Differentiated Planning

DEFERENTIATED PLANNING
UNIT 1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
THE CONCEPT OF LEARNING AND CURRICLUM PLANNING --------------------------- 2
UNIT 2 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 21
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING BASIC COMPONENTS OF THE CURRICULUM AND

SYLLABUS FOR INCLUSIVE JHS SETTINGS-------------------------------------------------- 21
UNIT 3 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 29
CREATIVE APPROACHES, EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING AND PROBLEM-SOLVING

STRATEGIES--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29
UNIT 4 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 43
USING QUESTONING AND TALK FOR LEARNING APPROACHES-------------------- 43
UNIT 5 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 46
BARRIERS, THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION

MULTIMEDIA DEVELOPMENT AND USE ----------------------------------------------------- 46
UNIT 6: ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53
VISUAL DESIGN AND INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA PRODUCTION ----------------------- 53
UNIT 7 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 57
UNIT 8 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 61
MANAGING INCLUSIVE LEARNING SETTINGS/CLASSROOMS ----------------------- 61
UNIT 9 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 66
LEARNING PLANNING AND PREPARATION ------------------------------------------------- 66
COMPILED BY ALEX MAWUNYA TAGBOR Page 1

UNIT 1
THE CONCEPT OF LEARNING AND CURRICLUM PLANNING
LEARNING
Farrant (1980) defines learning as a process by which one acquires knowledge, skills and
attitudes that cannot be attributed to inherited behaviour pattern or physical growth. Learning is
considered as an activity of acquiring ideas, values, skills and competencies. Learning has to do
with an individual’s ability to show, for example, new intellectual ability, acquired attitudes and
values, and motor skills due to mental process and reaction to environmental conditions. Cox and
Ewan (1988) also define learning as a process of acquiring new habits, knowledge and skills,
which enable students to do something they could not do before.
Learning is also conceived of as a change in behaviour or disposition that persists over a period
of time. Gagne (1985) defines learning as a change in human disposition or capacity that persists
over a period of time. It needs to be noted that a change in behaviour, which results from
maturation, drug or fatigue cannot be described as learning as they do only provide a
temporal change. Shuell (1986) also defines learning as an enduring change in behaviours, or in
the capacity to behave in a certain way, resulting from practice or other forms of experience. The
view that learning results from experience is corroborated in the definition given by Slavin
(1991) as learning being a change in an individual that results from experience. A change in
behaviour should last before it can be described as learning. After a learning process, if one is
able to do what he/she could not do or refrain from certain behaviour or put up a new behaviour,
then it is deemed that learning has taken place. Three features can be identified with learning;
i. Capability of doing something distinct and different from what people used to do
previously.
ii. An enduring element that is durable for a time
iii. It has the element of practice and feedback (Shunck, 2000 as cited in Ntim, 2010)

Learning is a behavioural change is an outcome of education and training. It is through education
and training that learners acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes, which demonstrate that
learning has taken place. It is realised from the foregoing that learning is considered as a process
and a product. There could be self-directed learning or learning directed by others. In self-
directed learning, learners acquire some knowledge and skills through their own efforts. This
takes place through experiences, observation and perception. Human beings learn new and
different things throughout their life time. Learning also does not take place in only schools; it
starts from birth till death, from cradle to grave. People also learn through the direction of tutors
and institutions, from crèche through to university.
OTHER DEFINITIONS OF LEARNING
 Learning is being active and purposeful. Proper learning takes place where the learner
is actively engaged in the learning process. So active participation of pupil is essential in
the learning process. Moreover, the more intense the purpose of the learner, the more
rapid learning will take place.
 Learning is intelligent and creative. Learning involves an intelligent interpretation of
the situation, and selecting appropriate response. To do so involves intelligent and
creative thinking.
 Learning affects the conduct of learners. Learning affects the individual to adjust
himself to the environment. This brought about through some sort of change modification
of one’s behaviour. Thus, the behaviour or conduct of the individual undergoes change
on accounts of learning.
 Learning is the product of the environment. It essentially is adaptation and adjustment
to the environment-which has a great influence upon learning. Learning thus, cannot be
divorced from the environment.
TYPES OF LEARNING
Perceptual learning: here is where an individual observe and perceives things and
objects in his/her surroundings and comes to acquire knowledge about them. This
happens through the five senses of the person. The knowledge of the different objects

in the surroundings (environment) provides knowledge and acts as the basis of further
knowledge, which may be general or abstract in nature.
Conceptual learning: the things one perceives in his/her environment leads to
concepts formation or conceptual learning. This means that knowledge of concrete
objects leads to abstract thinking. On the basis of concrete and particular facts, a
generalisation or a concepts is formed so a child proceeds from particular to general,
and in due time, forms many concepts or abstract idea-which forms the basis of all
knowledge and thinking.
Associative learning: a person not acquires new knowledge in isolation in separate
fragments. New facts get associated with the old acquired facts giving rise to new
knowledge. Thus knowledge of the individual grows by associating new knowledge
with the old knowledge of the individual grows by association new knowledge with
the old knowledge. This is called associative learning.
Attitudinal learning: this involves our forming of attitudes. Attitudes are the way we
are disposed for certain particular ideas, things or persons. For example, a child
develops an attitude of affection towards his/her mother, an attitude of respect
towards his/her teachers and elders, and an attitude of dislike towards the persons or
things he/her does not like. The development of attitude forms the basis of one’s
behaviour towards others. Positive attitudes help in the formation of positives basis of
behavior.
Skill learning: skill means ability to do something very well. A person learns to do
many things throughout his/her life. In education, the schoolgirl or boy needs to
develop skill in speaking reading, writing and critical listening. These are
fundamental skills, which must be mastered to lay a firm foundation for future
education
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING

We can now deduce some general characteristics of learning as follows:
Learning is adjustment-the individual must adjust to his environment; he/she
must learn to adjust to the changes that take place around him.

Learning is growth-the child must grow through learning. An immature child
is developed into a mature person through the process of learning.
Learning is organising experience-learning is not like adding one experience
to the other; it is, rather, organizing the new experience with the…….
LEARNING STYLES
Learning styles refer to the difference in learners’ ability to accumulate as well as assimilate
information. They are learners’ preferred ways of perceiving and processing information (Kolb,
1984). Learners have different learning styles and learn better through different means. The
methods that allow learners to gather and use knowledge in a specific manner differ
significantly. Educators and facilitators need to recognise and appreciate the fact that the learners
do exhibit different learning styles in the classroom and during training programmes, and have to
adapt and adopt appropriate approaches to teaching that would bring about good results. They
need to understand and appreciate that some learners are good at listening; some are good at
watching while some others are good at manipulating. If educators understand their students
learning styles, it helps them vary their teaching styles and approaches (using lecture, discussion,
power point presentation, charts and graphics, audio, video, audio-visual). Using varied
approaches to teaching a topic helps to cater for the individual needs of differentiated instruction’
(different groups in the same class learning or performing different activities).
TYPES OF LEARNING STYLES
A. Visual learners
The concept of “visual learners” refers to people who learn through what they are able to see.
Visual learners learn well through observing and watching. They are able to describe things well
when they vividly see them. They associate information with images and techniques. Such
learners like visual materials such as diagrams, sketches, projectors, flipcharts, graphs, maps,
pictures and photos. They are able to picture in their minds things, places, events and
personalities and vividly give accounts of them in a more efficient manner. Visual learners are

also good writers and tend to perform creditably well on written exercises. Visual learners like
sitting in front of class in order to catch a glimpse of and have better views of instructions that
are delivered. It is prudent for teachers to ensure that such students can see words clearly written
on chalkboards, use pictures and illustrations when describing things, write assignment on board
and use overhead transparencies to satisfy visual learners in class. Also, teachers need to use
visual materials in most lessons to increase the drive factor and concentration in class and
eventually assist visual learners to learn effectively. In addition, teachers can help visual learners
to learn by doing pictorial demonstration and presenting some information to them with videos.
Auditory learners
This describes learners who learn best through listening or hearing. Auditory learners absorb
information in a more efficient manner through sounds, music and discussions, and they are good
listeners. They tend to better understand and remember things that they hear. Auditory learners
are able to recall information well after hearing it rather than only reading it. They also tend to
do better on oral presentation, reports, and theoretical aspects of subjects.
Auditory learners enjoy debates or debating, participation in discussion, interviewing and prefer
listening to news and presentation. Auditory learners enjoy oral reading choral reading and
listening to recorded books. They are good at repeated reading. So in this era of e-materials,
books on tapes or audio-books are useful for them to listen frequently to and learn the contents.
At the higher educational level, such learners record lectures and discussions, and play them later
to learn the contents. To help auditory learners to learn well, educators need to repeat words and
concepts aloud, organise debates encourage oral presentations and allow students to record
lectures and discussions. Again, educators have to speak clearly, consciously use voice and
languages, and ask questions clearly to help auditory learners to benefit from instructions;
educators also need to employ teaching methods that engage students in debates, discussions,
presentations and so on to benefit auditory learners in their class.
Kinesthetic Tactile learners.
These are learners who learn better through doing, touching, moving and working. Tactile has to
do with the sense of touch and kinaesthetic concerns the sense of movement. Tactile learners like

hands-on activities in laboratory, role play, dramatisation, making models, manipulating objects,
drawing, discovering ideas and embarking on fieldtrips and excursions. They prefer performing
tasks and exploring and conducting experiments. Kinesthetic learners do not like sitting long for
instructions and they want to take part in physical activities. They take delight in touching,
feeling and personally experiencing learning materials during instructions. Educators need to
provide learners with hands-on activities, assign them projects to perform, allow breaks during
instructions to allow movement, use visual aids and objects during instructions for learners and
use them to practise, organise role plays dramatisations, field trips and internships or attachments
for learners to have practical activities of learning tasks. There should also be a lot of practical
exercises, engagement, demonstration and group activities.
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION AND LEARNING
Differentiating instruction refers to teaching the same material to all students using a variety of
instructional strategies, or it may require the teacher to deliver lessons at varying levels of
difficulty based on the ability of each student. It also means instruction factoring students’
individual learning styles and levels of readiness first before designing a lesson plan. Research
on the effectiveness of differentiation shows this method benefits a wide range of students, from
those with learning disabilities to those who are considered high ability
Factor to consider when practice differentiation in the classroom may include;
 Design lessons based on students’ learning styles.
 Group students by shared interest, topic, or ability for assignments.
 Assess students’ learning using formative assessment.
 Manage the classroom to create a safe and supportive environment.
 Continually assess and adjust lesson content to meet students’ needs.

HISTORY OF DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION
The roots of differentiated instruction go all the way back to the days of the one-room
schoolhouse, where one teacher had students of all ages in one classroom. As the educational
system transitioned to grading schools, it was assumed that children of the same age learned
similarly. However in 1912, achievement tests were introduced, and the scores revealed the gaps
in student’s abilities within grade levels. In 1975, Congress passed the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), ensuring that children with disabilities had equal access to
public education. To reach this student population, many educators used differentiated
instruction strategies. Then came the passage of No Child Left Behind in 2000, which further

encouraged differentiated and skill-based instruction—and that’s because it works. Research by
educator Leslie Owen Wilson supports differentiating instruction within the classroom, finding
that lecture is the least effective instructional strategy, with only 5 to 10 percent retention after
24 hours. Engaging in a discussion, practicing after exposure to content, and teaching others are
much more effective ways to ensure learning retention.
WAYS TO DIFFERENTIATE INSTRUCTION
Teachers can differentiate instruction through four ways: 1) content, 2) process, 3) product,
and 4) learning environment.
1. Content
Fundamentally, lesson content should cover the standards of learning set by the school or state
educational standards. But some students in class may be completely unfamiliar with the
concepts in a lesson, some students may have partial mastery, and some students may already be
familiar with the content before the lesson begins.
What could be done is to differentiate the content by designing activities for groups of students
that cover various levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy (a classification of levels of intellectual behavior
going from lower-order thinking skills to higher-order thinking skills). The six levels are:
remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. Students who are
unfamiliar with a lesson could be required to complete tasks on the lower levels: remembering
and understanding. Students with some mastery could be asked to apply and analyze the content,
and students who have high levels of mastery could be asked to complete tasks in the areas of
evaluating and creating.
Examples of differentiating activities:
 Match vocabulary words to definitions.
 Read a passage of text and answer related questions.
 Think of a situation that happened to a character in the story and a different outcome.
 Differentiate fact from opinion in the story. I
 Identify an author’s position and provide evidence to support this viewpoint.
 Create a PowerPoint presentation summarizing the lesson.

2. Process
Each student has a preferred learning style, and successful differentiation includes delivering the
material to each style: visual, auditory and kinesthetic, and through words. This process-related
method also addresses the fact that not all students require the same amount of support from the
teacher, and students could choose to work in pairs, small groups, or individually. And while
some students may benefit from one-on-one interaction with you or the classroom aide, others

may be able to progress by themselves. Teachers can enhance student learning by offering
support based on individual needs.
Examples of differentiating the process:
 Provide textbooks for visual and word learners.
 Allow auditory learners to listen to audio books.
 Give kinesthetic learners the opportunity to complete an interactive assignment online.

3. Product
The product is what the student creates at the end of the lesson to demonstrate the mastery of the
content. This can be in the form of tests, projects, reports, or other activities. You could assign
students to complete activities that show mastery of an educational concept in a way the student
prefers, based on learning style.
Examples of differentiating the end product:
 Read and write learners write a book report.
 Visual learners create a graphic organizer of the story.
 Auditory learners give an oral report.
 Kinesthetic learners build a diorama illustrating the story.

4. Learning environment
The conditions for optimal learning include both physical and psychological elements. A flexible
classroom layout is key, incorporating various types of furniture and arrangements to support
both individual and group work. Psychologically speaking, teachers should use classroom
management techniques that support a safe and supportive learning environment.
Examples of differentiating the environment:
 Break some students into reading groups to discuss the assignment.
 Allow students to read individually if preferred.
 Create quiet spaces where there are no distractions.

ADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION
 Research shows differentiated instruction is effective for high-ability students as well as

students with mild to severe disabilities.
 When students are given more options on how they can learn material, they take on more
responsibility for their own learning.
 Students appear to be more engaged in learning, and there are reportedly fewer discipline
problems in classrooms where teachers provide differentiated lessons.
Disadvantages of differentiated instruction
 Differentiated instruction requires more work during lesson planning, and many teachers
struggle to find the extra time in their schedule.
 The learning curve can be steep and some schools lack professional development
resources.
 Critics argue there isn’t enough research to support the benefits of differentiated
instruction outweighing the added prep time.
LEARNING STYLES VS. LEARNING STRATEGIES
Broadly speaking, learning styles can be defined as general approaches to language learning,
while learning strategies are specific ways learners choose to cope with language tasks in
particular contexts.
Learning strategies are the ways in which students learn, remember information, and study for
tests. They refer to the actions and behaviors (The strategies) that depend greatly on their own
learning styles.
On the other hand, learning styles refer to the general approaches that students use in acquiring a
new language or in learning any other subject.
Learning Styles
Each student has his/her own style of learning. As a result, we have different students with
different learning styles inside the classroom as shown below:
1. Visual or Spatial Learners
Visual learners need to see things to fully understand them. They learn best from visual objects
such as diagrams, charts, etc. They prefer to write things down.
2. Auditory or Musical Learners
They learn mainly through listening so they learn best through discussions and talking. They
benefit most from reading texts aloud and using a tape recorder.
3. Physical or Kinesthetic or Tactile Learners
Learners here learn through using their bodies, hands, and sense of touch. They can use their
muscles well so they can be used in playing, tidying, cleaning the board, collecting activity
books, etc. They learn best through using their hands making things, fitting things together, or
taking them apart so hands-on activities are ideal to help those students learn best.

