Algebraic Structures

Javier San Martı́n

April 3, 2022

1 Excercise 1 Let G = U(Z/18Z)

1.1 Is G cyclic? Decompose G as the direct product of
two proper subgroups. Is this decomposition unique?
¯ 5̄4 = 13,
Yes, It is cyclic, just consider the element 5̄, 5̄2 = 7̄,5̄3 = 17, ¯ 5̄5 =
¯ 5̄ = 1̄
11, 6

¯
The group G is equal to ⟨7̄⟩⟨17⟩. We are going to see this by computing the
order of the product.
¯
⟨7̄⟩ = {1̄, 7̄, 13}
¯ = {1̄, 17}
⟨17⟩ ¯
The order of the product is:
¯
|⟨7̄⟩||⟨17⟩|
= ¯ =6
|⟨7̄⟩| ∩ ⟨17⟩|
So as 6 is the order of the group is pretty clear that the product is G.
This is the unique decomposition, notice that the unique proper subgroups are
¯ and ⟨17⟩,(as
⟨7̄⟩ = ⟨13⟩ ¯ G is cyclic has a unique subgroup for each divisor of
the order group) those are the groups that we have used, so there are not more
posible decomposition.

1.2 Let H =⟨(−1, ¯ −1)⟩

¯ G × G. Decompose (G × G)/H
as a direct product of cyclic subgroups. How many
subgroups K are there such that H ≤ K ≤ G × G? Is
there a subgroup H ≤ G × G such that (G × G)/H
is cyclic of order 4?
As |H| = 2 the order of the quotient is 36 2 = 18. With the aim of decompose
the group we have to find the element of the maximum order, this order is less
or equal of 6, as if we take an element(x̄, ȳ), the order of this element(in G ×
G) is the [order(x̄),order(ȳ)] ≤ 6 and of course in the quotient the inequality
still holds.

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The element (5̄, 1̄)H has order 6,as ⟨(5̄, 1̄)H⟩ = Gx{1}H, as the unique element
in Gx{1} which belongs to H is the trivial one, the order of the element is indeed
6.
Now we have to find an element of order 18 6 = 3, which intersects trivially
with the previous subgroup. Is easy to see that the coset (1̄, 13)H ¯ has order
3,we need this coset to intersects trivially with the previous one. In order to
check that we can think about how the intersection will look, It would be of
course a subgroup of both groups but as the second one has order 3, which is a
prime, for Lagrange theorem the unique possible subgroups are the trivial one
or the whole subgroup, the intersection can be the whole group for instance if
¯
we pick (1̄, 13)H,this element cant be any element in Gx{1}H, as the ”division”
¯ which is clearly not in H.
is Gx{13}
This implies that G × G/H=⟨(1̄, 13)H⟩⟨(
¯ 5̄, 1̄)H⟩.

We are going to use the correspondence theorem and find the amount of sub-
groups of G x G/H and that will be the amount of subgroups of G x G which
contains H. The possible orders for the subgroups are the divisors of the order
of G x G/H, which is 18, so 2,3,6,9. The possible subgroups of order two are
the ones in which the [order(x̄),order(ȳ)]=2n and in the quotient is 2, but as H
has order 2 there are two option or order 2 or order 4(each options corresponds
to the divisors of 2), but this last order is impossible in G x G.
So it must have order 2,the options are or both x̄ and ȳ are equal to an element
of order 2, one of them is equal to an element of order 2 and the other to the
neutral. The element of order 2 is unique as G is cycle and is −1, ¯ but (−1,
¯ −1)
¯
¯
is in H, so we chose the subgroup ⟨(−1, 1̄)⟩ which is not in H and has order two,
and should be pretty clear that the other option ⟨(1̄, −1)⟩¯ is the same in the
quotient. So in total there is just a subgroup of order 2.

