, signs, magazines,

advertisements, and picture containing words.

Materials used in CLT are language materials authentic to native speakers in the

target language. Examples of these materials used are real newspaper articles, radio or

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television broadcast, weather forecast, menus, and timetables in the target language.

The materials used however, are not always suitable for all learners’ level of

proficiency in the target language. For high intermediate level of proficiency, the earlier

mentioned materials are very much suitable. For lower proficiency in the target language,

those language materials may not be possible to use. It is possible to use materials that do

not contain a lot of language, but can generate a lot of discussion such as realia for

learners with lower proficiency in the target language.

5.3 Types of Activities in CLT

1. Task-completion activities

Classroom tasks that focus on using the learner’s language resources to complete

a task. Such as, puzzles, games, or map-reading.

2. Information-gathering activities

Learners are required to use their linguistic resources to collect information. In

this activity, they will conduct surveys, interviews, or searches.

3. Opinion-sharing activities

Learners will compare values, opinions, or beliefs. For instance, a ranking task

where learners will list a few qualities in order of priority that they might consider

in choosing a date or spouse.

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 4. Information-transfer activities

These activities require learners to take information that is presented in one form,

and represent it in a different form. For example, they may read instructions on

how to get from A to B, and then draw a map showing the sequence.

5. Role plays

Learners are assigned roles and will improvise a scene or exchange based on

given information or clues (Richards, p. 14-19).

5.4 Examples of Activities in CLT

 Word Game

Instructions:

1. Students are divided into groups.

2. The teacher will hand out a jar containing series of random words or words from

specific categories.

3. One student from each group will take turn to pick a word from the jar

4. The student then will have to create a meaningful sentence by using the word and

students from other groups will take turn to respond to the last student’s sentence.

This will result in a conversation

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 Example:

Student A from group 1 picked “today”, student A from group 2 picked the word

“rain”, and student A from group 3 picked the word “ice-cream”.

Student A1: Do you want to go out today?

Student A2: It looks like it is going to rain.

Student A3: but I want to buy some ice-cream.

 Three Blind Mice

Instructions:

1. The teacher will set up a maze-like environment and put a prize at the end of the

maze.

2. The students will be in pairs. 3 pairs will go on each round. One person from each

pair will be blindfolded and the other will serve as instructors to guide their

partner through the maze.

3. The instructors have to guide their partners by giving them clear instructions on

how to get to the end of the maze. The first team to reach the end will obtain the

prize.

4. Students who are waiting for their turn can act as distractors.

Example:

Student A will guide his/her partner by giving them clear instructions. Other students

will make soft distractions.

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 Student A: Move 3 steps forward and take a leap. Turn right and keep moving…

Other students: *animal noise* *vehicle passing by* *light singing*

 Blind Scavenger Hunt

Instructions:

1. The students will be in pairs. One of them will be blindfolded and the other will

be instructors that will guide their partners.

2. The teacher will scatter around the treasures and prepare a list for each pairs.

3. The list will be given to the instructors. Each pair will have to find every item on

the list in order to win.

4. The first team to obtain all items will be the winner.

5. The instructors must give clear instructions to their partner.

Example:

Pair 1 is required to find “ball, pen, shoe, and apple”. Student A will guide his/her

partner by giving them clear instructions on how to obtain the items.

Student A: The first item on the list is a ball. You would have to walk 6 steps forward.

Continue walking 4 steps…and stop! Turn to your left, walk 3 steps forward...and

stop! Bend down. The ball is just in front of you.

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 Comic Strip Stories

Instructions:

1. A student will tell a story based on a comic strip.

2. The listener will be given a bunch of comic strip images which will contain comic

strip images that are not related to the story.

3. The listener must arrange the comic strip images according to the chronology of

the story within the time limit.

4. Teacher should encourage the listener to ask comprehension questions if the

narrative is not clear.

Example:

Student A tells a story of a man’s daily routine. “(1) George would wake up at 6.58 in

the morning. (2) After waking up, George would head to the shower. (3) After a

refreshing shower, George would drink his morning coffee and while reading the

newspaper.”

The listener then will arrange the given comic strip images according to the right

sequence.

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References

Breshneh, Ashraf Hosseini & Riasati, Mohammad Javad. (2014). Communicative Language

Teaching: Characteristics and Principles. International Journal of Language Learning and

Applied Linguistics World, 6(4), 436-445.

Richards, Jack C. (2006). Communicative Language Teaching Today. 32 Avenue of the Americas,

New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Richards, Jack C. & Rodgers, Theodore S. (1986). Approaches and Methods in Language

Teaching. United States of America: Cambridge University Press.

Swan, Michael. (1985). A Critical Look At Communicative Approach (1). ELT Journal Volume,

39/1, 1-12.

Swan, Michael. (1985). A Critical Look At Communicative Approach (2). ELT Journal Volume,

39/2, 76-87.

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