4. Social or Interpersonal Learners
They prefer to learn in groups or with other people. They have the ability to understand others’
feelings and intentions.
5. Solitary or Intrapersonal Learners
Here, students prefer to work alone and use self-study. They have the ability to understand well
their own feelings, strengths, and weaknesses. They tend to write a personal diary, achieve
independent projects, discuss feelings about certain topics, express likes, and dislikes, etc.
6. Verbal or Linguistic Learners
They prefer using words, both in speech and writing.
7. Logical or Mathematical
They prefer using logic, reasoning, and systems.
LEARNING STRATEGIES
Many students use learning strategies automatically without any awareness of them. The role of
teachers here is to:
 Recognize their students’ learning strategies,
 Make them explicit to students, bring them to their attention, and talk about them.
 Encourage students to use them in the classroom
 Make them more effective to the learning process,
 Base teaching process and techniques on these strategies.
 Students use the following learning strategies most often when learning a language:
1. Cognitive Strategies
When they manipulate the language material using indirect ways, e.g. through reasoning,
analysis, note-taking, and synthesizing.
2. Metacognitive Strategies
When they identify preferences and the need for planning, monitoring mistakes, and evaluating
task success.
3. Memory-Related Strategies
When they link one item or concept with another but do not necessarily involve deep
understanding, e.g. using acronyms, sound similarities, images, keywords.

4. Compensatory Strategies
When they make up for missing knowledge using gestures, miming, or guessing the meaning
from the context.
5. Affective Strategies
When they manage their emotions by identifying their mood and anxiety level, talking about
feelings, rewarding themselves, and using deep breathing or positive self-talk.
6. Social Strategies
When they learn via interaction with others and understand the target culture, e.g. asking
questions, asking for clarification, asking for conversation help, talking with a native-speaking
partner, and exploring cultural and social norms.
NATURE OF CURRICULUM AND RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE CURRICULUM

AND SYLLABUS
When it comes to education, the two concepts which are commonly misconstrued are syllabus
and curriculum. Syllabus are the subjects as well as the topics covered in the course of study. It is
also considered as a guide to the teachers as well as to the students. It helps the students to know
about the subject in detail, why it is a part of their course of study, what are the expectations
from students, consequences of failure, etc. It contains general rules, policies, instructions, topics
covered, assignments, projects, test dates, and so on.
On the other hand, curriculum implies the chapters and academic content taught in school or
college. It alludes to the knowledge, skills and competencies students should learn during study.
In a theoretical sense, curriculum also refers to what is offered by the school or college. However,
practically it has a wider scope which covers the knowledge, attitude, behaviour, manner,
performance and skills that are imparted or inculcated in a student. It contains the teaching
methods, lessons, assignments, physical and mental exercises, activities, projects, study material,
tutorials, presentations, assessments, test series, learning objectives, and so on. The curriculum is
well planned, guided and designed by the government or the educational institution. It is aimed
at both physical and mental development of a student. It is the overall learning experience that a
student goes through during the particular course of study.
The fundamental difference between syllabus and curriculum is that the former is focused
towards a particular subject. Unlike, the latter, which is related to the all-round development of a
student. Similarly, there are other differences between these two that are discussed below:
BASIS FOR COMPARISON SYLLABUS CURRICULUM

1. Meaning Syllabus is the document that contains all the portion of the concepts covered in a
subject. Curriculum is the overall content, taught in an educational system or a course.
2. Origin Syllabus is a Greek term. Curriculum is a Latin term.
3. Set for A subject A course
4. Nature Descriptive Prescriptive
5. Scope Narrow Wide
6. Set out by Exam board Government or the administration of school, college or institute.
7. Term For a fixed term, normally a year. Till the course lasts.
8. Uniformity Varies from teacher to teacher. Same for all teachers.
KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SYLLABUS AND CURRICULUM

The basic differences between syllabus and curriculum are explained in the point given below:
The syllabus is described as the summary of the topics covered or units to be taught in the
particular subject. Curriculum refers to the overall content, taught in an educational system or a
course.
Syllabus varies from teacher to teacher while the curriculum is same for all teachers.
The term syllabus is a Greek origin, whereas the term curriculum is a Latin origin.
The curriculum has a wider scope than the syllabus.
The syllabus is provided to the students by the teachers so that they can take an interest in the
subject. On the other hand, normally the curriculum is not made available to the students unless
specifically asked for.
Syllabus is descriptive in nature, but the curriculum is prescriptive.
Syllabus is set for a particular subject. Unlike curriculum, which covers a particular course of
study or a program.
Syllabus is prepared by teachers. Conversely, a curriculum is decided by the government or the
school or college administration.
The duration of a syllabus is for a year only, but curriculum lasts till the completion of the course.
Conclusion
Curriculum and Syllabus are the terms of education, imparted to the students by teachers. It
means the knowledge, skills or qualifications that are passed on from one generation to another.
A subject syllabus is a unit of the curriculum. The two terms differ in a sense that curriculum is a
combination of some factors which helps in the planning of an educational program, whereas a
syllabus covers the portion of what topics should be taught in a particular subject.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
The curriculum development process systematically organizes what will be taught, who will be
taught, and how it will be taught. Each component affects and interacts with other components.
For example, what will be taught is affected by who is being taught (e.g., their stage of
development in age, maturity, and education). Methods of how content is taught are affected by
who is being taught, their characteristics, and the setting. In considering the above three essential
components, the following are widely held to be essential considerations in experiential
education in non-formal settings:
PHASES AND STEPS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
It also shows the interaction and relationships of the four essential phases of the curriculum
development process: ( I) Planning, (II) Content and Methods, (III) Implementation, and (IV)
Evaluation and Reporting. It is important to acknowledge that things do not always work exactly
as depicted in a model!
PHASE I: PLANNING
The planning phase lays the foundation for all of the curriculum development steps. The steps in
this phase include:
(1) Identify Issue/Problem/Need
The need for curriculum development usually emerges from a concern about a major issue or
problem of one or more target audience. This section explores some of the questions that need to
be addressed to define the issue and to develop a statement that will guide the selection of the
members of a curriculum development team. The issue statement also serves to broadly identify,
the scope (what will be included) of the curriculum content.
(2) Form Curriculum Development Team
Once the nature and scope of the issue has been broadly defined, the members of the curriculum
development team can be selected. Topics covered in this section include: (1) the roles and
functions of team members, (2) a process for selecting members of the curriculum development
team, and (3) principles of collaboration and teamwork. The goal is to obtain expertise for the
areas included in the scope of the curriculum content among the team members and develop an
effective team.
(3) Conduct Needs Assessment and Analysis
There are two phases in the needs assessment process. The first is procedures for conducting a
needs assessment. A number of techniques are aimed toward learning what is needed and

by whom relative to the identified issue. Techniques covered in this section include: KAP -
Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice Survey; focus groups; and environmental scanning.
Analysis, the second part of this needs assessment step, describes techniques on how to use the
data and the results of the information gathered. Included are: ways to identify gaps between
knowledge and practice; trends emerging from the data; a process to prioritize needs; and
identification of the characteristics of the target audience.
PHASE II: CONTENT AND METHODS
Phase II determines intended outcomes (what learners will be able to do after participation in
curriculum activities), the content (what will be taught), and the methods (how it will be taught).
Steps include:
State Intended Outcomes
Once the issue is defined, the curriculum team is formed, the needs assessed, analyzed and
prioritized, the next step is to refine and restate the issue, if needed, and develop the intended
outcomes or educational objectives. An intended outcome states what the learner will be able to
do as a result of participating in the curriculum activities.
This section includes: (1) a definition of intended outcomes, (2) the components of intended
outcomes (condition, performance, and standards), (3) examples of intended outcomes, and (4)
an overview of learning behaviors. A more complete explanation of the types and levels of
learning behaviours is included in the Addendum as well as intended outcome examples from
FAO population education materials.
Select Content
The next challenge in the curriculum development process is selecting content that will make a
real difference in the lives of the learner and ultimately society as a whole. At this point, the
primary questions are: "If the intended outcome is to be attained, what will the learner need to
know? What knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviours will need to be acquired and
practiced?"
The scope (breadth of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviours) and the sequence (order) of
the content are also discussed. Intended outcomes of population education with content topics is
provided in the Addendum section as an example and application of how intended outcomes are
linked with content.
Design Experiential Methods
After the content is selected, the next step is to design activities (learning experiences) to help
the learner achieve appropriate intended outcomes. An experiential learning model and it's
components (i.e., experience, share, process, generalize, and apply) are discussed in this section.
Additional topics include:
1. learning styles and activities appropriate for each style;
2. a list of types of activities (with descriptions);
3. an activity design worksheet for facilitators; and
4. brief discussions on learning environments and delivery modes.
Ten population education sample activity sheets along with tips for facilitators working with
youth and dealing with sensitive topics are included in the Addendum.
PHASE III: IMPLEMENTATION
Curriculum implementation therefore refers to how the planned or officially designed course of
study is translated by the teacher into syllabuses, schemes of work and lessons to be delivered to
students.
Produce Curriculum Product
Once the content and experiential methods have been agreed upon, the actual production of
curriculum materials begins. This section includes: 1) suggestions for finding and evaluating
existing materials; 2) evaluation criteria; and 3) suggestions for producing curriculum materials.
Test and Revise Curriculum
This step includes suggestions to select test sites and conduct a formative evaluation of
curriculum materials during the production phase. A sample evaluation form is provided.
Recruit and Train Facilitators
It is a waste of resources to develop curriculum materials if adequate training is not provided for
facilitators to implement it. Suggestions for recruiting appropriate facilitators are provided with a
sample three-day training program.
Implement Curriculum
Effective implementation of newly developed curriculum products is unlikely to occur without
planning. Strategies to promote and use the curriculum are discussed in this step.
PHASE IV: EVALUATION AND REPORTING
Curriculum evaluation refers to an ongoing process of collecting, analyzing, synthesizing, and
interpreting information to aid in understanding what students know and can do. It refers to the
full range of information gathered in the school district to evaluate (make judgments about)
student learning and program effectiveness in each content area.
Design Evaluation Strategies
Evaluation is a phase in the curriculum development model as well as a specific step. Two types
of evaluation, formative and summative, are used during curriculum development. Formative
evaluations are used during the needs assessment, product development, and testing steps.
Summative evaluations are undertaken to measure and report on the outcomes of the curriculum.
This step reviews evaluation strategies and suggests simple procedures to produce valid and
reliable information. A series of questions are posed to guide the summative evaluation process
and a sample evaluation format is suggested.
Reporting and Securing Resources
The final element in an evaluation strategy is "delivering the pay off (i.e., getting the results into
the hands of people who can use them). In this step, suggestions for what and how to report to
key shareholders, especially funding and policy decision makers, are provided and a brief
discussion on how to secure resources for additional programming.
PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

(a) Suitability to the age and mental level of the children
 What is to be given to the children in the form of learning experiences at a particular age
and grade level should suit their age and mental development
 The capacity for understanding, how children grow with age. The content of the study in
any subject should be formed to suit their mental ability.
(b) According to the specific interests of students
 Children will be able to learn better in fields where they have special tastes and
inclination of the mind.
 It is also found that at different stages of age groups, children have different interest
patterns.
 Interests of children also change according to circumstances and situations.
 Therefore learning experiences should be designed to suit the interests and tastes of the
age group of students.
(c) The curriculum should be environmentally centered
 The content of the learning experiences for children should be linked with the needs of
the environment in which they live.
 For example, children from rural areas can understand and grasp easily the information
which is directly concerned with their experiences in their own rural environment.
 The same thing applies to children in a various environments like urban areas, hilly areas,
etc.
(d) The principle of the comprehensive curriculum

 The curriculum must have the necessary details. List of topics to be covered does not
solve the purpose.
 Both teachers and students should know clearly what is expected of them, what is the
beginning and what is the end of the topic for the particular class.
 Material, aids, activities, life situations etc. should be listed in the curriculum.
(e) Principle of co-relation
 The curriculum should be such that all the subjects are correlated with each other.
 While designing the curriculum, it must be kept in mind that the subject matter of various
subjects has some relation to each other so that they help the child eventually.
(f) The principle of practical work
 Children are very active by nature.
 They like new things and can learn more by doing or by activity method.
 Therefore curriculum should be designed in such a way that it provides maximum
opportunity to the child for practical work with the help of concrete things.
(g) Principle of flexibility
 Instead of being rigid curriculum should show the sign of flexibility.
 The organization of the curriculum should be on the basis of individual differences as
every child is different from the other.
 Apart from these conditions of society go on changing, therefore, the curriculum must be
flexible enough to address the needs as aspirations of the society.
(h) Principle of forward-looking
 This principle asks for the inclusion of those topics, content and learning experiences that
may prove helpful to the students in leading their future life in a proper way.
(i) The principle of consultation with teachers
 Teachers play a key role in the implementation of the school curriculum of any grade or
stage.
 It is therefore quite essential to seek the proper involvement of the teachers in the
construction and development of the school curriculum.
(j) The principle of the joint venture

It is necessarily a joint venture where various experts are involved like educational psychologists,
educational technologists, curriculum specialists, evaluation specialists, teachers, subject matter
experts etc.
(k) The principle of availability of time and other resources
Curriculum is the means to realize the outcomes of the educational objectives of the school.
Implementation of the curriculum is equally important as curriculum construction. While
developing curriculum experts should also keep its implementation in mind. They should be
aware of the conditions of the schools and possible availability of time and resources available.
COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM
Four Major Components or Elements of Curriculum • Aims goals and objectives • Subject
matter/content • Learning experiences • Evaluation approaches
Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives
Aims, goals, and objectives can be simplified as “what is to be done”, the subject matter/content:
what subject matter is to be included, the learning experience” what instructional strategies,
resources and activities will be employed, and the evaluation approaches , while curriculum
evaluation is“ what methods and instruments will be used to assess the results of the curriculum.
The curriculum aims, goals and objectives spell out what is to be done. It tries to capture what
goals are to be achieved, the vision, the philosophy, the mission statement and objectives.
Further, it clearly defines the purpose and what the curriculum is to be acted upon and try what
to drive at.
Curriculum Content or Subject Matter
In the same manner, curriculum has a content. In here, it contains information to be learned in
school. It is an element or a medium through which the objectives are accomplished.
A primordial concern of formal education is primarily to transmit organized knowledge in

distilled form to a new generation of young learners.
The traditional sources of what is taught and learned in school is precisely the foundation of
knowledge, therefore, the sciences and humanities provide the basis of selecting the content of
school learning.
In organizing the learning contents, balance, articulation, sequence, integration, and continuity
form a sound content.
Curriculum Experience