We can look now for the subgroups of order 3, which are also cyclic as 3 is
a prime, so we now looking for a element which order is a multiple of 3 in G x
G and 3 in the quotient, but notice that there exits two option either 3 or 6, so
we need [order(x̄),order(ȳ)]=3, the options are the same as in the previous case
¯ 1̄)⟩H, ⟨(13,
⟨(7̄, 1̄)⟩H=⟨(13, ¯ 7̄)⟩H=⟨(13,¯ 7̄)⟩H,⟨(13,
¯ 13)⟩H=⟨(
¯ ¯
7̄, 7̄)⟩H,⟨(1̄, 7̄)⟩H=⟨(1̄, 13)⟩H.
The remainders are options in which the order of the element is 6 but 3 in the
quotient, but this are options which are indeed an element of order 3 multiplied
by an element in H, so this options has already been taking into account as we
have checked the ones of order 3. So of order 3 are 4 in total.

If we want to get the ones or order 6 that will be clearly product of subgroups
of order 2 and 3, as those subgroups are finite abelian an 6 is not a prime can be
decomposed as a direct product of groups of order 2 and 3. In this case we have
just one element subgroup of order 2 and 4 options of order 3, so all possible
combinations are 4 times 1 which is 4, all of them different as the subgroups of
order 3 are all different.

Now just the subgroups of order 9 are left, there is at least one as if you combine

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two different subgroups of order 3 if they are different the result is a subgroup of
order 9. But no more, as if there were 2 subgroups of that order the product of
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them should have order= order(intersection) , this number should be less or equal
to 18 and the intersection should be a divisor of 9 so the unique option is the
order of intersection to be 9 so both are equal.
Finding a subgroup H, such that G x G/H is cyclic of order 4 is impossible
because the element generating G x G/H has to have order a multiple of 4 in
G x G but an element cant have a order multiple of 4 in G x G, as the order of
an element is the [order(x̄), order(ȳ)], and 4 is not an option if we have in mind
that 1,2,3,6 are the options for the orders of x̄, therefore such H dose not exit.

1.3 If H = ⟨(7̄, 2)⟩ G × Z, what are the orders in (G ×

Z)/H of (5̄, 0)H and (7̄, 1)H? Which of the following
elements in (G × Z)/H coincide?:
((5̄, 0)H)2 , ((1̄, 1)H)2 , ((1̄, 0)H)3 , ((1̄, 1)H)3
Decompose (G X Z)/H as a direct product of cyclic
subgroups.
We want to figure it out the order of some elements in (G × Z)/H, we just need
to compute their powers and see when the element is the identity (x̄, ȳ)H = H
iff (x̄, ȳ) ∈ H iff is a power of ⟨(7̄, 2)⟩. We take (5̄, 0)H, looking at the second
element we notice that it will always be 0, there are just one element in H with
the second element equal 0 the trivial one, so we need the first element to be
the identity,as 5̄ has order 6, the order order of (5̄, 0)H is 6 again. We do the
same with (7̄, 1)H, notice in this case as the second element is 1, it just coincide
with the second element of H in the even powers, (7̄, 1)2n = (7̄2n , 2n) this has
to be equal to (7̄, 2)n = (7̄n , 2n), this happens iff 7̄n = 1̄, the first occurrence is
clearly n=3 as the order of 7̄ is 3, but we are raising our element to 2n, so the
order of (7̄, 1) is 6.
In order to see what of this elements coincide
((5̄, 0)H)2 = (7̄, 0)H, ((1̄, 1)H)2 = (1̄, 2)H, ((1̄, 0)H)3 = (1̄, 0)H, ((1̄, 1)H)3 =
(1̄, 3) It is clear at first glance that the fourth one dose not coincide with anyone
else as the second term is odd but in the others is even, so the difference can
not be in H, for the others we compute the three differences.

(7̄, 0)H ∗ ((1̄, 0)H)−1 = (7̄, 0)H

(1̄, 2)H ∗ ((1̄, 0)H)−1 = (1̄, 2)H

(1̄, 2)H ∗ ((7̄, 0)H)−1 = (13,
¯ 2)H
So all of them are clearly different from each other.