Instructional strategies and methods will link to curriculum experiences, the core and heart of the
curriculum. The instructional strategies and methods will put into action the goals and use of the
content in order to produce an outcome.
These would convert the written curriculum to instruction. Moreover, mastery is the function of
the teacher direction and student activity with the teacher supervision.
Curriculum Evaluation
To be effective, all curricula must have an element of evaluation. Curriculum evaluation refer to
the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness or value of the program, process and
product of the curriculum. Several methods of evaluation came up. The most widely used is
Stufflebeam’s CIPP Model. The process in CIPP model is continuous and very important to
curriculum
In summary, the components of a curriculum are distinct but interrelated to each other. These
four components should be always present in a curriculum. I could say that these are essential
ingredients to have an effective curriculum.
For example, in a curriculum, evaluation is also important so one could assess whether the
objectives and aims have been meet or if not, he could employ another strategy which will really
work out.
Curriculum experience could not be effective if the content is not clearly defined. The aims,
goals and directions serve as the anchor of the learning journey, the content or subject matter
serve as the meat of the educational journey, curriculum experience serves as the hands –on
exposure to the real spectrum of learning and finally the curriculum evaluation serves as the
barometer as to how far had the learners understood on the educational journey.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF A SYLLABUS
 Provide contact information for instructor
 List office hours (including virtual office hours, if appropriate)
 State the current academic term
 Include the titles and authors of required textbooks, articles, websites, etc.
 List all assignments, quizzes, and exams
 Include course schedule
 Departmental requirements
2. Important components of a syllabus:

 Student learning outcomes SLOs. If the course is approved for General Education credit,
consult the department chair to determine which General Education SLOs the department
has assigned for that course. Courses typically also meet program-level (e.g., major,
minor, certificate) SLOs as well.
o Demonstrating the alignment between SLOs and course assignments for students
is highly recommended. E.g, what does the student do to achieve, and to
demonstrate achievement of each SLO?
 Instructor standards and policies.
 References to university policies (e.g., academic misconduct). Here's an example of an
academic misconduct statement:
Tips to Implement Syllabus Components Effectively
 Developing a course syllabus is a much more complex process than simply adding the
components above. For detailed help and resources, including UW-L templates you can
adapt, see the CATL googlesite Course Syllabi
 Be aware that your placement of components within your syllabus may send an
unintended message to your students. If you list diversity resources right after a
statement on academic misconduct, students from historically marginalized groups may
worry that you assume a connection.
UNIT 2
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING BASIC COMPONENTS OF THE CURRICULUM AND

SYLLABUS FOR INCLUSIVE JHS SETTINGS
TAXONOMIES OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
Taxonomies are hierarchical schemes for classifying learning objectives into various levels of
complexity. There are three main domains of educational objectives. These are (1) cognitive, ( 2)
affective, ( 3) psychomotor
Bloom's taxonomy is a set of three hierarchical models used to classify educational learning
objectives into levels of complexity and specificity. The three lists cover the learning objectives
in cognitive, affective and sensory domains. The cognitive domain list has been the primary
focus of most traditional education and is frequently used to structure curriculum learning
objectives, assessments and activities.

The models were named after Benjamin Bloom, who chaired the committee of educators that
devised the taxonomy. He also edited the first volume of the standard text, Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals.
HISTORY
Although named after Bloom, the publication of Taxonomy of Educational Objectives followed
a series of conferences from 1949 to 1953, which were designed to improve communication
between educators on the design of curricula and examinations.
The first volume of the taxonomy, Handbook I: Cognitive was published in 1956, and in 1964
the second volume Handbook II: Affective was published. A revised version of the taxonomy for
the cognitive domain was created in 2001.
Cognitive domain objectives produce outcomes that focus on knowledge and abilities requiring
memory, thinking, and reasoning processes. Affective domain objectives produce outcomes that
focus on feelings, interests, attitudes, dispositions and emotional states. Psychomotor domain
objectives produce outcomes that focus on motor skills and perceptual processes.
THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN
This domain was developed by Benjamin Bloom in 1956, hence it is known as Bloom’s
taxonomy of educational objectives. The taxonomy classifies educational objectives into 6 main
headings.
I. Knowledge. This involves the recall of specific facts, methods and processes. They include
those objectives, which deal with the recall or recognition of knowledge and the development of
intellectual abilities and skills. It is often defined as the remembering of previously learned
material .Illustrative verbs include defines, identify, label.
II. Comprehension. It is the ability to grasp the meaning of material. It is shown by translating
material from one form to another, or by interpreting material (explaining or
summarizing) .Illustrative verbs include convert, explain, summarize
III. Application. This refers to the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations.
This includes the application of such things as rules, methods, concepts, principle set. Illustrative
verbs include change, compute, and prepare.
IV. Analysis. This is the ability to breakdown material into its component parts so that its
organizational structure may be understood. This includes the identification of parts, analysis of
the relationships between part set. Illustrative verbs include breakdown, differentiate, illustrate
V. Synthesis. This refers to the ability to put parts together to form a new whole. This may
involve the production of a unique communication, or a plan of operations. Illustrative verbs
include categorize, combine, organize
VI. Evaluation. This is the ability to judge the value of material (e. g. novel, poem, and research
report) for a given purpose. The judgments are based on definite criteria. Illustrative verbs

include, contrast, support, appraises; compares and contrasts; concludes; criticizes; critiques;
decides; defends; interprets; judges; justifies; reframes; support
THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN (EMOTION-BASED)
Skills in the affective domain describe the way people react emotionally and their ability to feel
other living things' pain or joy. Affective objectives typically target the awareness and growth in
attitudes, emotion, and feelings.
There are five levels in the affective domain moving through the lowest-order processes to the
highest.
Receiving: The lowest level; the student passively pays attention. Without this level, no learning
can occur. Receiving is about the student's memory and recognition as well.
Responding: The student actively participates in the learning process, not only attends to a
stimulus; the student also reacts in some way.
Valuing: The student attaches a value to an object, phenomenon, or piece of information. The
student associates a value or some values to the knowledge they acquired.
Organizing: The student can put together different values, information, and ideas, and can
accommodate them within his/her own schema; the student is comparing, relating and
elaborating on what has been learned.
Characterizing: The student at this level tries to build abstract knowledge.
THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN (ACTION-BASED)

Skills in the psychomotor domain describe the ability to physically manipulate a tool or
instrument like a hand or a hammer. Psychomotor objectives usually focus on change and/or
development in behavior and/or skills.
Bloom and his colleagues never created subcategories for skills in the psychomotor domain, but
since then other educators have created their own psychomotor taxonomies. Simpson (1972)
proposed the following levels:
Perception: The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity: This ranges from sensory
stimulation, through cue selection, to translation.
Examples: Detects non-verbal communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is
thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts heat of the stove to
correct temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the forks on a forklift by
comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet.
Key words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates,
selects.

Readiness to act: It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are
dispositions that predetermine a person's response to different situations (sometimes called
mindsets). This subdivision of psychomotor is closely related with the "responding to
phenomena" subdivision of the affective domain.
Examples: Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. Recognizes his
or her abilities and limitations. Shows desire to learn a new process (motivation).
Keywords: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers.
Guided response: The early stages of learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial
and error: Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing.
Examples: Performs a mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a
model. Responds to hand-signals of the instructor while learning to operate a forklift.
Keywords: copies, traces, follows, reacts, reproduces, responds.
Mechanism: The intermediate stage in learning a complex skill: Learned responses have become
habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency.
Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking tap. Drive a car.
Key words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats,
manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.
Complex overt response: The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex
movement patterns: Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated
performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes performing without
hesitation and automatic performance. For example, players will often utter sounds of
satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football because they can tell
by the feel of the act what the result will produce.
Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and
accurately. Displays competence while playing the piano.
Key words: assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds,
heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, and organizes, sketches. (Note: The key words are
the same as in mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the performance
is quicker, better, more accurate, etc.)
Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit
special requirements.
Examples: Responds effectively to unexpected experiences. Modifies instruction to meet the
needs of the learners. Performs a task with a machine that was not originally intended for that
purpose (the machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new task).
Key words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.
Origination
Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem: Learning
outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.
Examples: Constructs a new set or pattern of movements organized around a novel concept or
theory. Develops a new and comprehensive training program. Creates a new gymnastic routine.
Key words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiates, makes,
originates.
Definition of knowledge
In the appendix to Handbook I, there is a definition of knowledge which serves as the apex for an
alternative, summary classification of the educational goals. This is significant as the taxonomy
has been called upon significantly in other fields such as knowledge management, potentially out
of context. "Knowledge, as defined here, involves the recall of specifics and universals, the recall
of methods and processes, or the recall of a pattern, structure, or setting."
The taxonomy is set out as follows:
• 1.00 Knowledge
o 1.10 Knowledge of specifics
o 1.11 Knowledge of terminology
o 1.12 Knowledge of specific facts
o 1.20 Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics
o 1.21 Knowledge of conventions
o 1.22 Knowledge of trends and sequences
o 1.23 Knowledge of classifications and categories
o 1.24 Knowledge of criteria
o 1.25 Knowledge of methodology
o 1.30 Knowledge of the universals and abstractions in a field
o 1.31 Knowledge of principles and generalizations
o 1.32 Knowledge of theories and structures
Criticism of the taxonomy
As Morshead (1965) pointed out on the publication of the second volume, the classification was
not a properly constructed taxonomy, as it lacked a systematic rationale of construction.
This was subsequently acknowledged in the discussion of the original taxonomy in its 2001
revision and the taxonomy was reestablished on more systematic lines.
Some critiques of the taxonomy's cognitive domain admit the existence of these six categories
but question the existence of a sequential, hierarchical link. Often, educators view the taxonomy
as a hierarchy and may mistakenly dismiss the lowest levels as unworthy of teaching. The
learning of the lower levels enables the building of skills in the higher levels of the taxonomy,
and in some fields, the most important skills are in the lower levels (such as identification of
species of plants and animals in the field of natural history). Instructional scaffolding of higher-
level skills from lower-level skills is an application of Vygotskian constructivism.
Some consider the three lowest levels as hierarchically ordered, but the three higher levels as
parallel. Others say that it is sometimes better to move to application before introducing concepts,
the goal being to create a problem-based learning environment where the real world context
comes first and the theory second, to promote the student's grasp of the phenomenon, concept, or
event.
The distinction between the categories can be seen as artificial since any given cognitive task
may entail a number of processes. It could even be argued that any attempt to nicely categorize
cognitive processes into clean, cut-and-dried classifications undermines the holistic, highly
connective and interrelated nature of cognition. This is a criticism that can be directed at
taxonomies of mental processes in general.
The taxonomy is widely implemented as a hierarchy of verbs, designed to be used when writing
learning outcomes, but a 2020 analysis showed that these verb lists showed no consistency
between educational institutions, and thus learning outcomes that were mapped to one level of
the hierarchy at one educational institution could be mapped to different levels at another
institution.
Implications
Bloom's taxonomy serves as the backbone of many teaching philosophies, in particular, those
that lean more towards skills rather than content. These educators view content as a vessel for
teaching skills. The emphasis on higher-order thinking inherent in such philosophies is based on
the top levels of the taxonomy including application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Bloom's
taxonomy can be used as a teaching tool to help balance evaluative and assessment-based
questions in assignments, texts, and in-class engagements to ensure that all orders of thinking are
exercised in students' learning, including aspects of information searching.
Connections across disciplines
Bloom's taxonomy (and the revised taxonomy) continues to be a source of inspiration for
educational philosophy and for developing new teaching strategies. The skill development that
takes place at higher orders of thinking interacts well with a developing global focus on multiple
literacies and modalities in learning and the emerging field of integrated disciplines. The ability
to interface with and create media would draw upon skills from both higher order thinking skills

(analysis, creation, and evaluation) and lower order thinking skills (knowledge, comprehension,
and application).
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING CURRICULUM CONTENT
Validity: The content of the curriculum is valid if it promotes the outcome that it is intended to
promote. It is also the authenticity of the subject matter or content selected, to make sure the
topics are not obsolete, for this to be achieve, there should be a regular check on the curriculum
content and replace it if necessary.
Self-sufficiency: This criterion helps learners attain maximum self-sufficiency at the most
economical manner or content selection. This is done when the students or learners are given the
chance to experiment, observe and carryout field study.
Significance: The content is significant if it is selected and organized for the developed of
learning activities, skills, processes and attitude that will help in solving the problem of the
country. It also develops the three domain of learning namely cognitive, affective and
psychomotor skills and considers the cultural aspect of the learners particularly, if your learners
come from different cultural background and races then the content must be cultural sensitive.
Interest: This criterion is true to be learned centred curriculum. The interest of the students
should be considered in selecting content because students learn best if the subject matter is
meaningful to them. It becomes meaningful if they are interested in it. But if the curriculum is
subject centred, teachers have no choice but to finish the facing schedule religiously and teach
only what is in the book, this may explain why many fail in subject sometimes.
Learnability: The content should be what the students can learn and should be within their
experience. Teachers should apply theories on psychology of learning in order to know their
subject are presented, sequenced an organized to maximize the learning capacity of the students
Utility: This is the usefulness of the content in solving problems now and in future. It is more
important in skill or procedural. Knowledge, whereby learners can put what they have learnt into
practice life activities
Consistency with Social Realities: This means that content should be chosen based on the facy
that they relates to our present social needs economic and political situation. Content must be
acceptable to the culture and belief system of the people.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING LEARNING EXPERIENCE
The condition for selecting learning experiences by the experts must base on the recent or
modern principles of learning. These criteria are:
Validity: Learning experience is valid when it related objectives are in any of the three domains;
cognitive, affective and psychomotor, the learning experience must be holistic to involve all the
domains.

Variety: Learners are different and learn, in different ways base on their interest and ability
therefore varied learning experience must be provided to help them comprehend
Interest: So that the desired objectives can be achieve and also for learners to demand pleasure
learning experiences from tem must be of great interest to the learner.
Relevance to Life: Learning experience must be relevant to real-life situations in school and in
the society to help learners understand their society and proffer solutions to some problems of
the society. This is where community based resources comes to play. Experience in real content
and situation bring realism to teaching and learning.
Suitability: Learning experience must not be too simple nor complex but rather be suitable for
the age or level of the learners and for the content which it is meant for.
Comprehensive: Learning experience must cover all the stated objectives in a lesson; it must
range from the simplest learning experiences to the most complex, covering all the domains of
learning.
Potential for multiple Learning: This means that learning experiences are not fashioned for
different distinct domains of instructional objectives. Therefore, it is necessary to plan for
learning experiences that will provide for the three domains as strategy for multiple learning. A
single learning experience should involve cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of
learning, hence it is said to be comprehensive.
Continuity: It is the recurring emphasis on the learners experience on a particular element or
kind of activities, until mastery is achieved. With mastery, learners develop progressively,
systematically and naturally, with new knowledge building on earlier acquired knowledge and
thus learners can gain competence.
Sequence: It is also related to continuity as well as progressively moving from the lower to the
higher level of knowledge and from simple to complex. In sequence, each successive experience
goes more deeply and broadly into the subjects. Each experience reinforces and extends the
previous one. Curriculum practices in the arrangement of sequence of learning experiences
usually based according to one of the following; chronological order, logical order and difficulty.
Integration: It refers to the relationship among learning experiences which brings about a
unified view, and behavior is a horizontal relationship which cut across several subjects and the
areas of student’s life. One subject should buttress the other. For instance, what is learnt in
mathematics to solve problems can be used for solving problems in other subjects, as this
enhances the transfer of knowledge.
ORGANIZATIONAL AND INTEGRATION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES AND
CONTENT
After learning experience and content have been selected, the next step to take is to organize
them. These organization of learning experience and content is based on the cumulative
development behavior the learners gradually experience during the educational process.