We want to see first the amount of elements in GxZ/H, all elements in H are
of the form (5¯2 , 2)n first we are going to fix the second element to be even,

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so we are considering the numbers of the form, (5¯m , 2n)H if we consider the
six different powers of 5 and one fix n, for instance n=0, this will be all dif-
ferent cosets with the second element even,6 in total, if we pick any coset like
¯ , −2n)H = (5m−2n
that (5¯m , 2n)H = (5¯m , 2n) ∗ (5−2n ¯ , 0)H which is an ele-
ment of the form we mention. If we fix the second element as odd the exactly
same will happen for instance lets say we take the second element as one, so
¯ , −2n) = (5m−2n
(5¯m , 2n + 1) ∗ (5−2n ¯ , 1)H so the total amount of elements is 12.
As GxZ/H is a abelian finite subgroup can be decomposed into a direct product
of cyclic subgroups, in order to doing that we take an element of order as bigger
as possible.It is clear that the maximum order in the quotient is 6, as if you
get an element ((x̄, y)H)6 =(1̄, 6y)H = (7̄, 2)H)3 y = H. We can take ⟨(5̄, 0)H⟩
which have order 6 as we see and as the order of the group is 12 we just need
a subgroup of order 2 which intersect trivially, for instance ⟨(5̄, 1)H⟩ as (5̄, 1)H
as it’s second element is odd, it dose not belong to the first subgroup, so the
order of the product is 6*2=12, so G x Z/H=⟨(5̄, 0)H⟩ ∗ ⟨(5̄, 1)H⟩

1.4 Find, if they exist, an injective homomorphism f:

G → Z/18Z, a surjective homomorphism g: G×G
→ Z/6Z and a non-trivial homomorphism h: G →
U(Z/5Z). Is there a group epimorphism : G × Z →
(Z/6Z) × (Z/2Z) such that π((7̄, 2)) = (0̄, 0̄)?
As G is cyclic of order 6 and Z/18Z is cyclic of order 18, and 6 divides 18, there
exits a natural homeomorphism which map a generator of G for instance 5̄ to
a element of order 6 of Z/18Z, for instance 3̄,so f(5̄n )=3̄n for any n integer. We
can check if it defines a homeomorphism but it is pretty obvious that the answer
will be yes.
First we see if it is well defined, if 5̄n = 5̄m then we divide m by 6, m = 6c + k.
The same can be done for n, and both of them for being equal must have the
same residual as 6 is the order of the group. So we see that f (5̄m ) = f (5̄6c+k ) =
3̄(6c + k) = 3̄6c + 3̄k = 0̄ + 3̄k. We can do the same with n but is clear that the
same will happen so the function is indeed well defined.
As is well defined all is gonna work, lets check it is an homeomorphism, f (5̄n ∗
5̄m ) = f (5̄n+m ) = 3̄(n + m) = 3̄n + 3̄m = f (5̄n ) ∗ f (5̄m ), yes it is, and we
compute the kernel and if it is trivial it will be an injective one as we want.
f (5̄n ) = 0̄ iff 3̄n = 0̄ iff n is a multiple of 6, but as the order of 5̄ is also 6 then
5̄n = 0̄.
We look for a surjective homeomorphism from G x G to Z/6Z, we are goint to
take advantage of the fact that G is isomorphic to Z/6Z as both are cyclic of
order 6, so we are going to extend that isomorphism somehow to G x G, as in
the previous example for us all x̄ ∈ G are 5̄n .

g(5̄n , 1̄) = n̄

We can check as in the previous one that is well defined but the same will hap-
pen, g((5̄n , 1̄) ∗ (5̄m , 1̄)) = g(5̄n+m , 0̄) = n +
¯ m = n̄ + m̄ = g(5̄n , 1̄) ∗ g(5̄m , 1̄). Is

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surjective as n goes from 0 to 5,the same happens in Z/6Z(this of course if we
don’t allow repetitions).

We want an h non trivial homeomorphism from G to the U(Z/5Z), the U(Z/5Z)

are cyclic of order 4 as the order of 2̄ is 4. As given any h homeomorphism it
follows by the isomorphism theorem that G/Kerh is isomorphic to Imh, then
as Imh≤U(Z/5Z) and Kerh≤G. As both are cyclic G and U(Z/5Z) have a sub-
group for each divisor of the order, G has order 6 so has one of order 1,2,3,6.
U(Z/5Z) has order 4 so has one of order 1,2,4. As the order of G/Kerh is the
order divided, there are the same options 1,2,3,6, so 4 is not and option for the
order of the image as 4 is not a divisor of 6, but 2 it is. Let’s try the unique
sensible option, Imh should be the unique subgroup of order 2 and the Kerh
should be the unique subgroup of order 3 in G (|G/Kerh| = 6/|Kerh|).