Content and learning experience are organized in two relationship bases; vertical and horizontal
relationship;
Vertical organization is the arrangement of learning experiences and content over a time
sequence access classes in the same subject. For instance, for a four year programme in English,
language, contents are arranged in hierarchical order, from the lowest level to the highest level.
This arrangement learning of English language becomes cumulative as knowledge continues to
build up over time. This knowledge building starts from simple to complex in the subject
progressively.
The horizontal organization occurs when the learning in one subject enhances the knowledge,
skill and attitude in another subject within the same class. For instance, there should be a
relationship between the knowledge acquired in biology and that of agricultural science, the
knowledge and skills acquired in economics lessons can enhance that of political science within
the same class.
UNIT 3
CREATIVE APPROACHES, EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING AND PROBLEM-SOLVING

STRATEGIES
THE PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD
Giving problems to be solved in a class is not what the problem solving method of teaching is
about. In the modern sense of the term, the problem-solving method of teaching is explained by
Aggarwal (1982) as “a planned attack upon a difficulty for the purpose of finding a solution. It is
a method in which a person uses his ability to solve problems which confront him. Through
science we not have a particular form of planned attack on problems which has proved highly
successful and it is upon this that the problem-solving method of teaching is based on. A
problem is a state of affairs viewed with dissatisfaction. A solution is called for the reverse of the
situation or to provide an understanding or insight into the problem. The ability to combine
previously learned principles, procedures, knowledge and cognitive strategies in a unique way
within a domain of content to solve encountered problems.
STAGES OF PROBLEM-SOLVING
1. Defining/identifying the problem. This is to explain the problem or difficulty so that it

becomes very clear/select a problem and define it.

2. Break the problem to see if it is a single problem or has other related problems. This stage
enables one to look at several sides to the problems and to see how the different pants concepts.
3. Generate several alternative solutions to the defined problem.
4. Select possible solutions you think will work and put them together.
5. Apply the selected solutions.
Testing them in your mind to see how each one works before a final selection.
6. Study your solutions closely to see whether it overcomes the problems.
7. Suggest the next line of action.
FEATURES OF A PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD
1. The problem chosen must have some educational value.
2. The students must have some background knowledge of the problem which they will discuss.
3. The problem should be interesting and meaningful for the students.
4. The problem must be related to real life situations.
5. In order that students benefit fully from the problem, it is essential that it is very well stated
and clearly defined.
6. The solution of the problem should be the outcome of the students themselves. However, the
teacher could offer guidance where they are difficulties.
ADVANTAGES OF THE PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD
1. It helps to improve and to add to the existing knowledge of the students.
2. It simulates the students to think critically.
3. Students are offered the opportunity to participate in social activities as they solve problems
through joint efforts. The student learns to accommodate the different points of view of others
and this becomes tolerant.
4. It helps students to learn to be self-reliant.
5. The teachers are provided the opportunity to know their students better and accordingly assist
both the active and shy looking ones.
6. It helps the students to satisfy their curiosity on issues.
DISADVANTAGES OF PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD
1. Generally, the problem-solving method involves only cognitive activity. There are less of
psychomotor and affective activities.
2. It is time-consuming and the teachers are unable to cover the prescribed syllabus.
3. The young students may not have sufficient background information about the issue in hand
and therefore are unable to participate in discussion.
4. The problem-solving method may lead the students to select premature and less important
topics and sometimes topics that generate more emotional feelings than thought.
MEANING OF CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING
Co-operative learning is an active teaching strategy in which learners are put into small teams.
The members of a team should have different levels of ability. Each member of a team is
responsible not only for learning what is taught, but also for helping team-mates learn. Co-
operative learning implies co-operative efforts. Such co-operative efforts will enable all
participants’ benefits so that all group members gain from other’s effort (mutual benefit)
FEATURES OF CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING
1. Co-operative learning uses small groups of three or four (micro teaching) working on an
assignment together in such a way that each group members contribute to the learning process.
2. Co-operative learning focuses on tasks to be accomplished.
3. Co-operative learning requires group co-operation and interaction.
4. Mandates individual’s responsibilities to learn. In co-operative learning settings, each pupil is

held accountable for his/her own academic progress and tasks completion apart from the
completion of the group work as a whole.
5. The main feature of co-operative learning is positive interdependence.
ACTIVITIES UNDER CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING

1. Think- per- share. This involves a three step cooperative structure. During the first step
individuals think silently about the question posed by the teacher. Individuals pair up during the
second step and exchange thoughts. In the third step, the pairs share their responses with other
pairs, other teams or the entire group.
2. Three –minute review. Teachers stop at any time in a discussion and give teams three minutes
to review what has been said, ask clarifying questions or answer questions.
3. Number Heads. A team of four is established. Each member is given numbers of 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Questions are asked. Groups work together to answer the question so that all can verbally answer
the question. Teacher calls out a number (for instance, two and each pupil who has been assigned
that number (two) asked to give the answer.
Jigsaw. Groups with five pupils are set up. Each group member is assigned some unique material
to learn and then to teach his group members. To help in the learning, all pupils working in the
same group sub-section get together to decide what is important and how to teach. After that the
original groups reform and pupils to teach each other. Tests or assessment follows.
ADVANTAGES OF CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING
1. Promote higher student learning and academic achievement.
2. It increases student retention
3. Enhances student satisfaction in oral communication
4. Helps students develop skills in oral communication.
5. Develops students’ social skills
ROLE PLAY
Role Play – The basic idea is that a few students are asked to play the part of other people in a
specific field situation. Examples in a lesson on health, one student may be asked to be a village
health worker, another will be a mother with a malnourished baby, a third will be the baby’s
grandmother. The situation will be the health worker visiting the family to explain how the
mother could better-feed her baby.
Role playing is not only a powerful tool for adult education and teacher training but also it is
effective in the classroom. Role playing is a highly motivating activity because students can
learn through experience and apply their learning in a relevant, yet relaxed manner.
It can also help to promote student-student interaction, encourage empathy for others and
develop social skills and values.

EDUCATIONAL VISITS AND FIELD EXPERIENCES
This method involves taking learners on an excursion outside the classroom for the purpose of
making relevant observation for the purpose of obtaining technological and vocational
information.
These are also visits to educational sites or places to complement learning which is done in the
classroom. There are variations in the duration of fieldwork. A fieldwork may last only half an
hour, another two hours and another had a day and another the whole day. Others may be of a
week or two weeks duration. The durations of a fieldwork depends on the objectives and the
amount of work entailed.
Various types of phenomena can be studied through the fieldwork method. The phenomena
selected for study can be of economic, historical, geographical and cultural importance.
The phenomena of economic importance may be market places, shops, super markets, factories
and workshops.
Places of historical importance may be monuments, tombs, castles, forts, museums. Phenomena
of geographical interests may be a valley, a mountain, a volcano, etc
Places of cultural importance could be mosques, cathedrals, churches and shrines.
TYPES OF FIELDTRIPS
There are two types of fieldwork trips. They are the Structured and Unstructured fieldtrips or
experiences. In the structured fieldtrip, students are aware of what definite tasks they have to
perform in the field and this follows a laid down procedure.
In the Unstructured fieldtrip, the teacher prompts the student to indicate any phenomenon which
is of interest to them and they would like to study. By consensus, the students end up, choosing
one phenomenon. The teacher then asks them to choose any materials and equipment which they
think will facilitate the study they intend to undertake. This may not necessarily follow a laid
down procedure.
PREPARATION BEFORE THE TRIP
First and foremost, it is essential that the teacher takes a visit or two to the phenomenon to be
studied when certain issues or facts are omitted.
The teacher he has to inform the head of the institution well ahead of time when the fieldwork
will take place. The teacher then informs his students of the impending fieldwork.

The teacher will have visited more than one phenomenon preferably three then students will have
the opportunity to choose the one in which they are most interested. The teacher also has to
inform colleagues of the impending fieldwork, more especially those whose time may be taken
up.
It is also necessary that the teacher acquaint himself with official regulations, which govern
taking students out for fieldwork. He should as a necessity, try to go by the regulations strictly.
He must also have to arrange for transport, boarding and possible accommodation.
PRE-FIELDWORK
STEPS IN ORGANISING A STRUCTURED FIELDTRIP
1. The teacher introduces the phenomenon in the fieldwork through a lead lesson e.g. Video
show. The lead lesson is meant to expose the students to the nature of the fieldwork, the task
involved to arouse pupils interest.
2. Inform the head teacher of your impending visit with the pupils and discuss the objective and
the modalities for the trip. Upon approval by the head
3. Call for PTA meeting and discuss matters with them
4. Write officially to the education office. Because you are traveling with peoples children and
anything can happen.
5. Write to the visiting site and confirm the date to the head teacher.
6. Finally inform the office of the date and the arrangement put in place to ensure safety of the
pupils.
7. To board the bus have a count and know the number of pupils embarking on the journey.
As soon as students assemble in the school for the fieldwork, there should be a head count. The
teacher in consultation with the group should make sure that they have not left behind any
material, which they should use in the field.
When the teacher and the students get the field, the teacher selects a place where all the students
will have to report after their study. The teacher should let the students know the duration of the
time within which they are expected to complete the work. He must also send a note of warning
to the students about how they are expected to behave towards people if it is a place of work.
The activities which students perform in the field may vary.

FIELDWORK ACTIVITIES
1. Pupils are expected to ask questions
2. Pupils are expected to take note
POST FIELDWORK ACTIVITIES
From the field, pupils may get back into the groups to plan how the data collected in the field
should be organized and presented.
1. Group discussion of the lessons learnt
2. Report writing and documentation.
ADVANTAGES OF THE FIELDWORK METHOD
1. It allows the students to engage fully in the activities of the study.
2. It sharpens the students’ observational abilities.
3. It helps to add reality to and verify how the area of coverage operate in practice.
4. Fieldtrip is useful in developing all senses of the students.
5. It provides opportunity for students to identify ways of spending leisure time profitably.
6. Things that cannot be brought to the classroom can be observed and studied e.g. oceans
7. Through direct contact with different occupations provided by field trips students learn and
develop an appreciation of the “world” of work outside of the school in relation to school work.
8. Experience gained during a fieldtrip can motivate students to read about what they have
observed, so as to harmonize actual field experiences with information gathered from textbook.
9. It exposes the student o the real world situations, which are unmatched to other classroom
behind learning situations.
10. Through observation, the students discover new ideas.
11. It eliminates abstract thinking and encourages practical activity.
12 Through the method, students are able to think critically.
13 The students through this method learn to acquire the skills of locating and gathering
information through interviews and observations.

DEMERITS
1.Arranging a good fieldtrip necessitates careful planning. Not only does it consume a
considerable amount of time, but transportation arrangements.
2. Many teachers lack the skills to organize fieldwork
3. It is usually costly to be undertaken more especially when the phenomenon for the study is far
away from the school.
4. The method can sometimes throw the programme out of gear.
5. Many people, more especially, parents think it exposes students to many hazards.
DISCOVERY LEARNING
DISCOVERY METHOD
Discovery method is a teaching strategy which enables students to find the answers themselves.
It is a learner centred approach hence it is called a heuristic method. It is of two types notably,
the guided and unguided discovery. In the guided discovery, the teacher guides the student to
discover for themselves solutions to be given problems by providing them with general
principles, but not the solutions to the scientific problem. The unguided discovery type involves
the students discovering for themselves both the general principles and solution to a scientific
problem. It is sometimes called the pure discovery
Discovery learning can also be defined as the learning that takes place when students are not
given or presented with the subject matter in its final form but are required to organize it
themselves.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DISCOVERY LEARNING
1. Pure discovery – Here, students are given a topic or problem to work on and are the free to
explore the topic with a minimum of guidelines or suggestions by the teacher.
2. Guided Discovery – Here, students are not only given a topic but are also provided with
materials to work with and suggestions on procedures to follow, but they arrive at any conclusion
themselves.
3. Guided learning – The teacher leads the students through a carefully planned sequence of
activities to arrive at the learning object, using either statement or questions.
DISCOVERY LEARNING PROCESS

Define the problem to be investigated
Clarify the objectives to be achieved by the learners.
Relate the problems of study to what is known or to some real life problems to heighten interest.
Consider any related factors
Propose initial guesses/hypotheses or suggested lines of attach.
Collect information to test the guesses
Evaluate and organize the data/information they have assembled.
Interpret their findings.
ADVANTAGES OF DISCOVERY METHOD
1. Since the method poses a challenge for the student to discover the information or knowledge
for himself, retention of any information or knowledge so discovered will be increased.
2. The learning acquired in finding out things for oneselves independently can be applied to new
learning and problem-solving.
3. The joy in discovering something provides the students with intrinsic motivation.
4. Discovery method brings home to pupils their notions of the nature of scientific evidence
students learnt that answers to questions can often be obtained from investigations they can carry
out for themselves.
5. Discovery method helps students develop manipulative skills and attitudes which constitute
one of the fundamental obje4ctives of science teaching.
6. It promotes better understanding of the learning situation.
7. The students are actively engaged in the processes of acquiring knowledge instead of being
passive listeners.
8. Students are taught concept or principles which are more easily remembered than isolated
facts.
9. Students are more interested in and remember better things they have found out for themselves.
It does promote transfer of knowledge.
10. It increases learner’s self-confidence and reliance on their own intelligence and capacity to
learn.