¯
Imh=⟨4̄⟩ = {1̄, 4̄} and Kerh=⟨7̄⟩ = {1̄, 7̄, 13}(these are all the even powers
of 5̄. Now if we force this to happen
h(5̄n )= if n is even 1̄ or if n is odd 4̄ And the magic occurs, if we pick two
identical elements in G with different powers, the parity is preserve as the order
is 6 so as the difference between them are a multiple of 6, that means that either
both are even or both are odd, as it should be as the image should be the same.
If you combine any two elements there are 3 options even with even which is
even again, even with odd which is odd and odd with odd which is even. Notice
the same happen with the image if we identify the identity with even, and 4̄
with odd.

If we want to find a group epimorphism π : G × Z −→ (Z/6Z) × (Z/2Z)

such that π((7, 2)) = (0, 0), we take advantage of what we have done in the
previous exercise about the decomposition of G × Z/H, as the kernel of the
epimorphism is precisly H by the isomorphisim theorem there would be an iso-
morphism between G × Z/H and (Z/6Z) × (Z/2Z). And in fact there is, as
both can be decomposed as a product of two cyclic subgroups in the first case
as ⟨(5̄, 0)H⟩ ∗ ⟨(5̄, 1)H⟩ and in the second as ⟨(1̄, 0̄)⟩ ∗ ⟨(0̄, 1̄)⟩. So the natural
epimorphism should be π((5̄, 0)n ∗ (5̄, 1)m , (7̄, 2)j ) = (n̄, m̄), this clearly works
somehow we take the image of the generators and extend the application as an
homeomorphism.

1.5 Which of the following subgroups of S6 are isomorphic

to G ?
⟨(12), (123)⟩, ⟨(12), (456)⟩, ⟨(12)(34)(56), (135)(246)⟩.
Is there a subgroup H ≤ A6 such that G ∼ = H ? Is there an injective
homomorphism f : G −→ A7 ?
⟨(12), (123)⟩ to be isomorphic would be enough to be cyclic of order 6, in
that case would have a unique subgroup for each divisor, but there are more
than two elements of order 2, (12), but also (123)(12) = (23), so it can’t be

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cyclic therefore neither isomorphic to G.

⟨(12), (456)⟩. As the generators are disjoint there are commutative, so every
element in the subgroup is writing as (12)n ∗ (456)m with n ∈ (0, 1)as the order
of (12) is two and m ∈ (0, 1, 2)as the order of (456) is three. The total amount
of elements is 2∗3 = 6, and there exits a generator of the whole group (12)(456),
((12)(456))n = (12)n (456)n = id iff n is a multiple of two and 3 so the order of
(12)(456) must be 6. As is a cyclic group of order 6, it is isomorphic to G.

⟨(12)(34)(56), (135)(246)⟩. We can compute (12)(34)(56) conjugated with (135)(246),

this is ((135)(246))−1 ∗ (12)(34)(56) ∗ (135)(246) = ((135)(246))2 ∗ (12)(34)(56) ∗
(135)(246) = (12)(34)(56). So the group is commutative as both generators
commute, the order of the group is 6, as is the order of the product between the
groups generated by both generators(as the group is commutative), the inter-
section is trivial as the orders 2 and 3 are coprimes, notice that the intersection
is a subgroup of both of them(Lagrange theorem), so applying the formula
o(⟨(12)(34)(56)⟩ ∗ ⟨(135)(246)⟩)=o( ⟨(12)(34)(56)⟩)o(⟨(135)(246)⟩)/o({id})=6.
And just to conclude we can find the element of order 6 in the group, if we mul-
tiplied both generators the result is (145236) which has order 6, so the groups
is cyclic of order 6 and is isomorphic to G.