DISADVANTAGES OF DISCOVERY METHOD
1. Discovery method is time consuming and progress is comparatively slow. Apparatus have to
be set up and results of the investigation waited.
2. The method leaves open the possibility of not discovering anything. Students may end up
discovering things other than what was intended to be discovered. This could be highly
demoralizing to them particularly if great effort has been expended.
3. The method is expensive considering the equipment and materials needed.
4. Discovery method is only good for a small class where effective teacher suppertime is possible.
PROJECT METHOD
The project method of teaching centres on an assignment of interest undertaken by an individual

student or a group or a whole class. In this method, the students are guided when necessary.
The project methods is described as a teaching method in which students individually or in

groups accept an assignment together and integrate data relative to some problems and are then
free to fulfill the requirements independently of the teacher, who furnishes help only when
necessary. The project method may be referred to as ‘Self-directed study.
The decision as to the nature of the project can be assigned by the teacher or it can evolve from
class discussions.
Projects are usually done by individuals and frequently take the form of a model or presentation
as the final product.
The project method is the result of the pragmatic educational ideas of the famous American
Educationist Philosopher John Dewey. This method was developed to change the traditional
classroom which was characterized by lack of interest, passively and activity which had very
little or nothing to do with students’ real life situations.
This refers to the type of teaching and learning process that consists of students working on some
task with relatively little direct interaction with the teacher.
PRINCIPLES OF PROJECT METHOD
There are five major principles which can be identified from the fore-going discussion on the
nature of the project method. They are as follows:
1. Freedom – The desire that a student may have for embarking on a project must not be forced
on him. It must be the willingness of the learner. In other that the students can express

himself/herself freely or fully he, or she should not be subjected to any restrictions, obstructions
and impositions in though and expression.
2. Reality – Education must be a process that deals with real life situations. Learning process
become very meaningful if they are linked with the life situations which interest the learner.
3. Experience – Experience is gained when the students undertakes a variety of activities which
are closely related to his interest. Students come face to face with real life situations and get first
hand information through the experience that is offered in project work.
4. Activity Involvement- Students, more especially the young ones, find it difficulty by nature
to stay still without indulging in any activity. In the planning of any teaching and learning
process, one must be guided by this natural ability, so that they become active participants. In the
project, the student is involved actively both mentally and physically to ensure effective learning.
5. Purpose- An awareness of purpose or objective of embarking upon a learning experience not

only serves as a great stimulus, it also enhances the students’ chances of achieving his potentials.
It is common knowledge that interest cannot arouse aimless and meaningless activities. This
project method ensures that purposeful and worthwhile activities undertaken by students.
STEPS IN THE PROJECT PROCESS
1. Creating a congenial atmosphere: It is not educationally sound to force a project on students

who are not prepared for it. It is best to allow this student the chance to state, define and select
what they intend to do within the prescribed content.
2. Selecting and Purposing: Purposing is very essential because the project agreed upon must
be such that it is capable of satisfying a definite need or purpose. The purpose as far as possible
must be that which is widely accepted by the students.
3. Planning: Planning is the next thing which the students have to grapple with after a consensus
has been reached on the choice of the project. It is the duty of the teacher to draw attention of
students to the need to plan before they embark upon any activity.
4. Carrying out the Plan: Students have to work for the materials needed for the project.
5. Self-Evaluation: It is essential that the work is reviewed when it is completed. In the

evaluation of their own work, the students should be guided to state the benefits that they have
derived from the project.
6. Documentation: There is the need to record all the activities which have been undertaken in
the project. The details of the various steps or strategies adopted should be properly documented.
ADVANTAGES OF THE PROJECT METHOD

1. Since emphasis is on doing by the student, opportunity is provided to develop his initiative as
well as greater understanding of how to learn.
2. Motivation to work is high it is based on the natural interests of students. It thus offers
opportunity for creative ability particularly for especially talented students.
3. It gives students specific areas to work on sometimes with acquisition of some new skills and
attitudes.
4. Group project afford opportunity for developing leadership and organizing abilities.
5. A source of redeemer (catharsis) for the low achiever: Usually students who are low
achievers find it difficult to work in situations where abstract thinking dominates. They are most
at home with concrete and practical situations which keep them busy. The project method
therefore provides a great opportunity for the student who is a low achiever, to participate in
practical learning situations which gives the much needed intrinsic motivation.
6. Enhances problem-solving: The project method provides the students the opportunity of
learning, how to solve problems. The problem techniques are critical thinking, planning, looking
for information, formulating intelligent guesses and arriving at generalization.
DISADVANTAGES/DIFFICULTIES/DEMERITS
1. Projects are very time-consuming and what is ultimately learned may not justify the expense,
efforts and time put in to complete the project. Many a time projects do not take into
consideration the tenets of examinations and the scope of the curriculum. Frequent use of this
method will compromise the covering of the curriculum for stipulated period of time and this
may adversely affect students’ performance if the regulations of the examination are tied with the
scope of the curriculum.
2. Student often gets sidetracked particularly if they lack good grasp of facts necessary in
carrying out the projects.
3. It is difficult to choose a project that will interest all the students in the class at one time.
4. Some students may not participate in the project work at all.
5. Lack of competent teachers: The nature of the project demands the service of efficient
resourceful and very knowledgeable teachers in the use of the method. The method demands a
great deal of preparation on the part of the teacher and the responsibility which he bears is so
great that many teachers shy away from the use of the method. Very few teachers have the
confidence and competence in using the method.

6. Lack of Requisite Textbooks: The project method makes a considerable use of materials
from many sources such as magazines, newspapers, periodicals, etc.
Textbooks are usually written in one subject area hence they are woefully inadequate in the
information for conducting an effective project which usually relies on information from varied
sources and various areas and disciplines.
Using Educational Games in teaching and learning

While playing games is a great leisure activity that people of all ages can enjoy, games can also
be used for learning and educational experiences. Some games have been found to improve
cognitive functions like memory and reasoning. Other games have the potential to reverse aging
related brain function problems such as short term memory loss. The decision making processes
required to play certain games makes the brain work hard. These cognitive exercises can range
from simple decisions to the formulation of complex strategies. Children and adults of all ages
can benefit from the mental stimulation that game-based learning provides
Game-based learning is a teaching method that allows learners to explore different parts of
games as a form of learning. Games can be designed by teachers and other education specialists
in a way that balances academic subjects such as history with the strategies, rules and social
aspects of playing a game. As a side-effect of technological growth, game-based learning often
generates negative connotations because of its close association with video games, which
inevitably raises questions about its consequences. However, these games are typically designed
at different ability levels and with the goal of helping the players to retain the information that
they learn and apply it to other problem solving situations. Many of these games are relevant to
real life situations and will help children to make informed decisions when doing so matters.
Game-based learning can also be done as collaboration between learners and educators. This
type of game creation enhances the playing experience and can lead to a depth and scope of
game that are not available through other types of learning experiences. Games also reinforces
concepts such counting and fairness
IMPORTANCE USING EDUCATIONAL GAMES IN LEARNING
Motivation and Engagement: Games feel more like a form of entertainment than a method of
learning. Because games include rules, definitive objectives, measurable goals and competition,
they deliver an interactive experience that promotes a sense of achievement for all of the
participants. Learners are often motivated by hands-on and active learning opportunities. The
students are able to work on accomplishing a goal by choosing specific actions. They experience
the consequences of the actions, which is one of the ways that a game-based learning experience
is similar to real life. The engagement between learners keeps them coming back to learn even
more. The ongoing practices of decision making, planning and learning in a game environment
are easy to translate to everyday situations that children will face as they become older.
Immediate Feedback: Learners benefit from the immediate feedback that takes place during
game playing. Instead of having to wait days or even weeks for an assignment or test grade,
students get instantaneous results about whether or not they made a good decision. They also get

to find out the long-term effects of their decision making. One decision at the beginning of a
game could have lasting effects throughout play. The rapid feedback helps kids realize when
they made a good decision or a bad one. Educators are able to get rapid feedback by watching
how the children engage and react. While playing a game, children also have the freedom to
make mistakes without any major consequences of physical or mental harm. They can
experiment in a safe environment while playing games. Any mistakes that are made can be
discussed in a group setting afterward. This allows students to reflect on what they did and
perhaps change their strategy for the next time.
Cognitive Growth: Each time children play the same game, they perform cognitive actions such
as recalling the rules, keeping track of hazards and remembering how the sequence of play works.
Kids utilize their strategic thinking skills, including using logic to make sound decisions and to
plan ahead by making predictions about what might happen next. Children also develop strong
problem solving skills. They will need to think quickly on the spot without being able to hesitate,
which is a skill that will serve them throughout their lives. Learners also learn how to think
creatively and plan out their moves a few steps ahead. Educational games can result in higher
retention rates compared to book learning.
Digital Literacy: Digital literacy is also present in gaming and is an important skill for a lifetime
of technology use. The Global Digital Citizen Foundation found that students need to acquire
basic skills such as problem solving, developing creativity, analytic thinking and collaboration
with others. Other important skills kids must have in the digital age include strong
communication skills, ethics and accountability.
Skills Development: Educational games allow kids to practice and develop physical skills such
as hand-eye coordination. They can also work on spatial skills and fine motor skills. Interactive
games help kids to do this in an integrated learning environment. Game-based learning allows
kids to develop cognitive, social and physical skills simultaneously. This learning enhances
essential life skills like cooperation and teamwork. The knowledge and skills acquired through
game-based learning are retained longer than information from other learning methods
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN USING GAMES
1. You must decide what purpose that the game will serve in teaching and learning.
2. You must select or invent the game
3. The game must have rules to be followed otherwise the play degenerates into confusion
argument, quarrel and fight. The rule must simple, clear and concise
4. Consider how many people can play: individually, in pairs, as a group or as a class.

UNIT 4
USING QUESTONING AND TALK FOR LEARNING APPROACHES
Talk for learning means encouraging student teachers to engage in their learning through
talking. The talk should be meaningful and enable student teachers to progress from recall and
memorization, to thinking and understanding, analysis and creativity
Why Use Talk for Learning in your Teaching?
Education research has shown that talking purposely is an effective tool for learning. For
example, in the Education Endowment Foundation’s teaching and learning toolkit, ‘oral
language interventions’ has one of the highest impacts for low cost, based on extensive research
evidence. Some of the reasons for this are that talk for learning can help you to:
 Develop understanding. It is even argued that the mind is actually structured as language and
so talking for learning activities supports your mind in making sense and developing
understanding. Verbalizing your thinking means you have to organise your thoughts and you
have to become actively involved..
 Learn through social interaction because it requires you interact and talk about what you are
thinking with one another in a specific learning context. Questions can be posed, ideas can
be challenged and misunderstandings can be heard and corrected. In this way it fits with the
learning theories of constructivism and social constructivism.
 Better recall of something you have been actively involved in (remembering). Talk for
Learning activities require you to do so by thinking about ideas and communicating them.
 Rehearse and express yourself in English. Talk for Learning activities give English
Language Learning student teachers the opportunity to rehearse and practice expressing
themselves in English language learning. This might involve identifying words and
expressions, using them in different contexts and phrases, and giving meaning to the words
and expressions. To learn a language effectively you need to regularly hear it, see it, read it,
write it, and practice speaking it repeatedly read it, write it, and practice speaking it
repeatedly.

Teaching Strategy
Teaching Strategy Main points
T3-1 Initiating Talk for Learning To use talk as an effective tool for
learning your for need something to talk
about. This teaching strategy explores
developing activities that will encourage
good quality discussion. For example:
Talking tokens; Activity ball or magic
microphone; Think-Pair-Share;
changing partners.
T3-2 Building on What Others Say This teaching strategy explores how to
involve all student teachers in learning
from each other and to build on what is
said. For example brainstorming,
concept cartoons.
T3-3 Managing Talk for Learning This teaching strategy looks at how to
develop ways of working together and
regulating talk to help you manage talk
for learning in your classroom. For
example think-pair-share, talking
tokens.
T3-4 Structuring Talk for Learning This teaching strategy introduces

strategies to structure the many ideas
that are being share by your student
teachers when using talk for learning.
For example concept mapping, diamond
nine.

T3-5 Expressing Yourself With New This teaching strategy discusses
Words strategies to deal with language leaning
aspects of new vocabulary in talk for
learning. This is relevant to any student
teacher but particularly for those who
are English Language Learners (ELL).
For example talk like an expert, word
walls.

UNIT 5
BARRIERS, THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION

MULTIMEDIA DEVELOPMENT AND USE
CONCEPT OF INSTRUCTUONAL MULTI-MEDIA DEVELOPMENT
When examining the role of instructional media in learning, we focus on the physical system or
vehicle used to deliver information to students or teachers—such as a textbook, instructional
video, or computer program. When examining the role of the instructional method in learning,
we focus on techniques that are embedded in different technologies to promote learning—such
as advance organizers, scaffolding, or self-explanation methods. Media and methods can be
combined in many ways. Some instructional technologies include identical methods (e.g.,
graphic organizers) but differ in that they are delivered with different media (graphic organizers
in a PowerPoint program or graphic organizers in a textbook)
Multimedia, as its name implies, integrates different media—such as text, graphics, animation,
sounds, videos, and photos—in one presentation. Although many people hope that printed books
will be around for a long time, there are strong pressures by the government, libraries,
universities, schools, and book publishers to make print materials available in electronic format,
with an increasing number of electronic texts being presented in the form of hypertext,
interactive text where certain words or terms contain a hyperlink that can be selected to find
more information. When multimedia and hypertext are combined, the resulting product is called
hypermedia, a system in which students can learn by exploring multiple representations of
knowledge that are interconnected by a network of links. In fact, most of the recent educational
software and educational applications on the Internet consist of hypermedia systems. Electronic
instructional materials are also called e-materials, and learning from electronic materials is called
e-learning. Unlike learning from older media such as text and lectures, e-learning can be quite
challenging because there are too many different paths for constructing knowledge and too many
representations that need to be integrated with one another.
Researchers developed a set of instructional design principles that teachers can use to evaluate
the learning potential of new technologies before integrating them into their classrooms. These
principles are summarized in the next two sections. First, principles that are aimed at preventing
students’ cognitive overload by minimizing extraneous processing: the processing of information
that is not necessary to make a lesson intelligible. Second, principles that are aimed at promoting

generative processing: the combination of hands-on and minds-on activity that leads to the
generation of meaningful encoding of new information
When Multimedia Learning Environments Minimize Extraneous Processing
Cognitive Principle Visual Example
Multimedia principle: Students learn better when presented with verbal explanations and
corresponding pictures rather than with words alone or pictures alone.
Modality principle: Students learn better when dynamic visual displays (e.g., animations,
videos, simulations) are accompanied by narrated explanations rather than written explanations.
Temporal contiguity principle: Students learn better when corresponding words and pictures
are presented simultaneously rather than sequentially.
Spatial contiguity principle: Students learn better hen representations that mutually refer to
each other are presented physically close rather than separated
Redundancy principle: Students learn better when redundant on-screen text is removed from
narrated dynamic displays (e.g., animations, videos).
Signalling principle: Students learn better hen instructional programs signal relevant
information, such as by highlighting, outlining, and pointing to words or visual elements on the
screen.
Segmentation principle: Students learn better when complex knowledge and skills and long
presentations are broken into learner-controlled segments
Coherence principle: Students learn better when instructional programs exclude information
that is not necessary to make the lesson intelligible.
Pre-training principle: Students learn better when learning environments provide pre-training
on the names, locations, and behaviour of key components before presenting a lesson that is
complex, fast-paced, or unfamiliar.
Consequently, a second question that you should ask when making technology integration
decisions is whether the technology is designed to foster the meaningful processing of learning
materials. There are at least four more principles that, when applied to computer-based
instruction, can accomplish this goal (Moreno & Mayer, 2007).

Personalization principle: Students encode information more deeply when explanations are
presented using a conversational style and they are addressed as participants rather than
observers of the learning environment. Learning environments that activate students’ personal
schemas are more likely to result in the meaningful integration of new information with students’
prior knowledge.
Guided-activity principle: Students learn better when they interact with a pedagogical agent
who guides their cognitive processing as they manipulate and experiment with learning
materials. Compared to receiving direct instruction, students who are allowed to become actively
engaged in the selection, organization, and integration of multimedia materials construct a
deeper.
Feedback principle: Students learn better with principle-based feedback rather than corrective
feedback alone (feedback that only informs students about the correctness of their response).
According to this principle, the effectiveness of instructional technology is also dependent on the
relationship between the quality of feedback given by the system and students’ prior knowledge.
Reflection principle: Students encode information deeper when they are prompted to become
more mentally active during the lesson. Another strength of new instructional technologies is that
they are highly interactive, a quality that can result in more
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
THE PRINCIPLE OF MULTIPLE RESPONSES
When you pose a question to your class and the pupils give a wrong response, you may give
them another chance. As a teacher, you are applying the principle of multiple responses when
you give your pupils the chance to try and get a correct answer to a question or a problem. The
principle states that man or animal may try many responses before getting the right response
through the process of trial and error. Trial and error learning was discovered by E.KL.
Thorndike.
THE PRINCIPLE OF MENTAL SET
Worthman, Loftus and Marshall (1988) mental set is a tendency to transfer previously learned
knowledge to new situations. The ability to apply or transfer previous ideas to solving new
problems. Thus transfer of learning For learning to occur, a positive mental set in pupils is an
essential condition because an inappropriate mental set leads to counter-productive behaviour.
The pupils’ mind must be in the classroom and focused on what is being taught before learning
can take place.
THE PRINCIPLE OF PARTIAL ACTIVITY

This means engaging pupils to perform activities one after the other. In trying to manage to
capture the attention of the pupils to focus only on the lesson, you are using the principle of
partial activity.
THE PRINCIPLE OF ANALOGY OR ASSIMILATION
This principle states that when an individual encounters a new situation or problem for which
he or she has no natural or learned response, the response he or she makes will resemble an
earlier response to a similar situation. For instance, a child who only knows the concept dog
would also call a goat, a dog, since they look similar. Assimilation involves adding new
information to old way of thinking or behaving.
CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORIES AND APPLICATION TO RESOURCES

DEVELOPMENT AND SELECTION (VYGOTSKY AND PIAGET)
Constructivist view of learning is the idea that students actively construct their knowledge from
their personal experiences with others and with the environment. There are two types of
constructivism, individual and social constructivism. Individual constructivism is largely
inspired by the work of Piaget (1954). According to this constructivist perspective, the role of
technology is to provide instructional materials and environments where students can make
intellectual choices for themselves as they construct knowledge in their minds. Recall that Piaget
argued that cognitive development is the process of encountering a contradiction about one’s
beliefs and becoming motivated to resolve the cognitive conflict by finding new information that
can restore equilibrium. Social constructivism is largely based on the work of Vygotsky (1978).
According to this learning perspective, it is by sharing individual perspectives with others that
learners are able to construct understandings together that would not be possible to construct
individually (Gauvain, 2001). Vygotsky (1978) clearly states the essential role of social
collaboration in learning: “Learning awakens a variety of internal developmental processes that
are able to operate only when the child is interacting with people in his environment and in
cooperation with his peers”.
Inquiry-based learning includes technologies that support individual constructivism by

presenting students with opportunities to carry out experiments, process data collected by
sensors, and interpret the results of different graphical representations.
Cognitive tutors and collaborative computer-based environments are technologies that can
help students construct meaningful understandings by interacting with others. Let’s take a look at
some examples of these constructivist technologies.

Inquiry-Based Technologies. With the support of computer software, students can engage in the
inquiry process by conducting virtual experiments, engaging in online investigations, and
pursuing scientific activities that are similar to those performed by actual scientists. Inquiry-
based instructional programs typically use a guided-discovery method, which consists of
providing hints and directions when students are at an impasse in solving a problem or answering
a question.
BGuILE is an inquiry-based computer environment for learning biology (Reiser et al., 2001).
This software provides access to data and tools that students can use to test hypotheses and
record and communicate their findings. The program is designed to scaffold students’ inquiry
activities as they complete relevant tasks using prompts, hints, or reminders.
Web Quest is a technology that engages students in collaborative inquiry. Teachers can use Web
Quests to promote inquiry-based learning and collaborative learning simultaneously. Web Quests
are teacher-designed environments that provide useful information, resources, and guidance to
accomplish a variety of academic activities. They are a good way to introduce students to
Internet searching and to collaborating with each other on projects. Many Web Quests are
designed so that different members of a collaborative group work on different roles.
Another characteristic of many inquiry-based programs is that they include microcomputer-

based laboratories (MBLs) and micro-worlds. MBLs allow students to build on their knowledge
and correct misconceptions by presenting sensors and probes for a variety of scientific variables
(Nakhleh, 1994; Trumper & Gelbman, 2002). MBLs are typically attached to a computer to
display the results of their measures. Micro-worlds are simulations that visually demonstrate how
things work in the real world. Simulations are most useful when they demonstrate processes that
are invisible (e.g., the seasons of the earth) or difficult to perceive accurately because in real life
the process would be too quick (e.g., the movements of a dancer) or too slow (e.g., the long-term
changes in an ecosystem). Simulations also present a training advantage when safety during
practice is at stake, such as the case of a flight simulator or a surgery simulator to train pilot and
medical students, respectively. Microworlds can be powerful tools to foster cognitive
development because students are able to test their misconceptions in vivo (Grabe & Grabe,
2001; Nickerson, 1995.
Cognitive tutors are intelligent tutoring systems that develop cognitive models of students’
knowledge and thinking as they interact with the computer program. In these technology-based
environments, students receive the benefits of individualized instruction, including practice with
immediate feedback, online help, and coaching. Tutors monitor students’ problem solving to
determine what they know and don’t know, allowing instruction to be directed at what still needs
to be mastered and ensuring that students’ learning time is spent efficiently. The instructional
method underlying cognitive tutors is apprenticeship, in which a learner first observes how the
tutor performs a task (e.g., problem solving, essay writing), then performs the task with the help
of the tutor’s prompts and hints, which are gradually faded as the learner shows mastery of the
skills (Bonk & Cunningham, 1998). The most widely used cognitive tutor program is probably
Carnegie Learning’s Cognitive Tutor, which combines individualized computer lessons with
collaborative, real-world problem-solving
Problem-Based Learning Tools. The Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt University
(CTGV, 2000) developed a problem-based learning tool that is a videodisc learning environment
for fifth- and sixth-grade mathematics learning. The series, called The Adventures of Jasper
Woodbury, presents learners with real-world situations that require applying knowledge in
various domains (e.g., math, science, history) to solve the problem. Over three to five class
periods, students are typically arranged in small groups to view a Jasper adventure, re-explore
the video to find the data needed to solve the problem, and present their solutions to their fellow
classmates. After discussing the pros and cons of different solutions to a Jasper adventure,
students work on extension problems that engage them in “what if” thinking by revisiting the
original adventures from new points of view. For example, after proposing the use of an ultra-
light airplane to rescue a wounded eagle in one of Jasper’s adventures, students may be asked to
rethink how the presence of headwinds or tailwinds would affect their original solution. A
distinctive characteristic of the Jasper series is that it consists of anchored instruction, which is
problem-based learning including an anchor—the rich, interesting problem situation around
which students focus their thinking. These adventures are aimed at helping students solve
problems in authentic contexts and develop transferable knowledge and skills. Jasper-trained
classrooms performed significantly better than control classrooms on a test where students were
required to plan a solution to a word problem and to break the problem into sub-goals (CTGV,
1996, 2000). The videodisc series is an example of technology as a vehicle to promote active
problem solving in realistic contexts. However, more research is needed to better understand
how the series helps problem solving. Because the Jasper series includes several methods for
problem solving (inquiry methods, cooperative learn
Knowledge-Building Communities. This technology consists of a computer-based system in

which students collaborate with other students to build knowledge about any topic that is being
studied. The system creates an ongoing shared database that can be accessed by students and
teachers at any time. A well-known knowledge-building community system is Knowledge
Forum®, which provides students and teachers with a collaborative space in which to share ideas
and data (Scardamalia, 2004). Students start with an empty knowledge base that develops from a
question or issue that is the center of their meaning negotiation. Then students submit ideas,
reorganize the knowledge, and ultimately construct new collective understandings. Knowledge
Forum®displays the individual contributions of each student with a knowledge map and
provides scaffolds for reflection and theory building (see Figure 14.8). A study that used an
earlier version of Knowledge Forum®called CSILE showed significant advances in textual,

graphical, and computer literacy, as well as in depth of inquiry and collaboration processes
(Scardamalia, Bereiter, & Lamon, 1994).

UNIT 6:
VISUAL DESIGN AND INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA PRODUCTION
VISUAL DESIGN
Visual design is the use of imagery, color, shapes, typography, and form to enhance usability and
improve the user experience.
Instructional Media
Instructional media production (IMP) encompasses all the materials and physical means an
instructor might use to implement instruction and facilitate students' achievement of instructional
objectives. This may include computer labs, classroom technology, blackboard, audio and video
conferencing.
BASIC ELEMENTS FOR CREATING VISUAL DESIGN
 Colour: The result of light reflecting from an object to the human eye. The colour that
our eyes perceive is determined by the pigment of the object itself.
 Line: It is an element of art defined by point moving in space or a continuous movement

of dots from one point. It can be vertical, horizontal, diagonal or curved.
 Point: This the beginning of something from nothing. It forces the mind to think upon its
position and gives something to build upon in both imagination and space.
 Shape: A shape is defined as a two-dimensional area that stands out from the space next
to OR around it due to a defined or implied boundary or because of differences in value,
colour, or texture. Shapes are recognizable objects and forms and are usually composed
of other elements of design. Examples are squares, triangles and kites.
 Texture: It refers to the physical and visual qualities of a surface.
 Form: In visual design, form is described as the way an artist arranges elements in the
entirety of a composition. It may also be described as as any three-dimensional object.
Form can be measured from top to bottom (height), side to side (width) and from back to
front (depth). It can also be defined by light and dark tones. There are two types of form
i.e geometric (artificial) and natural (organic form).

 Value: Value refers to the degree of lightness and darkness of a specific hue. Changes in
the value create contrast on a page. If colour values are close between the elements and
space then the design will look flat. Value is also important in photography.
TECHNIQUES/STRATEGIES OF MEDIA PRODUCTION
1. Direct instruction: This approach is also referred to as teacher-centered. Here, the

has all the resources for students in the class. Examples are lecturing, didactic
questions and power point presentation.
2. Individual study: It is an approach where the teacher gives instruction to students to

do something then the students do it by themselves (individually) and they will also
consult their works to the teacher. Simply put, teacher-student-teacher-student.
Examples of this method are giving essay assignments, reports, project work, journals
etc.
3. Indirect instruction: It is a kind of believe that the learning is more meaningful

when the students can seek and discover their own knowledge. Examples are debates,
brainstorming group investigation etc.
4. Experimental: It is a kind of that is applied by giving students the experience in

whatever is being learnt. Examples are field trips, science lab practical etc.
5. Collaborative learning: This is where they are put into various groups to discuss,
share, explore, ask questions, complete projects and interact with one another.
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
 Contrast: It refers to how different elements are in a design, particularly adjacent

elements. These differences make various elements stand out. Text content in particular
are very difficult to read especially for people with visual impairment.
 Balance: Every element of a design - typography, colours, images, shapes, patterns etc
carries a visual weight. There are two types of balance: symmetrical and asymmetrical.
Symmetrical designs layout elements of equal weight of either side of an imaginary
centre line. Asymmetrical balance uses elements of different weights, often laid out in
relation to a line that is centred within the overall design.
 Emphasis: It deals with the parts of a design that are meant to stand out. In most cases,
this means the most important information the designs intend to convey.
 Proportion: It is the size of elements in relation to one another. Proportion signals what
is important in a design and what is not.

 Hierarchy: It refers to the importance of elements within a design. Hierarchy is most
easily illustrated through the use of titles and headings in a design.
 Repetition: It can be done in a number of ways via repeating the same colours, type
faces, shapes or other elements of a design.
 Rhythm: It can be used to create a number of feelings. They can create excitement
(particularly flowing and progressive rhythms) or create reassurance and consistency.
 Pattern: In design, patterns can also refer to set standards for how certain elements are
designed. For example, top navigation is a design pattern that majority of internet users
have interacted with.
 Movement: It refers to the way the eye travels over a design. This is done through
positioning. The eye falls naturally on certain areas of a design first and place emphasis
and other design elements such as line, shape, texture etc.
 Variety: It is used to create visual interest. Without variety, a design can very quickly
become monotonous, causing the user to lose interest. It can be created through colour,
typography, images, shapes and virtually any other design element.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
1. Cone of experience
2. Visual symbols contain graphs, cartoons, comic strips and other visual symbols.
3. Recordings and still pictures.
4. Motion pictures-It is about movies or films on a certain group.
5. Educational television.
6. Exhibits - artifacts, tools, costumes.
7. Study trips
8. Demonstration
9. Verbal symbols
Instructional Tools
Teachers can present new information to their students by using PowerPoint presentations. This
computer application allows teachers to present clear outlines or summaries, which can also be
combined with graphs, pictures, video clips, and even previously scanned student work. Other
state-of-the-art technologies that teachers can use to support instruction are electronic
whiteboards, which have the same function as the traditional blackboards except that anything
that is written on the board can be saved and later distributed to students, and liquid crystal
displays (LCDs), which are replacing the traditional overhead projectors and TV monitors. LCDs
are able to display any visual information from a computer, DVD, or the Internet.
Management Tools
Teachers can also use technology to make their classroom management tasks more efficient. To
help with organization, teachers can now keep records of students’ academic progress and
attendance using database or spreadsheet programs and PDAs, which include calendars,
appointment and phone books, and other useful organizational tools. Many schools have adopted
a centralized information system whereby teachers and administrators access student records and
update information related to their achievement and behavior (O’Lone, 1997).
Assessment Tools
Teachers can do most grade recording and calculations using either generic spread-sheet
programs (e.g., Microsoft Excel) or software packages that are specifically designed for grading.
When using a spread-sheet, you can create a row for each one of your students and a column
corresponding to each assignment. Spread-sheet software can calculate weighted scores,
percentages, and even translate point or percentage grades into letter grades. In addition, there
are many electronic grade-book options with varied costs and features, ranging from free
downloadable programs available through the Internet to programs that entire schools can use
after paying a moderate license fee. These packages are superior to standard spread-sheets
because they include templates for individual and classroom grade reports that can be
customized to the needs of the teacher. Research finds that electronic grade-books help the
speed, accuracy, organization, and customization of classroom grading.