If we want to see if a subgroup of A6 is isomorphic to G is enough to see if

there exits an element of order 6 in A6 . If we represents an element in A6 as a
product of disjoint cycles of orders ri with i ∈ {1, 2, ..., n} and the sum of ri is 6.
Then we look for the ones that has order 6,6 will be [r1 , r2 , ..., rn ]. There are
two options, one of them has order 6, or one of order a multiple of 2 and other
of order a multiple of 3. If we add the condition that the sum must be 6, in the
first case the unique option is a lone cycle of order 6 and in the second case just
two cycles of order 2 and 3 and a fixed element.
If we compute the signature of this elements, a cycle of order 6 has signature
−16−1=5 = −1, which is odd, so it cant be a element in A6 , and two cycles of
order 2 and there and a fixed element, has signature −13−1=2 ∗−12−1=1 ∗1 = −1
so as it is also odd, it is impossible to find an element in A6 with order 6.

If there exits an injective homorphism between G an A7 applying isomor-

phism theorem, G would be isomorphic to a subgroup of A7 , so as before
we look for a element of order 6 in A7 . In this case it is possible, for in-
stance (12)(34)(567), this element has order [2, 2, 3] = 6 and the signature is
−12−1=1 ∗ −12−1=1 ∗ −13−1=2 = 1 so the signature is even and belongs to A7 .
As G is isomorphic to (12)(34)(567), the homeomorphism f is the same as the
isomorphism from G to (12)(34)(567).

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Exercise 2
In this problem we prove the following result, which shows that a
strong converse of Lagrange’s theorem is in most cases false: If G is
a finite group of order n and for each divisor d | n, G has exactly one
subgroup of order d then G is cyclic. (So unless G is cyclic, there exists
a divisor d of the group order such that either G has no subgroup of
order d or it has more than one of such subgroups.)
1. Show that if a group has a unique subgroup of a given finite
order then that subgroup is normal. (Hint. What is the order
of H g for a finite subgroup H ≤ G, g ∈ G ?)
In order to prove that given a subgroup of finite order, if it is the unique
of that order, then is normal, we consider H(H={h1 , h2 , ..., hn is the men-
tioned subgroup) conjugated with a fixed g, H g = {hg1 , hg2 , ..., hgn }. This
subgroup H g has order less or equal to n, and as given two different el-
ements in H, the elements conjugated are different the order is indeed n,
so as H is the unique subgroup of that order, then H g = H. This can be
done with all the elements g ∈ G so H is normal as H g = H ∀g ∈ G
2. Assume that G satisfies the hypothesis. Show that if n = pe11 . . . perr
is the prime factor decomposition of n, the subgroup Pi of or-
der pei i is cyclic (Pi is called a Sylow pi -subgroup of G ). (Hint.
Fix 1 ≤ i ≤ r and let Nj the number   of elements in Pi of order
pji , 0 ≤ j ≤ ei . Argue why Nj ≤ φ pji . What is N0 + N1 + · · · + Nei ?
And φ(1) + φ(p) + · · · + φ (pei i )? What can you conclude?)
We consider Pi which is the unique subgroup of G of order pji and we
need to prove that is cyclic. We are  going
 to show why Nj (the number of
elements in Pi of order pji ) is ≤ φ pji . Notice that there are two options,
or there are not elements of that order, in that case the inequality holds
trivially or there are elements of that order, in that case the group is cyclic
as a the subgroup of order pji is the same as the generated by an element
of order pji , and all the j
 powers which are not divisors of pi also generates
the subgroup, so φ pji is more or equal to the generators in Pi so the
inequality is fulfill.

The sum N0 + N1 + · · · + Nei represents the number of elements in Pi as

there are the unique possibilities for the order of elementsin Pi , this is pei i .
On the other hand φ(1)+φ(p)+· · ·+φ (pei i ), replacing φ pji = pji −pij−1 ,
 
the result of the sum turn to be pei i . Therefore Nj = φ pji , this allows
us to conclude that in the case of j=ei by the argument given in the equal-
ity, Pi is cyclic as there exits an element of order pei i which generates the
subgroup.
3. Conclude that G is cyclic.

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As all Pi are cyclic we can take a generator of all of them, the product
of this generators will have order [pe11 , .., perr ] = n so is a generator of the
whole Groups wich means is cyclic.