UNIT 7
MODELS, MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT, STORAGE AND EVALUATION
MODEL
A three-dimensional representation of a person or thing or of a proposed structure, typically on a

smaller scale than the original. A systematic description of an object or phenomenon that shares
important characteristics with the object or phenomenon.
Material development is basically dealing with. Selection, adaptation, and creation of teaching.
Materials (Nunan, 1991). In practice, it focused on evaluation, adaptation of published materials.
Storage an action or method of storing something (information) for future use. Storage can also
be a process through which digital data is saved within a data storage device by means of
computing technology. Storage is a mechanism that enables a computer to retain data, either
temporarily or permanently.
Evaluation is a process that critically examines a program. It involves collecting and analyzing
information about a program's activities, characteristics, and outcomes.
WAYS OF DEVELOPING LEARNING MATERIALS (USING LOW/NO COST

MATERIALS)
Definition of No Cost Low Cost Study Materials
Low cost/no cost materials are the teaching aids which require no cost or available cheaply, and
developed by locally available resources and expedite the process of learning in the classroom.
Low cost/no cost materials are developed from the waste and help the teachers in making the
teaching interesting and concrete. . Examples; cardboards, disposable cups etc.
IMPORTANCE OF LOW / NO COST STUDY MATERIALS
 Low cost teaching aids can be used in nursery, primary, secondary, etc.
 Low cost teaching aids con be used for supplementary and illustrative education on the
science as well as the humanities.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING MATERIALS
The following are the important criteria to consider when evaluating the suitability of materials
for a medical device. These factors must be viewed through the lens of major trends in

healthcare, from the aging of the population to the move to home-based care and the increased
emphasis on preventing hospital-acquired infections (HAIs).
1. Availability
One of the baseline requirements for any material is consistently reliable availability. If
quantities sufficient for current and future needs are not readily available, a new device’s time to
market and sales potential could be negatively impacted.
2. Design flexibility
Materials are instrumental to the design freedoms that drive device innovation. Plastics alone, for
example, can be molded into complex shapes or consolidated from multiple parts to enable
simpler, more elegant designs.
3. Cost per unit
Material costs are a critical aspect of any material considered to be used but companies need to
look beyond the simple price of a plastic or metal to assess its true lifecycle costs.
4. Performance properties
Central to the material selection process is matching performance capabilities to device

specifications.
5. Regulatory compliance
Although regulatory bodies certify the safety and efficacy of finished materials rather than their
component materials, a detailed master access file for a certain material can often help smooth
the road to device approval.
Factors Contributing to Ineffective Materials Preparation
 Teacher's Knowledge
 Poor Condition
 Lack of Supply of Materials
 Lack of fund
 Student population
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY AND ADAPTIVE TECHNOLOGY

Assistive technology is assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices for People with disability
or the elderly population. People with disability often have difficulty performing activities of
daily living independently, or even with assistance.
Adaptive Technology refers to special versions of already existing technologies or tools that
provide enhancements or different ways of interacting with the technology. The adaptation helps
individuals with a disability or impairment accomplish a specific task. Examples include: Large
print books, Digitized text, Good lighting, Large monitors, Software to adjust screen colors,
Computers with voice output, Computers with visual output, Electronic mail, Word prediction
software, Adjustable tables, Keyboard modifications, Alternative types of keyboard and mouse,
Accessibility tools built into popular OS, browsers, and software, etc.
TYPES OF ASSISTIVE/ADAPTIVE TECHNOLOGY
There are many kinds of assistive/adaptive technologies that address the different needs of
people with disabilities. These can include (but are certainly not limited to):
 Mobility aids: These include walkers, wheelchairs, and other items that can help people get
around.
 Augmentative and Assistive Communication Systems (AACs): AACs are used by people
who have difficulty communicating with unassisted speech. A very famous example of an
AAC is the communication system used by physicist Stephen Hawking.
 Technologies for the visually impaired: These include braille printers, screen readers,
computer magnification programs, and other devices.
 Technologies for the hearing impaired: These include hearing aids, cochlear implants,
teletype phones, etc.
 Technologies for feeding issues: These include curved utensils designed for people with
limited dexterity, dishes that stick to the table to minimize spills, ergonomic bottle openers,
and more.
 Vehicular modifications: These include adaptive steering systems, wheelchair ramps, and
other features that help people with disabilities to drive or ride in cars.
 Home modifications: These include things like handrails near the toilet, non-slip mats, and
voice command systems
ADVANTAGES OF ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY FOR SEN
1. Creates awareness

2. It builds social bridges
3. Have greater control over their own lives
4. Students are given the opportunity to socialize with more students
5. Students are able to achieve academic standards
DISADVANTAGES OF ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY FOR SEN
1. Training is required.
2. It is time consuming.
3. Assistive Technology are very costly.
4. Complexity.
5. Human contact.
CLASSIFICATION OF ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY/ RESOURCES
1. Projected or Non-projected.
2. Audio, visual or a combination of both.
3. Kinesthetic/ Observational.
WAYS IN WHICH RESOURCES CAN BE STORED
1. Traditional hard/ Physical resources: it can be Stored in a centralized place where

everybody can have access.
2. Information technology resources: less space is required and can be anywhere if access can
be anywhere if using a cloud bused or internet-based stored system. Access can be controlled
through password protection systems.
GENDER AUDIT
A gender audit is a tool to access and check the institutionalization of gender equality into
organization, including in their policies, programs, projects and provision of services, structures,
proceedings and budgets.

UNIT 8
MANAGING INCLUSIVE LEARNING SETTINGS/CLASSROOMS
THE CONCEPT OF INCLUSIVE LEARNING

Inclusive learning recognizes all students’ entitlement to a learning experience that respects
diversity, enables participation, removes barriers, anticipates and considers a variety of learning
needs and preferences. Inclusive learning settings and classrooms describes the range of
approaches to teaching that consider the diverse needs and background of all students to create a
learning environment where all students feel valued and all students have equal access to learn.
Inclusive learning setting is about how to develop and design our schools, classrooms, programs
and activities so that all students learn and participate together.
Inclusive learning classroom is about ensuring access to quality education for all students by
effectively meeting their diverse needs in a way that is responsive, accepting, respectful and
supportive. Students participate in the educational program in a common learning environment
(classroom) with the support to diminish and remove barriers and obstacles that may lead to
exclusion. Inclusive learning is carried out in a common learning environment; that is an
educational setting (classroom) where students from different backgrounds and with different
abilities learn together in an inclusive environment. But rather not a classroom where students
with intellectual disabilities or other special needs learn in isolation from their peers.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INCLUSIVE LEARNING
 Inclusive learning classroom settings provide supports to children, teachers and classrooms
as a necessary way to ensure that all children can participate in their school and classroom
activities.
 Educational goals and objectives are designed according to each students’ (child’s) abilities.
 Inclusive classroom settings have teachers who have knowledge about different ways of
teaching so that students with various abilities and strengths can learn together.
 Teachers and parents work together to determine the most effective ways of providing
quality education in an inclusive environment.
 Inclusive learning fosters a culture of respect and belonging. That is it provides the
opportunity to learn about others and accept individual differences.
Classes are designed in ways that help students to learn and achieve their fullest potentials (for
example by developing adequate, suitable and appropriate teaching and learning materials) to
provide a quality inclusive educational environment.
MULTI-GRADE CLASSROOM

The concept of multi-grade involves the teaching of children (students) from two or more grade
levels in one classroom. Multi-grade occurs in primary education when a teacher has to teach
two or more primary grade levels in the same class. In general, multi-grade learning refers to the
teaching of students of different ages, grades and abilities in the same classroom. Multi-grade
learning is also situation where a single teacher has to take responsibility for teaching students
across more than one curriculum. Multi-grade classes are a type of class where students from
different grades are placed in the same class. The reason(s) for their formation vary but always
relate to the number of students, the number of available teachers or both. Multi-grade teaching
is a common teaching practice throughout the world, in both developed and developing countries.
In multi-age classes, students are taught according to their developmental stages. Decisions about
student learning in multi-grade classes are not based on assumptions related to their ages or
grade level but rather on the learning support the individual requires which is actually a basic
motive behind “Education for All”. Multi-grade classes are heterogenous classes organized to
simultaneously help children(students) of different grades or developmental levels with a variety
of needs.
For example, teaching materials and activities are organized according to the stages and learning
phases of the children in the classroom. Multi-grade learning (classrooms) are ways to keep
small schools open and to educate children in areas with diminishing populations. It is an
innovative school reform to offer equitable educational opportunities for young students in rural
areas(schools).
CHARACTERISTICS OF MULTI-GRADE LEARNING
 Each child is accepted at his/her own pace or the developmental learning situation. The
teacher takes time to assess, evaluate and plan next steps for each child. Separate subjects are
replaced by an integrated curriculum which engages children(students) in meaningful
activities that explore concepts and topics relevant and meaningful to the lives of the
children.
 In multi-grade classrooms, teachers employ versatile approaches and utilize different
strategies to make learning meaningful and effective to all students, no matter the individual
differences that may exist among the students.
 Multi-grade classrooms are made up of students with different ages and grade levels to be
 Socially and academically integrated into a single learning community.
CHALLENGES FOR TEACHING INCLUSIVE AND MULTI-GRADE CLASSROOM

Multi-grade system is difficult to implement in large schools with heavy population. When the
number of students or pupils are in high quantity this creates problems in the traditional teaching
method classroom such that the classroom cannot occupy the number of pupils or students and
also teaching in a class of high number of students may not be effective as compared to teaching
a small number of students or pupils.
Textbooks in use for teaching only meet the need of mono grade teaching. As students with
different grades are combined, the textbook used in teaching may not teach or further the
curriculum of the study, it can also happen vice versa such that the textbook used in teaching
may teach or direct instructions at a high level such as teaching whereby the content of the
textbook uses high or unlearnt terminologies and processes in teaching.
Inadequate material resources in remote areas, teachers passivity, irregularity, ill planning and
non-accountability. The supply of textbooks or other learning gadgets may be limited since there
is a large class size.
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Plato has rightly said, “Do not train students to learn by force and harshly but direct them to do it
by what amuses them so that you may be able to better discover with accuracy the peculiar bent
of the genius of each”.
Teaching is not controlling but rather working with the students to learn, grow and succeed
together. By having strong student-teacher relationships, the classroom will be a place for each
member to express their feelings and work together. Academic success depends on these close
relationships and guidance that students and teachers have with one another.
Classroom Management refers to the wide variety of skills and techniques that teachers use to
keep students organized, orderly, focused, attentive, on task and academically productive during
a class. It can also be a term teachers use to describe the process of ensuring that classroom
lessons run smoothly without disruptive behaviour from students compromising the delivery of
instructions. When classroom management strategies are executed effectively, teachers minimize
the behaviours that impede learning for both individual students and group of students whilst
maximizing the behaviours that facilitate or enhance learning.
Generally speaking, it is a difficult aspect of teaching for many teachers. Effective teachers tend
to display stronger classroom management skills whilst the hallmark of the inexperienced or less
effective teachers is a disorderly classroom filled with students who are not working or paying
attention hence problems in this area causes some to abandon the teaching profession.
PURPOSE OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
According to Evertson and Weinstein (2006), classroom management has two different purposes;
“It doesn’t only seek to establish and sustain an orderly environment that students can engage in
meaningful academic learning, it also aims to enhance students social and moral growth”.
Classroom management is a multi-faceted activity and extends beyond the traditional
management techniques recommended to deal with students with disruptive behaviour. Teachers
should develop caring, supportive relationships with and amongst students, organize and
implement instruction in ways that optimize students’ access to learning. They may use group
management methods and also use appropriate interventions that encourage students’
engagement with academic tasks.
TYPES OF ACADEMIC MANAGEMENT
 Use of appropriate language

 Model ideal behaviour
 Maintain eye contact
 Keep phones away from eyesight
 Active contribution from one another
 Raise concerns about one another’s statement in a respectful manner.
 Let students help establish guidelines. Encourage all students to help build classroom rules as
you will generate more buy in than just telling them what they are allowed to do.
 Avoid punishing the class: Address isolated behaviour issues instead of punishing an entire
class as the later can hurt your relationship with students altogether.
 Offer praise: Praise students for tasks well done as doing so improves academic and
behavioural performance.
 Hold parties: Throw occasional classroom parties to acknowledge students’ hard work,
motivating them to keep it up. Even if it’s just for 20-30 minutes, they should be happy with
snacks and a selection of group games to play.
Problems in Managing an Inclusive Classroom Setting
 Lack of teamwork, empathy and support among students.
 Teachers working too many roles at the same time.
 Not enough time to plan lessons.
 Indiscipline on the part of students.
 Inappropriate learning materials

Approaches and Strategies for Managing Inclusive and Multi-Grade Classrooms
The multi-grade teachers have to deal with a class of students that often has a very wide range of
ages and consequently of learning abilities, all together in the same room. Thus, most of the
times it is not feasible for the teacher to encounter teaching of the class as a whole. Teachers
should not use just the usual style of teaching that they have been trained for, i.e., teaching a
single class of students in one subject at the time. Above all they must be dedicated and willing
to work hard to overcome the problems and the peculiarities of multigrade education.
The situation in the multigrade classroom is completely different, not only teachers have to teach
more than one grade of students in the same classroom, but also most of the time they have to
teach different subject to each grade. In order to be effective, multigrade school teachers must
utilize very good planning and develop teaching and learning strategies specially targeted for
their classrooms.
They have to be flexible and use various teaching methods (grouping, individualized instruction,
independent study, team-teaching, group project work, peer tutoring etc.) according to their
specific teaching needs at the time. The use of such strategies not only supports the educational
work of the teachers and serves the national curriculum goals, but also represent flexible
methods that encourage children to be independent and develop their personalities: they gain the
skills and attitudes of "learning to learn".
The purpose of this document is to present briefly the basic teaching strategies used in most
multigrade classrooms, their main characteristics and provide simple instructions on how
multigrade teachers can implement these methods in their own classroom settings. Several
variations and alternations or developments on the basic teaching strategies exist and the most
important of them are presented here also.
According to Collingwood's book, Multiclass Teaching in Primary Schools, a handbook that was
published in 1991 by the UNESCO Office for the Pacific States, there are three main methods to
use for teaching in multigrade classrooms, namely:
• Whole Class Teaching
• Group Teaching
• Self-directed learning
These three basic teaching strategies are indicative as well as characteristic for the multigrade
setting and can be used in combination among them or separately depending on the situation.
Thus, it is equally important for the teacher not only to comprehend and know how to implement
a strategy but also to know when to use these teaching methods or what strategy combination to
choose.
As a multigrade teacher, you are the key to planning, designing, and managing a range of both
grade-appropriate and mixed-grade activities for children to keep them engaged in learning.
Your efficiency and effectiveness rest on creating a classroom for conducive learning.
EFFECTIVE TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR THE CLASSROOM
 Visualization: Bring dull academic concepts to life with visual and practical learning
experiences, helping your students to understand how their schooling applies in the real-
world.
 Cooperative learning.
 Inquiry-based instruction.
 Differentiation.
 Technology in the classroom.
 Behaviour management.
 Professional development

UNIT 9
LEARNING PLANNING AND PREPARATION
PREPARATION AND PLANNING
Preparation and planning are a critical component of effective teaching. Lack thereof will lead to
failure. If anything, every teacher should be over prepared. Good teachers are almost in a
continuous state of preparation and planning. They are always thinking about the next lesson.
The impact of preparation and planning is tremendous on student learning. A common misnomer
is that teachers only work from 8:00 – 3:00, but when the time for preparing and planning is
accounted for, the time increases significantly.
WHY PROPER PREPARATION AND PLANNING
 Make you a better teacher: A significant part of planning and preparation is conducting
research. Studying educational theory and examining best practices helps define and
shape your own teaching philosophy. Studying the content that you teach in depth will
also help you grow and improve.
 Boost student performance and achievement: As a teacher, you should have the
content that you teach mastered. You should understand what you are teaching, why you
are teaching it, and you should create a plan for how to present it to your students every
single day. This ultimately benefits your students. It is your job as a teacher to not only
present the information but to present in a way that resonates with the students and makes
it important enough for them to want to learn it. This comes through planning,
preparation, and experience.
 Make the day go by faster: Downtime is a teacher’s worst enemy. Many teachers use
the term “free time”. This is simple code for I did not take the time to plan
enough. Teachers should prepare and plan enough material to last the entire class period
or school day. Every second of every day should matter. When you plan enough students
remain engaged, the day goes by quicker, and ultimately student learning is maximized.
 Minimize classroom discipline issues: Boredom is the number one cause of acting out.
Teachers who develop and present engaging lessons on a daily basis rarely have
classroom discipline issues. Students enjoy going to these classes because learning is fun.
These types of lessons do not just happen. Instead, they are created through careful
planning and preparation.
 Make you confident in what you do: Confidence is an important characteristic for a
teacher to possess. If for nothing else, portraying confidence will help your students buy
what you are selling. As a teacher, you never want to ask yourself if you could have done
more to reach a student or group of students. You might not like how a particular lesson
goes, but you should take pride in knowing that it was not because you lacked in
preparation and planning.
 Help earn the respect of your peers and administrators: Teachers know which
teachers are putting in the necessary time to be an effective teacher and which teachers
are not. Investing extra time in your classroom will not go unnoticed by those around you.
They may not always agree with how you run your classroom, but they will have a
natural respect for you when they see how hard you work at your craft.
SCHEME OF WORK
A scheme of work defines the structure and content of an academic course. It splits an often-
multi-year curriculum into deliverable units of work, each of a far shorter weeks' duration (e.g.
two or three weeks). Each unit of work is then analysed out into teachable individual topics of
even shorter duration (e.g. two hours or less).
Better schemes of work map out clearly how resources (e.g. books, equipment, time) and class
activities (e.g. teacher-talk, group work, practicals, discussions) and assessment strategies (e.g.
tests, quizzes, Q&A, homework) will be used to teach each topic and assess students' progress in
learning the material associated with each topic, unit and the scheme of work as a whole. As
students’ progress through the scheme of work, there is an expectation that their perception of
the interconnections between topics and units will be enhanced.
Schemes of work may include times and dates (deadlines) for delivering the different elements of
the curriculum. Philosophically, this is linked to a belief that all students should be exposed to all
elements of the curriculum such that those who are able to "keep up" ("the best" / elite) do not
miss out on any content and can achieve the highest grades. This might be described as a
"traditionalist" view.
There is a conflicting philosophical view that deadlines should be avoided and that each class
should progress at its own pace: such that no student is "left behind". Whilst the remaining
students "catch up", those students who understand quickly should be placed in a "holding
pattern" full of puzzles and questions that challenge them to connect recent learning with longer-
established learning (they may also be encouraged to spend a small amount of time enhancing
their understanding by supporting teaching staff in unpicking underlying errors/questions of
fellow students who have not grasped recent ideas as quickly)
Components of an Effective Lesson Plan for All Grade Levels?

1. Necessary Materials
2. Clear Objectives
3. Background Knowledge
4. Direct Instruction
5. Student Practice
6. Closure
7. Demonstration of Learning (Quick Assessment)
1. Gather Your Materials
What will you need to teach this lesson? This includes student supplies as well as your own.
Don’t forget about technology such as your document camera and laptop.
Make sure you have everything situated so you’re ready to roll when your students arrive. You
don’t want to be scrambling around in the middle of a lesson trying to locate the protractors
which you thought were in that bottom cabinet, only to realize at the last minute they’re not there.
Having your resources lined up ahead of time saves valuable class time and gives you great
peace of mind. When your materials are in place, you can devote all your energy to teaching the
lesson.
2. Know Your Class Objectives
What exactly do you want your students to be able to do by the end of the lesson? This should be
clearly communicated to your students orally at the very beginning of the lesson and posted in a
highly visible location in your classroom.
It's helpful to have a specific place in your room where you regularly post your objectives, and to
have a set routine in terms of how you introduce the objectives, such as asking your students to
read them aloud with you at the beginning of class each day.
Communicating the learning objectives to your students, both verbally and in writing, serves to
motivate them to work with a clear purpose in mind, and it makes it easier for you and your
students to stay on target throughout the lesson.
The objectives should be the ongoing focus of your lesson. Maximize your effort to create
successful learning outcomes with SMART objectives. SMART stands for specific, measurable,
attainable, relevant, and time-bound.

After you've modeled a few examples, allow your students to participate in the process with you.
3. Activate Background Knowledge
Set the stage by tapping into your students’ background knowledge – previous life experiences,
prior learning, or both – to prepare them for the new concept you’re about to introduce.
The point is to make connections between what your students already know and what you're
going to teach them. For example, if you’re about to present a lesson on using metaphors and
similes in writing, start out by discussing what makes a story engrossing to a reader.
Involve your students in the discussion by asking them to share their thoughts based on gripping
stories they’ve read. Some responses you may get are: “interesting characters," “interesting plot,"
“suspense," “ability to relate to the characters or plot.”
Perhaps you have taught other forms of figurative language such as hyperboles and
personification, earlier in the school year. Review these briefly. These discussions will lead right
into your lesson of using metaphors and similes as additional ways to make a story captivating to
readers!
Be sure to model plenty of examples as part of your direct instruction.
4. Direct Instruction
This is the “meat” of your lesson plan. It’s where you present the new concept that is included in
the lesson objectives.
Prepare your students for success by pre-teaching key vocabulary words that are essential to
understanding the concept or text you will introduce to them. When students know these key
words in advance, they can focus more of their energy into learning the concept or understanding
the text.
Speak clearly and concisely. Less is more as long as you stay on topic. Use the board or a
document camera as you model what you’re teaching. If the lesson involves a process, then show
the process. Speak aloud as you model through it, explaining each step as you go along.
Be sure to take your time. Modeling is a critical part of direct instruction. When students watch
and listen to you apply the concept, they are much better able to understand what you're trying to
teach them. It is important to model multiple examples of the concept you're introducing!

When you teach, the key is to gradually release your students from watching you model the
correct application of the concept to allowing them to apply the concept independently. It's a
process!
Circulate the room as students participate in collaborative activities, offering assistance as

needed.
Pixabay
5. Student Practice
Student practice consists of 3 steps: guided practice, collaborative practice, and independent
practice.
This 3-step process allows you to gradually release your students from watching you model the
correct application of the concept to allowing them to apply the concept independently.
1. Guided Practice
After you’ve presented the new concept and modeled a few examples on your own, involve your
students in a few additional examples using the board or document camera. They will gain
confidence as they go through the process with you!
Converse with them through the process, questioning them when they offer their input, as you
maintain your role as leader. At this point, they're still "under your wing" as you walk them
through the process, but you're allowing them to participate in the process with you.
2. Collaborative Practice
This is where students get to apply the new concept in cooperative activities. This includes
working with a partner, in small groups, or in larger groups.
Circulate the room to check for understanding as students work. Pause to clarify as needed. If
you notice an area where many students are confused or struggling, stop and address this
particular point with the entire class.
If necessary, go back and model a few additional examples followed by additional guided
practice. You want to make sure your students are applying the concept correctly rather than
practicing mistakes.
3. Independent Practice

Once students have had the opportunity to apply and practice the concept with their classmates
through collaborative activities, it's time for them to apply and practice the concept on their own!
This is where you can see if they really "got it."
Continue to circulate the room to check for understanding. You will notice which students have
really grasped the concept and which students need you to take them a step back, offer more
guided practice, and then gradually release them again to independent application of the concept.
6. Closure
This is where you “wrap it up.” It’s a quick synopsis of the lesson.
You may want to ask students to pair share or to share out something they learned that period, or
to provide an example of the concept taught. Keep it short and sweet.
Example: “Today we learned about metaphors and similes. Tell your partner one example of a
simile and one example of a metaphor.”
7. Demonstration of Learning (Quick Assessment)
The demonstration of learning (D.O.L.) assessment evaluates whether or not your students met
your lesson objectives. It aims to provide you with valuable feedback which should drive your
instruction. Make sure the D.O.L. accurately reflects the learning objectives and allows your
students to apply what they learned during the lesson.
The D.O.L. should always be completed independently without any teacher assistance. It should
take most students no longer than five to ten minutes to complete, and can be a simple written
assignment. Some teachers call it an “exit ticket" to indicate that students must complete it
before they exit the classroom.
Student performance on the D.O.L. tells you if you need to go back and reteach the same lesson
the following day, or if your students are ready to move on to the next lesson.
WHAT TO CONSIDER WHEN WRITING A LESSON PLAN:
1) Know who your students are. Know ability levels; backgrounds; interest levels; attention
spans; ability to work together in groups; prior knowledge and learning experiences; special
needs or accommodations; and learning preferences. This may not happen as quickly as you
would like, but it is important for designing instruction that will meet the needs of your students.
That's key in successful teaching and learning!
2) Know your content. It is important for you to research the subject matter that you will be
teaching. You should also utilize curriculum guides published by the state in which you teach
and the local school district that employs you. It is also a good idea to know the national
standards and state standards that drive curriculum in each subject area that you are responsible
for. You can visit web sites that are devoted to curriculum frameworks and that will give you a
lot of information relative to your subject area. TeAch-nology.com has a large number of links
that will help you to search for information relative to the subject matter you are employed to
teach. One link that can help is as follows:
3) Know the materials that are available to help you teach for success. Take and keep an
inventory of the materials and resources that are available to you as a teacher. For example:
technology, software, audio/visuals, teacher mentors, community resources, equipment,
manipulative, library resources, local guest speakers, volunteers, or any materials that can assist
you in teaching.
PLANNING FOR INSTRUCTION
1) Content- List the important facts, key concepts, skills, or key vocabulary terms that you
intend to cover. You can also prepare an outline with key learning outcomes. Remember to refer
to your curriculum guides.
2) Goals- Identify the aims or outcomes that you want your students to achieve as a result of the
lesson you plan to teach. Goals are end products and are sometimes broad in nature. Goals relate
directly to the knowledge and skills you identify in part one: content.
3) Objectives- Identify the objectives that you hope your students will achieve in the tasks that
will engage them in the learning process. Objectives are behavioral in nature and are specific to
performance. Objectives tell what you will be observing in student performance and describe
criteria by which you can measure performance against. In many ways, objectives represent
indicators of performance that tell you, the teacher, to what extent a student is progressing in any
given task. Instructional objectives can start with a "given" that describes a condition that enables
your students to perform any given task. A "given" could be an activity, a specific set of
directions, materials needed to perform a task, an assignment, or anything that sets up a condition
for students to engage in the task being observed and measured for performance. The heart of the
objective is the task that the student is expected to perform. It is probably one of the most
important parts of the lesson plan because it is student centered and outcomes based. Objectives
can range from easy to hard tasks depending on student abilities.
3a) Materials- List the materials and resources that will be needed for the lesson to be successful.
In this case, you should also list technology resources needed to achieve objectives.
4) Introduction- Describe or list a focusing event or attention grabber that will motivate your
students to want to pay attention and learn about what you plan to teach. This will depend on the
ages and stages and of your students and will rely on students' interests and backgrounds.

Remember, getting your students to attend and respond to your introduction will set the stage for
the rest of the lesson.
5) Development- Describe how you plan to model or explain what you want your students to do.
Modeling the learning behaviors you expect of your students is a powerful development tool and
provides demonstration that students can then imitate or practice on their own. During
development, models of teaching are used to facilitate student learning. Models can include
direct instruction, inquiry, information processing strategies, or cooperative learning strategies.
More information on models of teaching can be found on the following link:
6) Practice- List or describe ways in which you will provide opportunities for your students to
practice what you want them to learn. The more opportunities you provide, the better chance
they have to master the expected outcomes. These opportunities are in-classroom assignments or
tasks that give you, the teacher, the chance to guide and monitor progress. There are tons of
activities that you can download from the net; TeAch-nology.com provides a comprehensive
source of links to activities for all subject areas. Go to the Teacher Resources section of the site
and click on lesson plans, quick activities, etc.
7) Independent Practice- List or describe ways to provide opportunities for your students to
complete assignments to measure progress against the goal of instruction. These assignments are
meant to give teachers the chance to determine whether students have truly mastered the
expected outcomes. Remember to only plan for tasks that you believe students can accomplish
without your guidance.
8) Accommodations- List or describe ways that you will differentiate instruction according to
students' needs. This can include any curricular adaptations that are needed to meet special needs
students. For more on differentiating instruction, go to:
For more ideas on serving the needs of special education students, go to:
9) Checking For Understanding- - List or describe ways that you will check for understanding.
Assessment and ongoing feedback are necessary for monitoring progress. This can include
questioning, conferencing, or journal writing/reflection writing. TeAch-nology.com has a rubric
generator that can help develop a checklist for assessing ongoing student progress.
10) Closure- List or describe ways that you can wrap up a lesson. This can include telling
students the most important concepts that were covered in the lesson, asking them what they
thought were the key concepts (or what they learned), or preparing them for the next lesson
building upon what was presented. The key is to leave your students with an imprint of what you
hoped to achieve in any given lesson.

11) Evaluation- List or describe ways that you will assess or measure student success in
achieving the outcomes that you planned to reach. This can include a variety of ways to evaluate
student performance. The following links can help:
12) Teacher Reflection- This section is to be completed after lesson. It represents what you
think worked, or what did not work, and why. It is meant to give you some insight into practice
and will hopefully help you to make adjustments and modifications where necessary.

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DEFERENTIATED PLANNING

THE CONCEPT OF LEARNING AND CURRICLUM PLANNING --------------------------- 2

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING BASIC COMPONENTS OF THE CURRICULUM AND

CREATIVE APPROACHES, EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING AND PROBLEM-SOLVING

USING QUESTONING AND TALK FOR LEARNING APPROACHES-------------------- 43

BARRIERS, THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION

VISUAL DESIGN AND INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA PRODUCTION ----------------------- 53

MANAGING INCLUSIVE LEARNING SETTINGS/CLASSROOMS ----------------------- 61

LEARNING PLANNING AND PREPARATION ------------------------------------------------- 66

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THE CONCEPT OF LEARNING AND CURRICLUM PLANNING

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OTHER DEFINITIONS OF LEARNING

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GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING

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TYPES OF LEARNING STYLES

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Kinesthetic Tactile learners.

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DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION AND LEARNING

 Design lessons based on students’ learning styles.

 Group students by shared interest, topic, or ability for assignments.

 Assess students’ learning using formative assessment.

 Manage the classroom to create a safe and supportive environment.

 Continually assess and adjust lesson content to meet students’ needs.

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 Match vocabulary words to definitions.

 Read a passage of text and answer related questions.

 Differentiate fact from opinion in the story. I

 Identify an author’s position and provide evidence to support this viewpoint.

 Create a PowerPoint presentation summarizing the lesson.

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 Provide textbooks for visual and word learners.

 Allow auditory learners to listen to audio books.

 Give kinesthetic learners the opportunity to complete an interactive assignment online.

 Read and write learners write a book report.

 Visual learners create a graphic organizer of the story.

 Auditory learners give an oral report.

 Kinesthetic learners build a diorama illustrating the story.

 Break some students into reading groups to discuss the assignment.

 Allow students to read individually if preferred.

 Create quiet spaces where there are no distractions.

 Research shows differentiated instruction is effective for high-ability students as well as

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 Recognize their students’ learning strategies,

 Encourage students to use them in the classroom

 Make them more effective to the learning process,

 Base teaching process and techniques on these strategies.

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NATURE OF CURRICULUM AND RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE CURRICULUM

BASIS FOR COMPARISON SYLLABUS CURRICULUM

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KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SYLLABUS AND CURRICULUM

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PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

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A primordial concern of formal education is primarily to transmit organized knowledge in

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CRITERIA FOR SELECTING BASIC COMPONENTS OF THE CURRICULUM AND

TAXONOMIES OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES