Fundamentals of Instruction

Fundamentals of Instruction
Human Behavior Assessment

• What is Human Behavior? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1 • What is an Assessment? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-1
• Personality Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1 • Purpose of an Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-1
• Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1 • Types of Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-1
• Human Needs and Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-2 • Characteristics of an Effective Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-1
• Human Nature and Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-3 • Choosing an Effective Assessment Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-2
• Defense Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-4 • Traditional Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-2
• Obstacles to Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-5 • Authentic Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-3
• Learner Emotional Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-5 • Collaborative Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-4
• Instructor Actions Regarding Seriously Abnormal Learners . . . A-6 • Oral Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-4
• Adult Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-6 • Critiques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-6
The Learning Process Planning Instructional Activity

• What is Learning? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1 • Course of Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-1
• Learning Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1 • Blocks of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-1
• Perceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-2 • Training Syllabus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-2
• Insight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-3 • Lesson Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F-2
• Acquiring Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-3
• Thorndike's Laws of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-4 Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism
• Domains of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-4 • Aviation Instructor Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-1
• Characteristics of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-5 • Flight Instructor Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-2
• Learning Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-6 • Flight Instructor Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-4
• Zone of Proximal Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-7 • Professionalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-5
• Skill Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-7 • Professional Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-5
• Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-8
• Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-9 Techniques of Flight Instruction
• Forgetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-10 • System Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-1
• Retention of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-11 • Practical Flight Instructor Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-1
• Transfer of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-12 • Flight Lesson Briefings and Debriefings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-1
• The Making of an Expert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-12 • Integrating Instruction Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-2
• Demonstration-Performance Delivery Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-2
Effective Communication
• Telling-and-Doing Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-3
• What is Communication? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1 • Safety of Flight Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-3
• Basic Elements of Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1 • Use of Distractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-3
• Characteristics of Effective Communicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1 • Integrated Flight Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-4
• Characteristics of Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1 • Assessment of Piloting Ability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-4
• Barriers to Effective Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-1
• Developing Communication Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-2 Teaching Risk Management
• When to Teach Risk Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1
The Teaching Process
• Accident Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1
• What is Teaching? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1 • Risk Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1
• Essential Teaching Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1 • Managing Risk During Flight Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-3
• Steps in the Teaching Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1 • Teaching Aeronautical Decision-Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-4
• Training Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-2 • Assessing Decision-Making Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-5
• Organization of Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-3
• Training Delivery Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-4
• Problem-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-7
• Instructional Aids and Training Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-9
• Test Preparation Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-9
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Fundamentals of Instruction: Human Behavior
HUMAN BEHAVIOR
What is Human Behavior?
Human behavior can be defined in many ways:
• The result of attempts to satisfy certain needs.
• The product of factors that cause people to act in predictable ways.
• A distinct set of physical, physiological, and behavioral features associated with each phase of human life.
An instructor studies human behavior to understand why learners act the way they do and how they learn.
Personality Types
Personality is the combination of traits that form a person’s distinctive character. An individual’s personality can indicate the
behaviors that will likely show over time.
Personality assessments can be used to classify an individual’s personality type. To benefit an instructor, the assessment
should provide information about the preferred learning style.
Myers and Briggs Personality Assessment
Katharine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers pioneered the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) test in 1962. The MBTI
categorizes human behavior into 16 personality types, primarily based on the way individuals prefer to use their perception
and judgment.
The MBTI can be taken online, and optionally, a certified interpretation of the results can be obtained.
Link: https://www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type/take-the-mbti-instrument/
After determining the personality type with the MBTI, the preferred learning styles can be evaluated.
Link: https://www.psychologyjunkie.com/2018/01/12/learning-styles-every-myers-briggs-personality-type/
Motivation
Motivation is the force that causes a person to move toward a goal. It is the greatest influence on learning.
Types of Motivations
Motivations may be:
• Obvious or subtle
• Positive or negative
• Tangible or intangible
• Intrinsic (from within) or extrinsic (external)
Positive motivation is provided by the promise or achievement of rewards.
Negative motivation may come in the form of fear, blame, or threats. Harsh words should generally be avoided but could be
useful for correcting unsafe practices.
Extrinsic motivation refers to behavior driven by external rewards such as money, grades, or praise. Pleasure and reward are
derived only from reaching the goal.
Intrinsic motivations originate inside of the individual and occur outside of conscious awareness. These internal forces are
generally the strongest motivators.
Maintaining Motivation
To ensure that learners continue to work hard, instructors should:
• Present new challenges.
• Praise incremental successes during training.
• Create a need for learning the lesson material (“what’s in it for me?”).
• Use the learner’s aviation goals to encourage him or her to work hard.
• Assure learners that learning plateaus are normal and that improvement will resume with continued effort.
Using Praise as a Motivator
Praise often makes people feel good about themselves by activating the reward and pleasure centers of the brain. It has the
benefit of providing information to the learner.
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Tips for instructors:
• Relate daily accomplishments to the lesson objectives.
• Comment favorably on learner progress and level ability.
• Avoid controlling language (“do as I say” messages).
• Emphasize the process (e.g., “I can tell you prepared for the lesson.”), not the ability (e.g., “You are a natural pilot.”).
Using Rewards as a Motivator
Rewards are beneficial when used in situations where the learner has little interest in performing the activity. However, the
effect is usually short term and does not increase intrinsic motivation (from within).
• Always seek alternatives that are more intrinsic.
• Only use rewards for a limited time and a specific purpose.
Rewards can be demotivating if:
• The learner feels coerced or manipulated by the reward.
• The subject is already intrinsically motivating to the learner, and the reward is known ahead of time.
Drops in Motivation
Drops in motivation appear in several different ways. Learners may come to lessons unprepared or give the general sense
that aviation training is no longer a priority. During these times, it is often helpful for instructors to remind learners of their
goals for seeking aviation training.
Related: The Learning Process: Learning Plateaus
Human Needs and Motivation

Human needs are the things that humans require for normal growth and development. These needs may be simple, such as
the need for food and water. They can also be complex, such as the need for respect and acceptance.
Responsibilities of the Instructor
Learner Readiness: To ensure that learners are prepared to learn, instructors should verify that their basic needs have been
met before beginning a lesson.
Learning Environment: In a healthy learning environment, learners experience fewer frustrations and, therefore, can devote
more attention to their studies.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow developed a pyramid-style model, which is useful for explaining human motivations (wants and needs). He
organized the motivations into a series of levels. Once the requirements of one level are satisfied, humans are motivated to
reach the next level.
Note: After decades of refining his theory, Maslow proposed that the hierarchy’s order is not rigid. Humans can experience higher levels of motivation
while not having lower basic needs met.
Physiological (1): The need for air, food, water, and maintenance of the human body.
Safety and Security (2): The need to avoid pain and injury.
Love and Belonging (3): The need for social approval. This involves love, affection, and a
sense of belonging.
Esteem (4): The need for self-respect and respect from others. When met, the person
feels self-confident and valuable. When unmet, the person feels inferior, helpless, and
worthless.
Esteem is built in two ways:
• Internally (self-esteem) by meeting personally defined standards and goals.
• Externally through social approval and admiration from other people.
Self-Actualization (5): The desire to make the most of one’s abilities. Maslow described it as “the desire to become more
and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming.”

Self-actualized people are characterized by:
• Having a deep concern for personal growth.
• Not being afraid of the unknown; rather, they embrace it.
• Incorporating an ongoing freshness of appreciation of life.
Needs Added in Later Years
Cognitive: The desire to know and understand. The brain even reinforces this need by giving a rush of dopamine whenever
something is learned.
Aesthetic: The desire for things around the person to be aesthetically pleasing. Aesthetics can increase positive motivation
and help create a successful learning experience.
Transcendence: The needs that go beyond the personal self (e.g., service to others, the pursuit of science, or faith).
Cognitive and aesthetic needs were placed immediately before self-actualization (between 4 and 5 in the pyramid).
Transcendence needs were placed at the top of the pyramid, but they can be reached from any level.
Bodily Reward Systems
Basic Needs: The reward for meeting basic human needs is a feeling of satisfaction, also called satiation. For example,
humans are motivated to eat so that they no longer feel hungry. Motivation decreases as basic needs are met.
Growth Needs: More complex motivations, such as the desire for personal achievement, are rewarded by a rush of dopamine
in the brain. Motivation increases as growth needs are met.
Human Nature and Motivation

Human nature refers to the general psychological characteristics, feelings, and behavioral traits shared by all humans.
Because it is human nature to be motivated, the responsibility for discovering how to realize the learner’s potential lies with
the instructor.
Kahneman: Fast Versus Slow Thinking
Daniel Kahneman developed a two-system view of human behaviors that affect decision-making. Understanding how these
systems affect the decision-making process can help instructors be more aware of learner pitfalls.
System One Versus System Two
System 1 (Fast) System 2 (Slow)

Emotional Logical
Automatic Deliberate
Unconscious effort Conscious effort
Lazy Calculating
Impulsive Self-control
System One
The first system (fast) is the automatic reaction that individuals have developed through memory and experience. It is
primarily based in emotion and the unconscious mind. These are automatic “gut reactions” that require little thought or
effort.
In the following problem, the average person can quickly and easily solve the problem.
2 + 2 = X
The risk in using this thought system is that, as Kahneman explains, the mind is inherently lazy. It is exhausting to put forth
the effort required to deliberately concentrate on a problem, especially one that appears to be so easy. This can lead to poor
decision-making due to the assumption that the task at hand is as simple as past, similar experiences suggest it to be.
System Two
The second system (slow) relies on logic and reasoning. Individuals rely on System 2 less frequently as it requires conscious
effort and time to calculate and reason through a problem.
System 2 demands considerable effort and self-control of the individual, and as a result, it is tempting to revert to the relative
ease of System 1. Once the immediate problem is solved, System 1 takes over again.
In the following problem, the average person needs to pause and consider an answer.
48 × 76 = Y
McGregor’s X-Y Theory

Building on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, social psychologist Douglas McGregor set out two opposing assumptions about
human nature and motivation in 1960: Theory X and Theory Y.
Theory X
Theory X assumptions:
• People have an inherent dislike for work and avoid it whenever possible.
• People prefer to be directed, do not want responsibility, and have little or no ambition.
• People seek security above all else.
Theory Y
McGregor believed these assumptions were false, that the role of managers (instructors) is to develop the potential in
employees (learners) and help them release that potential toward common goals. This view of humans, he termed Theory Y.
Theory Y assumptions:
• Work is as natural as play and rest.
• People will exercise self-direction if they are committed to their goals.
• People learn to accept and seek responsibility.
Defense Mechanisms
Defense mechanisms are subconscious defenses against the realities of unpleasant situations.
Defense mechanisms:
• Inhibit learning.
• Often appear unconsciously.
• Tend to distort, transform, or falsify reality.
• Do not solve problems; only alleviate symptoms.
A perceptive instructor can identify defense mechanisms and help a learner by discussing the problem. The main objective
should be to restore motivation and self-confidence.
Types of Defense Mechanisms
Biological defense mechanisms are a bodily response that protects or preserves organisms. An example is the “fight or
flight” response that results from experiencing danger or a threat.
Psychological defense mechanisms are unconscious mental processes to protect oneself from anxiety or unpleasant
emotions.
Common Defense Mechanisms
Displacement: Putting unpleasant feelings somewhere other than where they belong.
Example: A learner is angry with the instructor over a grade received, but fears displaying the anger could affect the training.
Instead, the anger is directed towards a family member.
Repression: Placing uncomfortable thoughts into inaccessible areas of the mind.
Example: A learner may have a repressed fear of flying that inhibits his or her ability to learn how to fly.
Denial: A refusal to accept external reality because it is too threatening. It is a form of repression through which stressful
thoughts are banned from memory.
Example: An instructror discovers an unlatched cargo door before a flight. The learner denies having been inattentive during
the preflight inspection.
Rationalization: A subconscious technique for justifying actions that otherwise would be unacceptable.
Example: A learner may justify a poor exam grade by claiming there was not enough time to learn the information.
Compensation: Counterbalancing weaknesses by emphasizing strength in other areas.
Example: A learner feels bad about not completing a reading assignment but compensates by highlighting knowledge in
another area.
Projection: Blaming personal shortcomings, mistakes, and transgressions on someone else.

Example: A learner who fails a flight exam may say, “I failed because I had a poor examiner.”
Reaction Formation: When a person fakes a belief opposite to the actual belief because the actual belief causes anxiety.
Example: A learner who wants to fit in with the class but is not accepted by other members may develop a “who-cares-how-
other-people-feel” attitude to cover up feelings of loneliness.
Fantasy: When a learner engages in daydreams about how things should be rather than doing anything about how things are.
Example: A learner spends more time dreaming about being a successful airline pilot than working toward the goal.
Obstacles to Learning
Anxiety: Anxiety limits the learner’s ability to perceive and develop insights. It is probably the most significant psychological
factor affecting flight instruction.
Unfair Treatment: Learners who believe their instruction is inadequate or that their efforts are not considered do not learn
well.
Impatience: The impatient learner fails to understand the need for preliminary training and seeks only the ultimate objective.
The instructor can correct learner impatience by presenting the training one step at a time, with clearly stated goals.
Worry or Lack of Interest: Learners who are worried or emotionally upset are not ready to learn. Worries that result from
flight training should be addressed. Outside diversions are not the instructor’s responsibility but affect the learning process.
Apathy Due to Inadequate Instruction: Learners can become apathetic when they recognize that the instructor has made
inadequate preparations or when the instruction appears to be contradictory or insincere. Poor preparation leads to spotty
coverage, misplaced emphasis, and unnecessary repetition.
Physical Discomforts: Learners whose attention is diverted by discomforts such as temperature extremes, noise, illness,
fatigue, or dehydration cannot learn at a normal rate.
Related:
• Aeromedical Factors: Motion Sickness
• Aeromedical Factors: Dehydration
• Aeromedical Factors: Heatstroke
• Aeromedical Factors: Fatigue
Learner Emotional Reactions

Stress
Stress is a term to describe the body’s nonspecific response to demands placed upon it.
Normal individuals react to stress by:
• Becoming extremely sensitive to their surroundings
• Responding rapidly, often automatically, within their experience and training (this underlines the importance of proper
training before emergencies)
Abnormal responses to stress include:
• An absent or at least inadequate reaction to stress
• Severe anger at the instructor or others
• Autonomic responses (e.g., sweating and paleness)
• Inappropriate reactions (e.g., extreme over cooperation or inappropriate laughter or singing)
• Marked changes in mood on different lessons (e.g., excellent morale followed by deep depression)
• Actions that are random, illogical, or cause the person to do more than is called for by the situation
Related: Aeromedical Factors: Stress
Anxiety
Anxiety is a reaction to stress that produces a feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease. It results from fear, whether real or
imagined.
“ We feel anxiety so that we don’t have to feel pain. We feel pain to help avoid bodily damage. – Dr. Jordan B
Peterson
Anxiety is often a healthy emotion. Some people affected by anxiety react appropriately, adequately, and more rapidly than
they would in the absence of threat. However, chronic anxiety impairs a person’s ability to function.

Adverse responses to anxiety include:
• A hesitancy to act
• An inability to do anything to correct the situation
• An impulse to do something quickly, even if it is wrong
• A disruption in day-to-day living in severe cases (anxiety disorders)
Anxiety can be countered by:
• Reinforcing the learner’s enjoyment of flying.
• Having a plan and progressing forwards to the end goal.
• Treating fears as a normal reaction, rather than ignoring them.
• Completing manageable yet challenging tasks to build confidence over time.
• Introducing learners to maneuvers with care so that the learner knows what to expect.
Instructor Actions Regarding Seriously Abnormal Learners

An instructor who believes that a learner may have a disqualifying psychological defect should get a second opinion.
Arrangements should be made for another instructor, who is not acquainted with the learner, to conduct an evaluation flight.
If both instructors believe that the learner has a psychological deficiency, endorsements and recommendations should be
withheld.
Serious Psychological Abnormalities
A flight instructor who believes a learner may be suffering from a serious psychological abnormality has a responsibility to
refrain from instructing that person.
Signs of serious psychological abnormalities include:
• Talks of suicide
• Excessive anger, hostility, or violence
• Detachment from reality (e.g., paranoia or hallucinations)
• Conditions that interfere with the learner’s ability to learn or operate the airplane safely
• Mental disorders that would disqualify the learner from obtaining a medical certificate (e.g., psychosis or bipolar
disorder)
Instructors should contact their local FSDO to report hazardous behaviors that affect airmen certification.
Link: https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/field_offices/fsdo/
Related: Aeromedical Factors: Disqualifying Medical Conditions
Adult Learners
As an individual matures, his or her mode of action moves from dependency to self-direction. Since the age of learners can
vary, the instructor needs to offer a curriculum that addresses the varying degrees of self-direction.
The average age of a student pilot is 34.
Adult learners:
• Are goal-oriented, self-directed, and independent.
• Need to increase or maintain a sense of self-esteem.
• Want to solve problems and apply new knowledge immediately.
• Have accumulated life experiences and draw upon them for learning.
• Focus on the aspects of a lesson most useful to them in their work.
• Seek out learning experiences because they have a use for the knowledge or skill being sought.
• Seek out learning experiences to cope with specific life-changing events (e.g., marriage, divorce, or a new job).
When training adults, instructors should:
• Challenge them (avoid “spoon-feeding”).
• Set a cooperative learning environment.
• Clarify and articulate all expectations early on.
• Help them integrate new ideas with what they already know.
• Recognize their need to control the pace of training and the start/stop time.
• Provide an organized training syllabus with clearly defined objectives to show how the training helps attain specific goals.
• Take advantage of the adult preference to self-direct by giving the learner frequent scenario-based training (SBT)
opportunities.

Fundamentals of Instruction: The Learning Process
THE LEARNING PROCESS

What is Learning?
Learning can be defined in many ways:
• A change in the behavior as a result of experience.
• Acquiring knowledge or skill through study, instruction, or experience.
• A relatively permanent change in cognition, resulting from experience and directly influencing behavior.
All definitions have one idea in common: learning is an active process and comes through experience.
Types of Learning
Cooperative: Learning by participating in a group project, such as collaborative problem-solving.
Cognitive: Learning through active thought processes, such as retrieval practice or reflective thinking.
Conditioning: Learning through stimulus-response associations (classical conditioning) or reinforcement (operant
conditioning).
Observational: Learning by watching someone else behave and noting the consequences of that behavior.
Implicit Versus Explicit Learning
Implicit: Learning information or procedures in an incidental manner (without awareness). Examples are learning to walk and
the development of social skills.
Explicit: Learning facts (declarative knowledge) in an intentional manner (with conscious effort).
Learning Theory
Learning theory is a body of principles that attempt to explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes.
Primary learning theories include behaviorism, cognitivism, and social learning.
Behaviorism
Behaviorists believe that humans and animals learn by having behaviors reinforced, and that behaviors can be shaped or
controlled by external stimuli. Today, behaviorism is mostly used to break bad behaviors (e.g., smoking).
Behaviorism is based on the following concepts:
• All humans learn in the same manner.
• All behavior is learned from the environment.
• Human behavior can be predicted based on past rewards and punishments.
Two models for learning in behaviorism are classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Classical Conditioning (Stimulus-Response)
Classical conditioning is learning that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired. Its founder, Ivan Pavlov, discovered that
he could get dogs to salivate in response to a tone after the sound had repeatedly been paired with food.
Operant Conditioning (Reinforcement)
Operant conditioning modifies behaviors through reward or punishment, a “carrot and stick” approach to learning. The
concept is based on Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect (pleasant experiences strengthen learning).
Types of reinforcement:
• Positive Reinforcement: Reward given for correct behavior (the behavior is strengthened).
• Negative Reinforcement: Penalty removed for correct behavior (the behavior is strengthened).
• Extinction: Reward given for correct answers is removed after incorrect answers (the behavior will slowly go away).
• Punishment: A penalty given due to incorrect behavior (the behavior is weakened).
Modern approaches stress the use of positive reinforcement over punishment. In aviation training, the instructor provides the
reinforcement.
Cognitivism (Cognitive Theory)
Cognitivism is more concerned with what is going on inside the learner’s mind (cognition) than with stimulus and response.
Learning is not just a change in behavior; it changes the way a learner thinks, understands, or feels.
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Popular Learning Concepts Based on Cognitivism
Assimilation and Accommodation: Jean Piaget stated that learning involves two processes: assimilation (old ideas meeting
new situations) and accommodation (changing the old ideas to meet the new situations). The resolution of this tension
results in intellectual growth.
Example: A child may assimilate a ball into the scheme of “toys that can be thrown.” Accommodation must occur if the child
finds a new ball that is too heavy to be thrown.
Reflective Thought: John Dewey, introduced the reflective thought concept. Dewey believed reflection gives the learner a
deeper, clearer understanding of their experiences. Thus, reflection leads the learner from the unclear to the clear.
Spiral Curriculum: A spiral curriculum, introduced by Jerome Bruner, is the concept of revisiting basic ideas repeatedly and
building on them in increasingly sophisticated ways. Bruner advocated learning from the known to the unknown or from the
concrete to the abstract because humans learn best by relating new knowledge to existing knowledge.
Note: Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain is also based on cognitive theory (see Domains of Learning).
Derivatives of Cognitivism
There are many derivatives of cognitivism, two of which are the information processing theory and constructivism.
Information Processing Theory
Information processing theory uses a computer system as a model for human learning. Like a computer, the human brain
processes incoming information, stores it, and retrieves it. The difference is that a computer gets input from a keyboard and
mouse, whereas the human brain gets input from the senses of sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell.
Constructivism
Constructivism is a philosophy of learning that holds that learners do not acquire knowledge and skills passively but actively
build or construct them based on their experiences.
Constructivism requires a training environment in which learners assume responsibility for their learning. Its usage supports
the development of higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) from Bloom’s Taxonomy.
Social Learning
Social learning is learning through social interactions. It states learning occurs by observing, imitating, and modeling the
actions of others.
Four stages of social learning:
1. Attention: The ability to learn by observing others.
2. Retention: The ability to remember an observed behavior and repeat that behavior later.
3. Reproduction: The act of producing a previously observed behavior.
4. Motivation: Making a decision to reproduce an observed behavior.
Perceptions
Perception begins when the brain receives information sent by one or more of the five senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell,
and taste. But perceiving involves more than the reception of stimuli. Perceptions result when the person gives meaning to
the sensations being experienced. Thus, perceptions are the basis of all learning.
Impact of the Senses on Learning
Sight and hearing account for about 88% of all perceptions. Learning occurs most rapidly when information is received
through more than one sense.
Sense Percent of Learning

Sight 75
Hearing 13
Touch 6
Smell 3
Taste 3
Factors Affecting Perception

Physical Organism: The person’s physical body affects his or her ability to detect and interpret information.

Element of Threat: Fear inhibits learning by narrowing the perceptual field. Attention is limited to the threat. The resulting
anxiety further limits perceptiveness and decreases mental acuity.
Self-Concept: Learners with favorable self-image tend to be receptive to new experiences. Those with negative self-image
tend to reject additional training.
Goals and Values: Every experience and sensation is shaped by the individual’s own beliefs and value structures.
Time and Opportunity: Time to experience the learning event and the opportunity to build upon prior knowledge is important
to formulate the proper perceptions.
Teaching Perceptions
A big challenge that beginning pilots face is learning to cope with the flood of information reaching the sensory inputs. This
leads to a feeling of being “behind the airplane.” The instructor can help by directing the learner’s focus.
Examples of perceptions that can be pointed out:
• Rushing air past a cockpit creates a distinctive sound (a sense) that indicates that the airplane’s airspeed is increasing (a
perception).
• A banked turn creates the sensation of being pulled down into the seat (a sense) that indicates an increase in load factor
(a perception).
• Teach learners to plan ahead to prevent sensory overload.
• Help learners distinguish between critical and extraneous sensory information.
Insight
Creating insight, the grouping of perceptions into meaningful wholes, is one of an instructor’s major responsibilities. Insight
occurs when something is understood, such as when a cause-and-effect relationship is discovered.
As perceptions increase in number, insights are assembled into larger blocks of learning. As a result, learning becomes more
meaningful and permanent. Forgetting is less of a problem when there are more anchor points for tying insights together.
To foster the development of insight, instructors should:
• Point out the relationships of perceptions as they occur.
• Help learners acquire and maintain a favorable self-concept.
• Provide a secure and nonthreatening environment in which to learn.
Acquiring Knowledge
Knowledge is acquired in three phases:
1. Memorization: Exposure to a topic that amounts to memorizing facts. The learner is not yet able to solve a problem or
provide an explanation.
2. Understanding: Knowledge is organized to formulate an understanding of the things memorized. Similarities and
associations between facts can be made.
3. Application: The knowledge learned can be used to solve problems and make decisions.
Concept Learning
Concept learning is based on the assumption that humans tend to group objects with similar attributes. Generalized
concepts are more powerful than facts because instead of describing one thing, they describe many things at once.
Example: Upon seeing a gyroplane, a learner may associate many of a helicopter’s properties to it.
Schemas
Schemas help people organize and interpret information. Humans form schemas when they notice reoccurring patterns in
things frequently observed. The observer becomes primed to expect certain elements.
Example: By expecting five key pieces of information with an IFR clearance (“CRAFT”), an experienced pilot can easily read
back a lengthy ATC clearance.

Best Practices for Teaching Knowledge-Based Skills
• Use simple, familiar terms to illustrate new ideas.
• Create acronyms or phrases to help learners memorize groups of information.
• Participate in role-playing, such as acting as ATC, to let learners rehearse and build habits.
• Move from the general to specific while emphasizing the significance of each basic concept.
• Teach similar ideas by explaining their differences. Teach different ideas by explaining their similarities.
Thorndike’s Laws of Learning

Edward L. Thorndike, a pioneer of educational psychology, formulated a series of laws about learning. The laws may
manifest themselves individually or in groups.
Readiness: People learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to do so.
Tips for instructors keep learners in a state of readiness to learn by:
• Showing where each lesson fits into the overall picture.
• Communicating a clear set of objectives and relating new topics to those objectives.
• Introducing topics in a logical order and leave learners with a need to learn the next topic.
Readiness to learn also involves teachable moments, times when a person is particularly responsive to being taught. They
occur when a learner can see how specific information or skills can be used in the real world.
Example: While on final approach, several deer cross the runway. The instructor can capitalize on this teachable moment to
stress the importance of always being ready to perform a go-around.
Exercise: Things most often repeated are best remembered. The instructor must provide opportunities for learners to
practice but avoid unnecessary repetition.
Effect: Learning is strengthened when associated with a pleasant experience and weakened when associated with an
unpleasant experience.
Primacy: Things learned first often create strong and unshakable impressions. What is taught must be taught right the first
time. The effort it takes to unlearn and then relearn far exceeds what is required to learn the right information initially.
• Provide immediate feedback (good or bad).
• Do not allow learners to practice mistakes.
Intensity: A vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or dull experience.
• Use realistic training scenarios.
• Give learners something to do (hands-on activities), not something to learn.
Recency: Things most recently learned are best remembered. Conversely, the longer learners are removed from a new fact,
the more difficulty they will have in recalling it.
• Summarizing the important points at the end of each lesson.
• Review previous lessons at the beginning of each new lesson.
Domains of Learning
Dr. Benjamin Bloom classified the major areas of learning and thinking into three broad groups called the domains of
learning: cognitive (thinking), affective (feeling), and psychomotor (doing).
Each of the domains has a taxonomy (levels) of educational objectives. Each level has a list of objectives and action verbs
that describe the learner’s ability at that level. Instructors can use the verbs to write performance-based objectives for a
lesson plan.
Cognitive (Thinking)
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning is one of the best-known educational domains. Its purpose is to promote higher forms of
thinking in education.

The six levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy, from least to most complex:
1. Knowledge: Remembering information (define, describe, identify, name, list).
2. Comprehension: Explaining the meaning of information (match, explain, summarize, restate).
3. Application: Using abstractions in a concrete situation (organize, apply, draw, prepare, solve).
4. Analysis: Breaking down information into parts for examination (compare, analyze, distinguish, categorize).
5. Synthesis: Putting parts together to form a new and integrated whole (develop, compose, design, construct).
6. Evaluation: Making judgments (evaluate, critique, compare, contrast).
Note: Most instructors stop teaching during the application level. Mastering the higher levels is essential for the development of aeronautical decision-
making (ADM) skills. The next two concepts explain how to reach them.
Related: Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain
Higher-Order Thinking Skills

The last three categories (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) are called higher-order thinking skills (HOTS). Reaching these
higher levels requires active participation in thought-provoking exercises, such as problem-based learning (PBL).
Mastery Learning
Bloom proposed that learners should master each cognitive level before moving on to higher levels. Instead of receiving a
grade, targeted training is given in weak areas until mastery is achieved. He called this educational philosophy mastery
learning.
Levels of Learning
The cognitive domain can be simplified into four practical levels, from least to most complex:
1. Rote: The ability to repeat back something that one has been taught without understanding or applying it (define).
2. Understanding: Perceiving and learning what has been taught (explain).
3. Application: Achieving the skill to apply what has been taught (solve).
4. Correlation: Associating what has been taught with other things previously learned (compare and contrast).
Affective (Feeling)
The affective domain addresses a learner’s emotions toward the learning experience. It includes feelings, values,
motivations, and attitudes.
The five levels of educational objectives, from least to most complex:
1. Receiving (Awareness): Willingness to pay attention (ask, choose, give, select, use).
2. Responding: Reacting voluntarily (conform, help, perform, recite, write).
3. Valuing: Accepting (appreciate, follow, join, show concern, share).
4. Organization: Rearranging of values (accept responsibility, adhere, defend, formulate).
5. Characterization (Integration): Incorporating value into life (assess, delegate, influence, revise, maintain).
Psychomotor (Doing)
Psychomotor essentially means connecting and coordinating the brain and body. The psychomotor domain involves physical
movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas.
The four levels of educational objectives for aviation training purposes, from least to most complex:
1. Observation: The learner observes a more experienced person perform the skill (listen, observe, attempt).
2. Imitation: The learner attempts to copy the skill under careful supervision (try, follow, copy).
3. Practice: The learner tries a specific activity repeatedly, possibly without direct oversight (perform, exercise, apply, carry
out).
4. Habit: The learner can perform the skill in twice the time that it takes the instructor or an expert to perform (create,
combine, manage).
Characteristics of Learning
Result of Experience: Learning is an individual process. If an experience challenges a learner, and requires involvement with
feelings, thoughts, past experiences, and physical activity, it is more effective than a learning experience in which all the
learner has to do is commit something to memory.
Active Process: People learn through activities. Long-term retention of knowledge is best achieved when applied and
correlated with practical hands-on experience (e.g., writing, discussing, and doing).
Multifaceted: The learning process may involve verbal, conceptual, perceptual, and elements of problem-solving, all taking
place at once. To ignore any of the aspects of learning is to lessen the potential of providing the best instruction possible.

Learning is multifaceted in another way. While learning the subject at hand, other things may also be learned. This is called
incidental learning.
Purposeful: Each learner is a unique individual whose past experiences affect his or her readiness to learn. The instructor
can increase motivation if he or she can relate the material to be learned with the learner’s goals.
Learning Styles
Learning styles are ways of learning that people use to absorb and process new knowledge or skills. If the instructor works
with the learner’s preferred style, rather than against it, both benefit.
Right Brain/Left Brain
While both sides of the brain are involved in nearly every human activity, most people seem to have a preferred side to use
for learning information. The brain seems to go on autopilot to the preferred side.
Left Brain Right Brain

Analytical and objective Creative and emotional
Likes to learn general concepts and then specifics
Likes to learn in a step-by-step format (serialistic)
(holistic)
Prefers writing Prefers open-ended questions
Recalls people’s names Recalls people’s faces
Holistic/Serialistic Theory
Holistic individuals process information by starting with an overall concept, then examine the parts (top-down concept).
Serialists link pieces of information together to create an overall picture (bottom-up strategy).
Auditory/Visual/Kinesthetic
One of the most popular learning styles is based on the three main sensory receptors: vision, hearing, and touch.
• Auditory learners acquire knowledge best by listening.
• Visual learners gain a better understanding through their sense of sight.
• Kinesthetic learners absorb information through hands-on activities.
• Use a wide range of speech variation in rate, volume, and pitch.
• Remember, “a picture is worth a thousand words, and video is worth even more.”
• Keep learners mentally and physically active in the learning process.
Superlinks
The superlink theory combines the right brain/left brain and auditory/visual/kinesthetic learning styles into a single concept.
By matching these styles through research, eight superlinks were created. These superlinks accelerate learning by targeting
the best way a person learns.
The superlinks are: (1) visual left-brain, (2) visual right-brain, (3) auditory left-brain, (4) auditory right-brain, (5) tactile left-
brain, (6) tactile right-brain, (7) kinesthetic left-brain, and (8) kinesthetic right-brain.
Index of Learning Styles
The Index of Learning Styles is a survey used to assess learning preferences on four dimensions (1) active/reflective, (2)
sensing/intuitive, (3) visual/verbal, and (4) sequential/global.

A free online survey can be completed to determine an individual’s possible strengths and habits that might lead to difficulty
in academic settings.
Link: https://www.webtools.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/
Zone of Proximal Development

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the range of tasks that a
learner can perform with guidance from others but cannot perform
independently. Tasks outside of the ZDP result in confusion or
boredom.
Tips for instructors to stay within the ZPD:
• Avoid unreasonable demands of performance.
• Organize lessons in a logical, building-block sequence.
• Divide overly complex tasks into several smaller, simpler tasks.
• Avoid presenting too much or too little new material in a single instructional period.
• Assist with new tasks but gradually remove support as learner competency increases (scaffolding).
Skill Development
Skill knowledge manifests itself in the doing of something. It differs from declarative knowledge because the learner is not
usually consciously aware of it or able to articulate it. An everyday example is the ability to ride a bicycle.
“ A procedure is a way that a task must be carried out. A technique is a way of performing a procedure. A skill is the
ability to perform techniques and procedures well.
Phases of Skill Development

Cognitive Stage: The instructor first introduces the learner to a basic skill. The learner memorizes the steps required to
perform the skill.
Associative Stage: A skill demonstration is not enough. Practice is necessary to learn how to coordinate muscles with visual
and tactile senses.
Automatic Response Stage: As procedures become automatic, less attention is required to carry them out. It is then
possible to do other things simultaneously. By this stage, the performance of the skill is rapid and smooth.
Practice
When learning physical skills, progress tends to follow what is known as a power law
of practice. It states that the speed of performance of a task improves as a power of
the number of times that it is performed.
Learning Plateaus
Learning is rapid in the early stages of skill development but tends to slow down as
skills increase. Once the curve levels off, it may stay level for a significant period.
Further progress may even seem unlikely. This is called a learning plateau.
Instructors can help learners who fall into a learning plateau by:
• Explaining that learning seldom proceeds at a constant pace.
• Explaining the reason for the lesson and how it applies to the learner.
• Reminding learners of their own stated goals for seeking aviation training.
• Temporarily moving the learner to a different place in the syllabus to give the current task a break.
• Avoid over-practicing. After repeating a task 4 or 5 times, give it a break.
• Explain that the key to acquiring and improving any skill is continued practice.
• Set clear objectives for the practice session to identify strengths and weaknesses.
• Explain that learning plateaus are common and that continued practice leads to improvement.
Types of Practice
Deliberate: The learner practices specific areas for improvement and receives instructor feedback. Feedback should be brief
and distractions minimized.

Blocked: Practicing the same drill until the movement becomes automatic. Doing the same task over and over leads to
better short-term performance but poorer long-term learning.
Random: Mixing up the skills to be acquired throughout a practice session. This type of practice leads to better retention
because by performing a series of separate skills in a random order, the learner starts to recognize each skill’s similarities
and differences.
Distributed (Spaced): Breaking up a training activity into several sessions over a longer period. It is generally more effective
than its opposite, massed practice.
Massed: Practicing in long sessions, such as done when cramming for an exam.
Scenario-Based: Practicing in a real-world environment. The instructor devises a training scenario and functions as a mentor
and coach.
Related: The Teaching Process: Scenario-Based Training Method
“ Amateurs practice until they get it right. Professionals practice until they don’t get it wrong.
Application of Skills
To ensure that newly learned skills can be applied, learners should:
• Understand and practice the skill so well that it becomes easy, even habitual.
• Be able to recognize the types of situations where it is appropriate to use the skill (positive transfer of learning).
Skill Development Strategies
Lesson Duration
A primary consideration in planning a lesson is the length of the practice period. A beginner reaches a point where additional
practice is unproductive. Errors begin to increase, and motivation declines. As a learner gains experience, longer periods of
practice become more profitable.
Gradual Build Up
The gradual build method is useful for learning complex skills. Learners acquire a new skill bit by bit, gradually increasing the
complexity to keep the practice challenging.
Whole-Part-Whole Technique
The whole-part-whole technique is a useful framework for presenting complex maneuvers and procedures that consist of
very distinguished parts. It gives learners an overview of what they are about to learn, drills down to the specifics, and then
integrates the new skills into previously learned skills.
Overlearning of Knowledge
Overlearning is the continued study of a skill beyond the point of achieving initial proficiency. Eventually, the learner’s
performance becomes automatic. In some cases, the development of automated routines can lead to problems.
Example: A checklist procedure may become so automatic that the pilot may not stop to consider each item.
Knowledge of Results
Mistakes are not always apparent. Learners may know that something is wrong but not know how to correct it. Guidance
from an instructor is beneficial in correcting these mistakes.
Evaluation Versus Critique
In the initial stages of skill acquisition, practical suggestions (critiques) are more valuable to the learner than a grade
(evaluation). The learner profits when the instructor provides constructive criticism to help eliminate errors. The instructor
should also provide compliments on aspects of the skill that were performed correctly.
Errors
Errors are a natural part of the human experience. To believe people can eliminate errors from their performance is to
commit the biggest error of all.
“ To err is human. – Alexander Pope
Types of Errors
Slips are errors of action. A slip occurs when a person plans to do one thing but inadvertently does something else.

Example: Retracting the landing gear when intending to raise the flaps.
A slip occurs when a person:
• Confuses two similar things.
• Forgets or neglect to do something. This is called a lapse.
• Attempts to perform a routine procedure in a different way, but out of habit, performs the procedure in the usual way.
• Feels rushed. When time pressure is increased, more slips are made. The phenomenon is called the speed-accuracy
tradeoff.
Mistakes are errors of thought. They occur due to poor planning, knowledge gaps, or misconceptions in understanding.
Example: An overly simplistic understanding of weather may lead an inexperienced pilot into unexpected situations.
Methods for Reducing Errors
Learning and Practicing: Higher levels of knowledge and skill are associated with fewer and less significant errors.
Taking Time: Errors can often be reduced by working deliberately and at a comfortable pace.
Checking for Errors: Actively looking for errors (“checking your work”) reduces them.
Using Reminders: Errors are reduced when visible reminders such as checklists are used.
Developing Routines: The use of standardized operating procedures (SOPs) reduces errors.
Raising Awareness: Awareness should be increased when operating in conditions under which errors are known to happen
(e.g., when pressed for time) or when defenses against errors are compromised (e.g., fatigue or lack of recent practice).
Error Recovery
Given that the occasional error is inevitable, it is a worthwhile exercise to practice recovering from them. Instructors should
give learners opportunities to practice recovering from common mistakes, such as a bounced landing.
Learning From Error
When a learner makes an error, it is useful for the instructor to ask why the error happened and what could be done
differently to prevent it from happening again. In some cases, errors are slips that reveal the need for more practice. In other
cases, errors point to methods or habits that might be improved.
Hindsight Bias
There is a natural human tendency to resist learning from errors by overestimating one’s ability to recognize and prevent
them. This tendency to dismiss errors is known as the hindsight bias.
Example: When reading an accident report, it is easy to spot where a mistake was made and regard the outcome as
something that could “never happen to me.” The error is seen as obvious and preventable.
“ Hindsight is 20/20.
Memory
Memory is the ability to encode (initial perception and registration of information), store (retention of encoded information
over time), and retrieve (processes involved in using stored information) information.
“ Memory is the residue of thought. – Daniel Willingham
Steps in the learning process:

1. The body’s sensory organs receive incoming information.
2. The sensory register filters out irrelevant information.
3. The working-memory codes information for storage.
4. The long-term memory can store information for a lifetime.
Sensory Memory
Sensory memory receives initial stimuli from the environment and process it. Through selective attention, a person can
attend to one or a few sensory inputs while ignoring others. Certain stimuli, such as a fire alarm, is set to be immediately
recognized and transmitted for action by a process known as sensory precoding.

The Sensory Register
The sensory register is the part of the brain that filters stimuli in the sensory memory. Information deemed relevant by the
individual is transmitted within seconds to short-term memory. Unimportant information is discarded.
Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory (STM) is where conscious thought takes place. The amount of information it can hold is small, usually
about seven bits of data (e.g., a seven-digit phone number). Another limitation of STM is that information can only be stored
for roughly 30 seconds.
The goal of STM is to store information long enough for it to be processed. Cognitive processes such as rehearsal (mental
repetitions) and coding can be used to hold the information longer.
Coding, also known as chunking, is when a person organizes material into meaningful groups. The coding process may
involve recoding to adjust the information to individual experiences. This is when actual learning begins to take place.
STM has three basic operations:
• Iconic Memory: The brief memory of visual images.
• Acoustic Memory: The brief memory of sounds.
• Working (“Scratch Pad”) Memory: Memory that allows stored information to be manipulated (e.g., solving math
problems mentally).
To retain information for extended periods of time, it must be transferred into long-term memory. This only occurs if the
information is be deemed important or observed repeatedly.
Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory (LTM) is a relatively permanent storage of unlimited information. Different areas of the brain store LTM,
depending on the type of knowledge. The information can be retrieved and sent back into working memory.
Storing information in the LTM involves encoding, the consolidation of information. The encoding should provide meaning
and connections between old and new information. If the initial coding of the stored memory is not properly accomplished,
recall may be impossible.
Information in LTM is organized and stored in networks of schemas. Learning new information is easier if it is assimilated
into prior knowledge. For this reason, a brief review of similar material should be conducted at the beginning of a lesson.
Types of LTM:
• Declarative (Facts and Events): Knowledge about “who/what/when/where” questions. Declarative memory has two
categories: semantic (facts) and episodic (personal experiences). Declarative knowledge is explicit (people are
consciously aware of it).
• Procedural (Skills and Habits): Knowing how to do something. Once procedural knowledge is acquired, it tends to
become implicit (skills can be performed without being consciously aware of the steps).
LTM is subject to limitations, such as forgetting, biases, and personal inaccuracies. Information is reconstructed rather than
purely recalled. This is why two people who viewed the same event can have different recollections.
Forgetting
Forgetting involves a failure in memory retrieval. The failure may be due to the decay or overwriting of information. Each of
the theories of forgetting implies that when a person forgets something, it is not lost. Rather, it is simply unavailable for
recall.
Studies show that within 1 hour, people forget an average of 50% of the information presented.
Within 24 hours, they forget 70%.
Why People Forget

Retrieval Failure: The inability to retrieve information. It is that “tip-of-the-tongue” phenomenon when a person knows the
meaning of a word or the answer to a question but cannot retrieve it.
Fading: If a person forgets information that is not used for an extended period, it fades away.
Interference: People forget something because a particular experience overshadowed it or that the learning of similar things
has intervened.
Repression or Suppression: In repression or suppression, a memory is pushed out of reach because the individual does not
want to remember the feelings associated with it. Repression is an unconscious form of forgetting, while suppression is a
conscious form. Repressed memories may reappear in dreams or slips of the tongue (“Freudian slips”).

Retention of Learning
Material thoroughly learned is readily available for recall. In contrast, rote learning is superficial and is not easily retained. For
this reason, instructors should conduct problem-based learning (PBL) and ensure that learners are actively engaged in the
learning process.
How Usage Affects Memory
The ability to retrieve knowledge or skills from memory is primarily related to two things:
• Frequency: How often that knowledge has been used in the past.
• Recency: How recently the knowledge has been used.
Frequency and recency can be present individually or in combination.
Frequency and Recency: Knowledge that has both frequency and recency is likely to be retrieved easily and quickly. This is
the ideal situation for knowledge and skills that need to be used.
Frequency Only: Knowledge that has been used much in the past, but that has not been used recently, is vulnerable to being
forgotten. This type of knowledge is likely to be retrieved slowly or not at all. To retrieve this knowledge and skill, some
recent rehearsal or practice needs to be added to refresh the memory.
Recency Only: Knowledge that has been recently used but has not been used in the past is knowledge that has been recently
acquired. This type of knowledge is particularly vulnerable to being forgotten. To remember this knowledge requires a
program of regular rehearsal to build up its frequency.
Principles of Retention
Praise Stimulates Remembering: Responses that give a pleasurable return tend to be repeated. The absence of recognition
tends to discourage, and negativism tends to make recall less likely.
Association Promotes Recall: Each bit of information or action, which is associated with something to be learned, tends to
facilitate its later recall by the learner. Unique or disassociated facts tend to be forgotten unless they are of particular
interest or application.
Favorable Attitudes Aid Retention: People learn and remember what they wish to know. Without motivation, there is little
chance for recall.
Learning with All Senses is Most Effective: When several senses respond together, a fuller understanding and a higher
chance of recall are achieved.
Meaningful Repetition Aids Recall: Each repetition allows the learner to gain a more accurate perception of the subject to be
learned. Research indicates that 3 or 4 repetitions provide the maximum effect.
Mnemonics
A mnemonic is a pattern of letters, ideas, visual images, or associations used to help recall difficult-to-remember
information. They aid in memory recall by optimizing the way that information is encoded.
“FLY SAFE” = First learn your stupid acronyms for everything.
Types of Mnemonics
Acronyms form a word from the first letters of other words.
Example: “AIM” is an acronym for the Aeronautical Information Manual.
Acrostics are poems or other forms of writing in which the first letter of each word spells out a message.
Example: “ANDS” is an acrostic for a magnetic compass error (“Accelerate North, Decelerate South”).
Rhymes are words that have similar sounds.
Example: “In 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue.”
Chaining is used for lists and consists of creating a story in which each word or idea that needs to be remembered cues the
next idea.

Example: To remember the words “Napoleon,” “ear,” “door,” and “French,” a story like “Napoleon with his ear to a door,
listening to people speak in French” could be created.
Related: Aviation Mnemonics
Transfer of Learning
Learners may either be aided or hindered by things learned previously. This is called a transfer of learning.
Positive versus negative transfer:
• Positive Transfer: When learning one skill aids in learning another skill.
• Negative Transfer: When a previously learned skill interferes with learning a new skill. An example would be turning the
aileron controls to steer on the ground due to the experience of driving a car.
Near versus far transfer:
• Near Transfer: When learners apply skills learned in one area into a similar situation.
• Far Transfer: When learners apply skills learned in one area into a different context. An example would be transferring
knowledge of VFR communications to learning IFR communications.
• Use training scenarios that are as reaslitic as possible.
• Avoid unnecessary rote knowledge since it does not foster transfer.
• Organize course and individual lesson materials in a meaningful sequence.
• Describe other situations where it is appropriate to use the knowledge or skill.
Principles of Learning Transfers
Habit Formation: The formation of correct habit patterns from the beginning is essential. It is easier to foster proper habits
than to correct faulty ones later.
Depth-of-Processing Effect: The more deeply humans think about what they have learned, the more likely they can retrieve it
later.
During Training: Learners must practice what they have learned to make it available for recall. Short, regularly spaced study
sessions produce better results than cramming.
After Training: Continued practice is the only means of retaining what has been learned. Practice is just as important after
the practical test.
Sources of Knowledge: Instructors should recommend books and other instructional materials. They should also encourage
learners to gain experience by observing other pilots.
The Making of an Expert

Studies have found that true expertise is not attained until an average of at least 10 years or 10,000 hours of practice.
Factors contributing to the time required include the quality of the practice and the innate talent of the individual.
“ We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence is not an act, but a habit. – Will Durant
Expert Strategies
Reaching the level of expertise requires the ability to plan, monitor success, and self-correct errors. In short, learners need to
develop the ability to teach themselves. To help them do so, the following strategies commonly used by experts should be
introduced.
Cognitive Strategies
A cognitive strategy helps the learner develop internal procedures that enable him or her to perform higher-level operations.
As learners acquire experience, they develop mental strategies for dealing with problems that arise frequently.
Examples of cognitive strategies:
• Repetition
• Comparing and contrasting different pieces of information
• Reviewing main ideas and essential information after learning
• Associating new information with existing knowledge or past experiences
• Problem-solving tactics such as:
◦ Dividing a large problem into separate components
◦ Working slowly and deliberately

Metacognitive Strategies
Metacognition is the awareness of one’s knowledge, often taking the form of an internal conversation. Metacognitive
strategies are processes designed to help learners think about their thinking.
Examples of metacognitive strategies:
• Planning how to approach a learning task
• Making self-corrections in response to a self-assessment
• Evaluating progress towards the completion of a learning task
• Deliberately trying to recall information (retrieval practice)
Awareness of the Existence of Unknowns
An essential aspect of an expert’s knowledge is an awareness of what he or she does not
know. People, especially learners, mistakenly assess their knowledge or ability as greater
than it is. This cognitive bias is known as the Dunning–Kruger effect.
“ The incompetent are often blessed with an inappropriate confidence, buoyed by

something that feels to them like knowledge. – David Dunning
Instructors must be mindful of situations in which learners have acquired “book” knowledge
but have not yet gained a more in-depth understanding that comes from experience.
Example: Learners must understand that transitioning to different airplanes should be approached with caution and not
overconfidence.

Fundamentals of Instruction: Effective Communication
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
What is Communication?
Communication is the continuous, two-way exchange of information for conveying ideas or feelings. It may be verbal or
nonverbal.
Effective communication takes place when the receivers react with understanding and change their behavior accordingly.
The effectiveness of communication can be measured by the similarity between the idea transmitted and the idea received.
Basic Elements of Communication

The communication process is composed of four
interrelated elements:
• Source: The sender, speaker, or writer.
• Symbols: The words or gestures used.
• Channel: The method of communication.
• Receiver: The listener or reader.
Encoding and Decoding
Internal processing is required to convert thoughts into symbols (e.g., words or gestures). This conversion is called
encoding.
The receiver decodes the symbols into meaningful thoughts. Effective communication occurs if the symbols are decoded
with their intended meaning.
Feedback
Instructors must continually monitor the feedback from learners to optimize communication. The feedback is typically
received nonverbally.
Learners also need input from instructors on how they are doing. Positive feedback can build self-confidence and reinforce
desirable behaviors. Negative feedback must be used carefully and conducted in private.
Characteristics of Effective Communicators

The effectiveness of a communicator is related to three primary factors:
• Their ability to select symbols that are meaningful to the receiver
• Their attitude when delivering the message
• If they speak or write from a broad background of accurate, up-to-date, and stimulating material
Characteristics of Receivers
Three characteristics of receivers need to be understood:
• Their background (familiarity with the subject, cultural differences, and viewpoint)
• Their attitude (resistance, willingness, or passive neutrality)
• Their past experiences and motivation (transferable knowledge, life experiences, and desire to further knowledge)
Barriers to Effective Communication

Confusion Between the Symbol and Symbolized Object: Some words may transfer with their intended meaning. Words and
the connotations they carry can be different.
Overuse of Abstractions: Abstract words may not evoke items in the listener’s mind that the communicator intends. Instead,
more concrete (specific) words should be used.
Interference: A breakdown in the communication cycle. It is not always caused by factors under the control of the instructor.
Types of interference:
• Physiological: Any biological problem that may inhibit symbol reception, such as hearing loss, injury, or physical illness.
• Environmental: External physical conditions, such as the noise level inside many small aircraft.
• Psychological: How the instructor and learner feel at the time the communication process is occurring.
Lack of Common Experience: The greatest single barrier to successful communication. Instructors cannot expect to use the
same dialogue with pilots that have different levels of experience.
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Fundamentals of Instruction: Effective Communication
Developing Communication Skills

Communication skills must be developed through experience and practice; they do not occur automatically.
Role-Playing
Role-playing can give Instructor applicants experience in instructional communication. The instructor applicant takes the role
of the instructor and is responsible for teaching his or her colleagues as if they were learners.
Instructional Communication
Instructional communication is used to inform the listeners in the teaching-learning process. It requires the instructor to be
knowledgeable and confident. If the instructor can share knowledge gained from past experiences, it can aid in the
communication process.
Listening
Hearing is a passive but constant process. Listening is an active process (hearing with comprehension).
Effective listeners:
• Pay attention and maintain eye contact.
• Internally reinforce the speaker’s words.
• Concentrate on listening to understand rather than refute.
Types of Listening
• Reactive: Reacting to an attention-grabbing sound, the most basic type of listening.
• Intensive: Listening for shades of meaning in words, used when learning a new language.
• Responsive: Listening for a response to a posed question.
• Selective: Sorting through the sounds being heard for main ideas.
• Extensive: Trying to understand the information being communicated.
• Interactive: Involves communicating and listening simultaneously.
Guarding Against Daydreaming
Most people can listen faster than a speaker can talk. This leads to daydreaming. A listener who is aware of this problem
can internally paraphrase or summarize the speaker’s words. Doing so retains more information.
Questioning
Good questioning can determine how well the learner understands what is being taught. It also shows the learner that the
instructor is paying attention and is interested in the response.
The instructor should devise and write pertinent questions in advance of each lesson. As the lesson progresses, impromptu
questions can be added.
Related: Assessment and Critique: Oral Assessment
Perception Checking
Perception checking is a questioning technique used by the receiver to confirm that the message has been interpreted
correctly. Its main benefit is in reducing the potential for conflict.
Perception checking has three components:
1. Restate the message or describe the behavior noticed (e.g., “When you said […].”).
2. Provide two possible interpretations of the message or behavior (e.g., “I think you meant […] or […].”).
3. Request clarification without using negative terminology. (e.g., “Does that sound right?”).
Instructional Enhancement
An instructor never stops learning. Instructional enhancement states that the more knowledgeable the instructor is, the more
confident, engaging, and productive he or she will be at conveying it.
Professional development opportunities for aviation instructors include seminars, professional organizations, and online
courses.
Related: Professional Aviation Organizations and Programs
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Fundamentals of Instruction: The Teaching Process
THE TEACHING PROCESS

What is Teaching?
Teaching is to instruct or train. A skillful teacher guides learners through the learning process, concentrating on one step at a
time while moving towards the learning goals.
“Telling” is Not Teaching
Telling is the giving of information, and it’s one way (monologue).
Teaching is interactive and learner-centered (dialogue). The learner’s motivations, previous experiences, and preferred
learning style are incorporated into the teaching process.
“ True teaching grows out of the development of an instructor-learner relationship. – Mike Thompson (Telling is Not
Teaching)
Roles of a Teacher
Instructor: An instructor trains someone to do a specific task.
Coach: A coach analyzes performances and trains. Coaching is an active role. An aviation instructor serves as a coach as
the learner practices.
Mentor: A mentor counsels, answers questions, and offers advice. Mentoring is a reactive role. An aviation instructor serves
as a mentor during scenario-based training (SBT).
Types of Instruction
Collaborative: When multiple instructors work together.
Differentiated: When learners are taught the same topic but with different methods of instruction. Learners can use their
preferred learning styles.
Direct: When an instructor teaches learners directly. Examples include maneuver demonstrations and lectures.
Discovery: When learners discover information for themselves. The instructor acts as a facilitator and mentor. Examples
include group collaboration and scenario-based training.
Expository: Learning from a subject matter expert. Examples include lectures, textbooks, and videos.
Hands-On: When learners are physically engaged. Examples include simulations and problem-based learning.
Interactive: Learning through social interaction. Examples include guided discussions, group collaboration, and role-playing.
Scaffolding: When an instructor provides knowledge or a demonstration and then gradually steps back or “fades,” offering
support only as needed.
Essential Teaching Skills

People Skills: Effective instructors relate well to people. They interact respectfully, provide motivation, and adapt to the
needs of the learner.
Subject Matter Expertise (SME): An SME possesses a high level of knowledge in a particular area. Aviation instructors
should be SMEs in aviation and teaching.
Management Skills: Effective management promotes learning. Instructors need the ability to plan lessons, utilize time
effectively, organize material, and supervise learners.
Assessment Skills: Learning involves measurable changes in behavior that can be assessed. Assessments can be made
before, during, and after training.
Pedagogical content knowledge, introduced by Lee Shulman, is the integration of subject matter
expertise and teaching skills. Shulman recognized that teachers needed more than understanding of
the subjects they taught; they also needed to convey their ideas effectively to learners.
Steps in the Teaching Process

The teaching of new material can be reduced to four steps: (1) preparation, (2) presentation, (3) application, and (4) review
and assessment.
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Preparation
The most common approach to lesson preparation consists of six steps:
1. Establish the training objectives (“What needs to be learned?”).
2. Organize the material into a logical sequence.
3. Determine if instructional aids should be used (e.g., whiteboard and aircraft models).
4. Develop learning activities (“What can the learners do?”).
5. Plan an assessment method (“How will learning be measured?”).
6. Create a realistic timeline.
7. Plan for a lesson closure (review and closing statement).
Presentation
The presentation of a lesson should consist of five steps:
1. Gain the learners’ attention.
2. Inform the learners of the training objectives.
3. Stimulate recall of prior knowledge using review questions.
4. Present the new content.
5. Provide guidance and support (e.g., use “chair-flying,” mnemonics, or role-playing strategies).
There are many training delivery methods available to aviation instructors, including: (1) lectures, (2) discussions, (3)
electronic learning, (4) group learning, (5) demonstrations, and (6) practice drills.
The delivery method should be determined by the learner’s preferred learning style and the lesson objectives. A common
error is to use the instructor’s preferred method for every learner.
Application
The application step is when the learner uses the material, and the instructor provides feedback. If it is a classroom
presentation, the learner may be asked to explain the new material. If it is a new flight maneuver, the learner may be asked to
perform the maneuver that has just been demonstrated.
Review and Assessment
Before the end of the instructional period, the instructor should review the main ideas and help learners connect the
concepts learned to real-world applications. This review reinforces learning and improves retention.
An assessment should also be conducted to judge how well the objectives have been met. This assessment can be informal
(used only to help the instructor plan the next lesson) or formal (recorded to track the learner’s progress).
Related: Assessment
Training Objectives
Training objectives describe what the learner will be able to do after the instruction is received. To benefit learners, the
objectives should be stated at the beginning of each instructional period.
Properly written training objectives:
• Help instructors with lesson planning (e.g., determine the required equipment and practice activities).
• Explain the purpose and benefits of the lesson.
• Give learners a “big picture” of the lesson. This can alleviate uncertainty and frustration.
When following a training syllabus, the objectives for the course of training and each lesson are typically provided. Airman
Certification Standards (ACS) publications also offer examples of objectives and standards.
Anatomy of a Training Objective
A training objective consists of at least two elements:
• An action verb that describes the desired level of ability (e.g., recall, describe, or explain).
• A description of the desired outcome (e.g., a knowledge, a skill, or an attitude).
By the end of this lesson, the learner should be able to [action verb] [description of the
knowledge/skill/attitude].
Action verbs are provided in each level of Bloom’s Domains of Learning: cognitive (knowledge), affective (attitudes, beliefs,
and values), and psychomotor (physical skills).

Lesson objectives should apply to one or more of the domains. Ground lessons generally concentrate on the cognitive
domain, while flight lessons emphasize the psychomotor domain. Instructors should address the affective domain to
favorably influence the learner’s attitude toward safety and decision-making subjects.
Related: The Learning Process: Domains of Learning
Types of Training Objectives

Aviation training involves two types of objectives: performance-based and decision-based.
Performance-Based Objectives
Performance-based objectives set measurable standards that describe the desired performance of the learner. They define
precisely what needs to be done and how it is done during each lesson.
Performance-based objectives consist of two additional elements:
• Conditions: The rules under which the skill or behavior is demonstrated. This can include equipment, references, or
limiting parameters (e.g., “using no more than 5° of bank”).
• Criteria: A description of the standards used to measure the accomplishment of the objective (e.g., “within ±100′ of the
assigned altitude”).
Decision-Based Objectives
As a learner’s training progresses, the instructor should shift the focus to decision-based training objectives. Decision-based
objectives promote critical thinking skills, such as risk management and aeronautical decision-making (ADM).
Decision-based objectives apply to the three highest levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain: analysis,
synthesis, and evaluation. These skills are developed through problem-based learning (PBL).
Related: Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain
How to Write Training Objectives

The ABCD model can be used to create learning objectives for a course of training or an individual lesson.
Components of the ABCD model:
• Audience: Who will achieve the objective?
• Behavior: Use action verbs (Bloom’s domains of learning) to write observable and measurable behaviors.
• Conditions: The parameters under which a behavior is to be performed (optional).
• Degree: The criteria for acceptable performance (optional).
Note: If the optional conditions and criteria (degree) are not included, separate completion standards should be included in the lesson plan.
Training Standards
Training standards are related to the objectives but include specific conditions and criteria. If the conditions and criteria are
included in the objectives, the standards are already established.
Organization of Material
Lesson material should be organized to help learners understand what is being taught.
Traditionally, the lesson plan is organized into three parts: introduction, development, and conclusion.
“ Tell them what you are going to tell them, tell them, then tell them again.
Introduction
The introduction should be organized into three parts: attention, motivation, and overview.
Attention: The purpose is to focus the learner’s attention on the lesson. Examples include telling a story or joke, showing a
video clip, or asking a question.
Motivation: The purpose is to offer the learner specific reasons why the lesson content is vital to know. The motivation
should appeal to each learner personally and provoke a desire to learn the material (Thorndike’s law of readiness).
Overview: The purpose is to give the learner a glimpse of what is to be covered. Clear, concise objectives keep learners
informed and prevents frustration.
Development
Lesson content should be organized into manageable chunks of information (main points).

For each main point, the instructor should:
• Arrange it in a logical sequence to the other main points.
• Create a short segue (“We covered X, now we are going to cover Y.”).
• Show how it is related to knowledge already held, if applicable.
• Give an example of when the knowledge or skill can be used.
• Provide a brief, interim summary.
Main points should be organized in one of the following ways:
• From the past to the present.
• From the simple to the complex.
• From the known to the unknown.
• From the most frequently used to the least frequently used.
Conclusion
The instructor should organize the conclusion into two parts: a summary and a closing statement.
Summary: A concise review that retraces the important elements of the lesson and relates them to the objective. New ideas
should not be introduced.
Closing Statement: The final statement should motivate learners and link the knowledge gained to future lessons.
Training Delivery Methods

It may be appropriate to incorporate more than one delivery method in an instructional session. By using a variety of
instructional techniques, learners are more likely to remain interested, and the reinforcement of learning is maximized.
Lecture Method
The lecture method is the most widely used form of presentation. Lectures are best used when an instructor wishes to
convey a general understanding of a subject that learners lack.
A lecture is sequenced into three parts:
1. Introduction: An attention element, a motivation element, and an overview of main points.
2. Body: The lecture content.
3. Conclusion: A summary of the lecture’s main points.
Advantages of lectures:
• They are a convenient way to instruct large groups.
• The instructor can present many ideas in a relatively short time.
• Learners aren’t required to have knowledge of the material.
• They are efficient in terms of the time required to present material.
Disadvantages of lectures:
• The instructor needs considerable skill in speaking.
• They are not suitable for teaching decision-making or motor skills.
• Feedback from the learners is not apparent and is hard to interpret.
• They are not effective for learning large amounts of information in a short time.
• They have a low rate of retention. After the first 10–15 minutes, learner retention drops significantly and improves at the
end.
Types of Lecture Deliveries
A lecture is typically delivered in one of four ways:
• Reading from a typed or written manuscript.
• Reciting memorized material without the aid of a manuscript.
• Speaking extemporaneously from an outline.
• Speaking impromptu without preparation.
Use of Lecture Notes
A thoroughly prepared instructor can usually speak effectively without notes. When notes are required, they should be used
sparingly and unobtrusively.
Notes used properly can ensure accuracy, jog memory, and dispel the fear of forgetting. They are essential to ensure
accuracy when the lesson material is complicated. For an instructor who tends to ramble, notes can help keep the lecture on
track.
Types of Lectures
Illustrated Talk: The speaker relies on visual aids to convey his or her ideas to the listeners.
Briefing: The speaker presents a concise set of facts to the listeners.
Formal Lecture: The instructor’s purpose is to inform, persuade, or to entertain with little or no verbal participation by
learners.
Informal Lecture: A lecture that includes and encourages active learner participation. Learning is best achieved if learners
participate actively in a friendly, relaxed atmosphere.
Teaching Lecture: The instructor delivers a traditional lecture and includes classroom activities that encourage learner
participation. The lecture is typically best when the instructor has an outline but does not read the material.
The 20/20/10/10 Rule: Every hour of instruction should include 20 minutes of lecture, 20 minutes
of discussion, 10 minutes of review, and a 10-minute break.
Learner Engagement Strategies for Lectures

“Bell Ringer”: After returning from a break, learners need to be reengaged. A “bell ringer” is an activity, such as a challenging
problem or question used for this purpose.
Chunk and Chew Method: For every 10 minutes of content delivered by the instructor, learners should be allowed 2 minutes
to process it. Breaking up the content into chunks allows for a greater level of engagement with and retention of information.
Cold Calling: Instructors can randomly call on learners during the lecture whether their hands are raised or not. This should
be done respectfully, not meant to cause embarrassment. Learners should be allowed to “phone-a-friend” to seek the help of
another learner.
Non-Verbal Cues: Instructors should develop non-verbal cues, such as rhythmic clapping or hand signals, to regain learner
attention if they lose focus.
Best Practices for Lectures
• Speak spontaneously.
• Use simple rather than complex words.
• Vary the tone of voice and pace of speaking.
• Avoid errors in grammar and the use of vulgarisms.
• Make frequent eye contact with everyone in the room.
• Check for understanding verbally and by interpreting body language.
• Encourage learner participation. Active learning is superior to just listening.
• Rehearse the lecture to build confidence and smooth out the mechanics of using notes and visual aids.
Discussion Method
In the discussion method, the instructor provides a short lecture, no more than 20 minutes in length, which gives basic
knowledge to the learners. This short lecture is followed by a discussion.
All learners in a discussion should comment, listen, and think. The instructor acts as a guide, keeping the focus on the
subject matter. That may mean the instructor needs to initiate leading questions, referee if the discussions cause conflict,
and summarize what has been learned.
Advantages of discussions:
• Learners improve their recall and ability to use the information in the future.
• Learners can develop higher-order thinking skills (HOTS).
Guided Discussion
In a guided discussion, the instructor acts as a facilitator to encourage discussion. The goal is to draw out what the learners
know. The discussion is controlled and guided by the instructor’s skillful use of questions.
To participate in a guided discussion, learners must have some knowledge of the subject area beforehand. The discussion
reinforces knowledge if the learner participates.
Components of a Guided a Discussion
Introduction: The introduction should include an attention element, a motivation element, and an overview of key points.
Discussion: The instructor opens the discussion by asking a lead-off question. Once the discussion is underway, the
instructor should listen attentively and guide the discussion toward the learning objective.

Conclusion: A guided discussion is closed by the instructor summarizing the material covered. The instructor should show
tie together the facts and show how they can be applied.
Types of Guided Discussion Questions
• Lead-off: The question the instructor uses to open up an area for discussion. They should usually begin with “how” or
“why.”
• Follow-up: A question asked after the discussion develops to guide the discussion further.
• Overhead: A question directed to the entire group to stimulate thought. It can be used as the lead-off question.
• Rhetorical: A question that spurs thought, but the instructor provides the answer.
• Direct: A question asked to a specific individual.
• Reverse: A question used in response to a learner’s question. The instructor redirects a question to another learner to
provide the answer.
• Relay: A reverse question that is redirected to the group instead of an individual.
Handling Learner’s Answers in a Guided Discussion
Instructors should not always let the entire group answer questions. Learners should be called upon by name to answer.
Group answering may prevent the instructor from knowing who supplied the correct answer and may keep learners from
hearing the correct answer.
Tips for Planning a Guided Discussion
• Select a topic that the learners can discuss. Prior knowledge is required.
• Establish a specific lesson objective with desired learning outcomes.
• Conduct adequate research to become familiar with the topic.
• Organize the lesson’s main and subordinate points in a logical sequence (introduction, discussion, conclusion).
• Plan at least one lead-off question for each desired learning outcome.
Electronic Learning Method
Electronic learning (e-learning) is an umbrella term for any education that involves an electronic component in its delivery.
The advantages of e-learning include less time spent on instruction and higher levels of mastery and retention.
E-learning has limitations, which can include a lack of peer interaction and personal feedback. Instructors should monitor
and oversee learner progress.
Computer-Assisted Learning Method
Computer-assisted learning (CAL) uses software to create a training device on a computer. It can be used to test a learner’s
achievement, compare results, and indicate weak or strong areas.
Example: CAL is used to prepare for FAA knowledge tests. Most programs allow the learners to select a sample test,
complete the questions, and then conduct a review of the questions missed.
Simulation, Role-Playing, and Video Gaming
Simulation games provide players with complex situations and opportunities to learn. These games usually promote the
development of critical thinking skills. The learner can also practice scenarios that would otherwise be unwise or unsafe to
perform in an actual aircraft.
Cooperative or Group Learning Method
Cooperative or group learning is an instructional strategy that organizes learners into small groups to collaborate. The
instructor serves as a coach who keeps the groups on track and encourages everyone to participate.
Advantages of group collaboration:
• Learning is enhanced through active participation.
• Social skills can be improved, and self-esteem can be raised.
• Learners interact in ways that are rarely found with other instructional strategies.
Conditions and Controls
The following conditions and controls are useful for cooperative learning:
• Sufficient time for learning
• Individual accountability
• Recognition and rewards for group success
• Small, heterogeneous groups to encourage the considerations of dissimilar viewpoints
• Clear and specific learning objectives that describe what learners are to do

The jigsaw strategy can be used to ensure that there is a fair distribution of work and responsibility. Each group member
receives a piece of the assignment to complete. The pieces are put together for the final group product.
Demonstration-Performance Method
Best used to master mental or physical skills that require practice, the demonstration-performance method is based on the
principle that people learn by doing. This method is commonly used in flight training but is also beneficial in the classroom.
The four phases are:
1. Instructor explanations
2. Instructor demonstrations
3. Learner performance and instructor supervision (performed concurrently)
4. Instructor evaluation
Related:
• Techniques of Flight Instruction: Demonstration-Performance Delivery Method
• Techniques of Flight Instruction: Telling-and-Doing Technique
Drill and Practice Method

Drill and practice is a training delivery method based on the learning principle of repetition. It can be used to hone skills that
need repetition for improvement. Repetition promotes learning because things most often repeated are best remembered.
The disadvantage of repetitive practice is that higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) are not typically involved.
Problem-Based Learning
Problem-based learning (PBL) is a teaching strategy that confronts learners with problems that are encountered in real life,
which forces them to reach real-world solutions. The goal is to increase learner interest and involvement. Through
opportunities to make decisions and formulate solutions, learners develop higher-order thinking skills (HOTS).
Scenario-Based Training Method
Scenario-based training (SBT) uses a highly structured script of real-world experiences to address flight-training objectives in
an operational environment.
SBT is based on two educational theories:
• Situated Cognition: The idea that knowledge cannot be fully understood independent of its context. People learn better
from realistic situations in which they are counted on to perform.
• Experiential Model of Learning: The idea that learning comes through first-hand experiences. Learning is a continuous
cycle of (1) being involved, (2) observing, (3) conceptualizing, and (4) problem solving or decision-making.
Goals of Scenario-Based Training
Scenarios give the pilot an opportunity to:
• Reach higher levels of learning.
• Correlate existing knowledge and skills into real-life applications.
• Experience realistic events and make decisions under the supervision of a flight instructor.
“ Knowledge without application is worth very little.
What Studies Reveal About Scenario-Based Training

Pilots trained using SBT methods demonstrate stick-and-rudder skills equal to or better than pilots trained under the
maneuver-based approach. When a condition occurs requiring a maneuver, SBT trained pilots responded quickly and more
accurately. A pilot lacking SBT instruction must search his or her memory to link a procedure to a situation.
Traditional Versus Scenario-Based Training
SBT does not eliminate traditional, maneuver-based training. The repeated use of one method without the other isn’t all that
useful to the learner. An effective aviation instructor uses the maneuver-based approach but presents the objectives in a
scenario.
The Role of the Instructor During a Scenario
The flight instructor continues to demonstrate and instruct skill maneuvers in the traditional manner but should revert to the
role of mentor as the learner starts to perform and make decisions. Learners take more ownership of their learning as the
instructor becomes more of a facilitator.

Elements of a Scenario
There is no list of “canned” scenarios that can be used for all learners. Scenarios must be tailored to the learner, the aircraft,
and the local environment.
A good scenario:
• Has a clear set of objectives.
• Appeals to the learner (it involves something the learner would do when training is complete).
• Incorporates as many training tasks as possible.
• Has more than one correct answer.
• Does not have an obvious solution.
• Capitalizes on the nuances of the local environment.
• Requires the learner to make decisions.
To be realistic, a flight scenario must have:
• A purpose (reason to go).
• Consequences if the mission is not completed.
How to Devise a Scenario
Steps to create a scenario:
1. Identify the needs of the learner and the desired learning objectives (preferably decision-based).
2. Decide on your format (e.g., ground or flight scenario).
3. Devise a situation (a script) that leads to the desired learning outcomes.
4. Incorporate as many training tasks as possible.
5. Incorporate a problem that the learner will need to resolve through knowledge, skill, or decision-making.
6. Identify the trigger event (the starting point of the scenario).
7. Plan an efficient transition between the scenario and traditional learning and vice-versa.
8. Identify decision points and key areas for feedback and learner reflection.
9. Identify positive and negative outcomes (those that result in success and failure).
Flight Briefings for Scenario-Based Training
The learner and instructor should communicate the following in advance of every flight scenario:
• The purpose of the flight.
• The destination(s).
• The desired learning outcomes.
• The desired level of performance.
• Constraints on the exercise, such as automation assistance and guidance from the instructor.
• Possible inflight scenario changes.
Collaborative Problem-Solving Method
Collaborative problem-solving is similar to the cooperative or group learning method, but learners are more dependent on
each other to form a solution. In this method, the instructor presents an open-ended, “what if” type of question for the group
to solve. The emphasis of the training is on the process as much as it is on the final product.
Note: This method can be modified for an interactive, one-on-one learning situation such as an independent aviation instructor might encounter.
Case Study Method

A case study is a written or oral account of a real-world situation, such as an aviation accident. The instructor presents the
case to the learners, who then analyze it, come to conclusions, and offer possible solutions.
Questions to consider with each case study:
• What was the chain of events that led to the accident?
• Were there opportunities to break the chain?
• Either good or bad, did the pilot(s) exhibit an attitude towards safety?
• Were there external pressures affecting the decisions made by the pilot(s)?

Case Study Resources
NTSB Database: One source of real-world case studies can be found in the NTSB’s accident database. By removing the
determination of probable cause, an instructor can use the description as a case study.
Link: https://www.ntsb.gov/_layouts/ntsb.aviation/index.aspx
FAA Lessons Learned: The FAA’s Lessons Learned from Civil Aviation Accidents Library provides overviews of selected large
transport airplane, small airplane, and rotorcraft accidents.
Link: https://lessonslearned.faa.gov/index.cfm
Instructional Aids and Training Technologies

Instructional aids devices that assist an instructor in the teaching-learning process. Instructional aids are not self-
supporting; they supplement or reinforce what is being taught.
Training media are the physical means that communicate an instructional message to learners. Examples include the
instructor’s voice, printed text, and flight training devices.
Instructional Aid Theory
• Carefully selected visual aids can help the learner understand, as well as retain, essential information.
• Ideally, instructional aids cover the key points and concepts.
• Generally, instructional aids that are relatively simple are best.
• The instructional aid should hold the learner’s attention on the subject; it should not be distracting.
Reasons to Use Instructional Aids
• Instructors can teach more and more in a smaller time frame.
• Good instructional aids can help solve certain language barrier problems.
• Properly used instructional aids help gain and hold the attention of learners.
• Studies show that instructional aids can increase retention by as much as 80%.
• Instructional aids can clarify the relationships between material objects and concepts, such as aircraft systems.
Guidelines Using Instructional Aids
To determine if and when instructional aids are to be used:
1. Establish the learning objectives.
2. Research the subject and gather supporting materials.
3. Organize the material into a logical learning sequence.
4. Determine what ideas should be supported with instruction aids.
Best Practices for Using Aircraft Models
• Make smooth, slow movements.
• Draw the horizon on a marker board behind the model to use a visual reference.
• Don’t pick the model up until you are ready to use it and put it down when done. Anything held is a potential distraction.
Best Practices for Using Marker Boards
• Don’t overcrowd the board.
• Write neatly and underline the main points.
• Use simple diagrams and use a variety of colors.
• Draw time-consuming diagrams before the lesson starts.
• Store and hold markers tip-down to keep moisture in the tip.
• Have a plan for how the marker board space will be used. Use the same pattern consistently.
Test Preparation Materials

Test preparation materials help applicants prepare for FAA knowledge and practical tests. A major shortcoming is that these
materials rely on rote learning. They are not designed as stand-alone learning tools.
Providers of test preparation materials include:
• ASA (https://asa2fly.com)
• Dauntless Software (http://dauntless-soft.com)
• Gleim Aviation (https://gleimaviation.com)
• King Schools (https://kingschools.com)
• Sheppard Air (http://sheppardair.com)
• Sporty’s Pilot Shop (https://sportys.com)

Fundamentals of Instruction: Assessment
ASSESSMENT
What is an Assessment?
Assess means to evaluate the quality or ability of someone or something. Instructors continuously assess a learner’s
performance to provide guidance, suggestions for improvement, and positive reinforcement.
Purpose of an Assessment
A proper assessment:
• Contributes to the learning process.
• Provides evidence that the learning objectives have been attained.
• Gives the instructor with immediate feedback on the quality of instruction.
• Develops the learner’s ability to evaluate his or her knowledge and performance accurately.
• Highlights areas in which learners may need to focus more on and areas in which they are proficient.
The Testing Effect
An effective assessment enhances learning by a phenomenon known as the testing effect or retrieval practice. When
information is brought to mind, the memory is improved and easier to recall again later. Studies show that this metacognitive
strategy is more effective than re-reading or taking notes.
Related: The Learning Process: Metacognitive Strategies
Types of Assessments
Traditional assessments involve written testing, such as multiple-choice, matching, true/false, and fill-in-the-blank questions.
There is a single correct answer.
Authentic assessments require learners to perform real-world tasks and exhibit in-depth knowledge instead of merely
choosing a response.
Formal Versus Informal Assessments
Whether traditional or authentic, an assessment can be either formal or informal.
Formal assessments are preplanned and usually involve a quiz or written examination. They measure and document whether
or not the course objectives have been met.
Informal assessments are casual day-to-day observations that are not part of the final course grade. Verbal critiques are an
example.
Assessments Within a Course of Training
Diagnostic assessments assess learner knowledge or skills before beginning a course of instruction.
Formative assessments are used at the end of a lesson to guide instruction and set the stage for the next lesson. Rather
than assigning a grade, the instructor provides constructive feedback.
Summative assessments, used periodically throughout training, measure how well learning has progressed to that point.
Stage-checks and end-of-course tests are examples.
Methods of Measuring Learner Performance
Norm-referenced testing measures a learner’s performance is ranked against the performance of other learners.
Criterion-referenced testing measures a learner’s performance against a measurable standard (criterion). Airman
knowledge tests are examples of criterion-referenced tests.
Characteristics of an Effective Assessment

Flexible: Fits the learner and the occasion and allows for variables.
Acceptable: To accept the critique, the learner must also accept the instructor.
Specific: Learners cannot act on recommendations unless they know precisely what they are.
Thoughtful: It should not ridicule, anger, or make fun at the expense of the learner.
Comprehensive: While not necessarily long, it covers strengths as well as weaknesses that the learner can reasonably be
expected to improve
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Objective: Focused on the learner’s performance. It should not reflect the personal opinions or preferences of the instructor.
Constructive: Benefits the learner.
Organized: Logical and makes sense to the learner.
Choosing an Effective Assessment Method

When deciding how to assess learner progress, aviation instructors can follow a four-step process.
1. Determine Level-of-Learning Objectives: The training objectives should measure one of the learning levels of the
cognitive, affective, or psychomotor domains.
Example: If rote knowledge is being evaluated, the “knowledge” level (lowest-level) of the cognitive domain should be
referenced.
2. List Indicators of Desired Behaviors: Samples of behaviors should be listed that give the best indication of the objective’s
achievement.
Example: The general steps used to complete a navigation log can be listed if the assessment involves cross-country flight
planning.
3. Establish Criterion (Performance-Based) Objectives: For the listed behaviors, the instructor includes limiting parameters,
also called criterion. Criterion objectives state the conditions under which the behavior must be performed and the criteria
that must be met.
Example: As a condition, the instructor may limit the learner’s use of electronic devices during cross-country flight planning.
4. Develop Criterion-Referenced Test Items: The criterion (performance-based) objectives should serve as a reference for
developing test questions.
Example: Practical tests are criterion-referenced tests. The criterion objectives are contained in the Airman Certification
Standards (ACS).
Related:
• The Learning Process: Domains of Learning
• The Teaching Process: Training Objectives
Traditional Assessment
Traditional assessments generally refer to written tests with a limited number of choices, such as multiple-choice, matching,
or fill-in-the-blank. They may be useful in assessing a learner’s progress within a course but offer little opportunity to evaluate
critical thinking skills.
Traditional assessments:
• Require learners to demonstrate the rote and understanding levels of learning.
• Are instructor-centered. They benefit the instructor by being easy to give and grade.
Types of Written Test Questions
Supply-type questions require the learner to furnish a response in the form of a word, sentence, or paragraph.
Supply-type test items:
• Are subjective (they cannot be graded uniformly).
• Require learners to organize their thoughts and ideas.
• Take longer to give and grade.
Selection-type questions include items for which two or more alternative responses are provided (e.g., true-false or multiple-
choice).
Selection-type test items:
• Are objective (they can be graded uniformly).
• Allow direct comparison of learner’s accomplishments.
Characteristics of a Good Written Test
Reliability: Yields consistent results each time the test is administered.
Validity: Measures what it is supposed to measure and nothing else. Items in the test must pertain to the lesson objectives.
Usability: Easy to give, easy to read, and easily graded.

Objectivity: The test can be graded consistently. Selection-type test items are much easier to grade objectively.
Comprehensiveness: Samples a good cross-section of all the knowledge being measured.
Discrimination: Small differences in achievement can be measured between learners.
Traditional Assessment Grading Systems
The traditional grading system assigns a single letter (e.g., “A” or “F”) or percentage (e.g., “95%” or “58%”) to each learner’s
performance. The grade often meets the instructor’s needs but does not identify areas where the learner struggles or excels.
In a standards-based grading (SBG) system, the assessment is broken down into multiple learning targets. Each learning
target is a teachable concept, such as “airspace identification” or “general flight rules.” Targets are scored independently, with
a scale of 1–4 being most popular.
Both learners and instructors benefit from the SBG system. Learners receive additional feedback to further their learning, and
instructors can identify weak areas to shift the focus or method of their instruction.
Authentic Assessment
Authentic assessments focus on real-world tasks, enabling learners to demonstrate their competency in “authentic” settings.
Unlike a traditional assessment, the learner must generate a solution instead of choosing a response.
Authentic assessments:
• Require learners to demonstrate the application and correlation levels of learning.
• Are learner-centered. They help the learner by doubling as learning experiences.
Instructors should be aware that authentic assessment may not be as useful as traditional assessment in the early phases
of training because the learner does not have enough information about the concepts or knowledge to participate fully.
Authentic Assessment “Grades”
An authentic assessment, a form of learner-centered grading, is focused on learning rather than grading. The instructor and
learner work jointly to determine the learner’s performance.
The learner’s progress is determined by reference to a rubric, a guide for assessing performance.
There are two types of rubrics used for assessing aeronautical proficiency:
• One for skill-based performances, such as flight maneuvers and procedures; and
• One for decision-based performances, such as single-pilot resource management (SRM) and risk management.
Rubric for Assessing Flight Maneuvers and Procedures
Describe Explain Practice Perform

Learner can plan and execute the
Learner can explain the Learner can plan and execute
Learner can describe maneuver to certification
maneuver’s underlying the maneuvers, with coaching
physical characteristics of standards without assistance or
concepts, principles, and and assistance to correct
the maneuver. coaching. Learner identifies and
procedures. deviations and errors.
corrects errors and deviations.
Examples:
• The learner can describe a landing and can tell the flight instructor about the physical characteristics and appearance of
the landing.
• If a learner can explain all the basic physics associated with lift/drag and crosswind correction, he or she is more likely to
practice successfully.
• On a calm day, the learner may be able to practice landings with some success while still functioning at the rote level of
learning.
• The learner can eventually perform a landing under a wide variety of conditions.
• “Not Observed” is used when a maneuver is not accomplished or is not required.

Rubric for Assessing Single-Pilot Resource Management or Risk Management
Explain Practice Manage-Decide

Learner can correctly gather the most
Learner can identify, understand, and
Learner can verbally identify, describe, important data available both inside and
apply SRM principles to the actual flight
and understand the risks inherent in outside the cockpit, identify possible courses
situation. Coaching, instruction, and
the flight scenario, but needs to be of action, evaluate the risk inherent in each
assistance quickly correct minor
prompted to identify risks and make course of action, and make the appropriate
deviations and errors identified by the
decisions. decision. Instructor intervention is not required
instructor.
for the safe completion of the flight.
Examples:
• The learner can explain how SRM applies to different scenarios that are presented on the ground and in the air.
• The learner reaches the practice level when he or she is an active decision-maker.
• When the learner begins to make quality decisions based on good SRM techniques, he or she earns a grade of manage-
decide.
Collaborative Assessment
Collaborative assessment is a form of authentic assessment used with problem-based learning. It is one of the most
effective ways to determine that the learner has the self-awareness and judgment needed for sound aeronautical decision-
making.
A collaborative assessment includes:
• A learner self-assessment that is guided by the instructor.
• A comprehensive analysis by the instructor.
Self-Assessment
An authentic assessment begins with the instructor using a four-step series of open-ended questions to guide the learner
through a complete self-assessment. This process might be called a collaborative critique.
1. Replay: The learner is asked to replay the flight or procedure verbally. The instructor listens for areas that differ from his or
her perceptions.
2. Reconstruct: The reconstruction stage encourages the learner to learn by identifying the key things that he or she would
have, could have, or should have done differently during the flight or procedure.
3. Reflect: The learner is asked to identify the lessons learned. Insights come from investing perceptions and experiences
with meaning, requiring reflection on the events.
4. Redirect: The final step is for the instructor to help the learner relate lessons learned in the session to other experiences
and consider how they might help in future sessions.
Assessment by the Instructor
The self-assessment is followed by an in-depth discussion between the instructor and the learner, which compares the
instructor’s assessment to the learner’s self-assessment. Through the discussion, the instructor and the learner jointly
determine the learner’s progress on a rubric.
Related: Flight Lesson Briefing Guide: Postflight Debriefing
Oral Assessment
The most common means of assessment is direct or indirect oral questioning of learners by the instructor.
Types of Oral Questions
Objective questions have only one correct answer. This type of question usually concerns who, what, when, and where.
Open-ended questions are statements that implicitly ask for completion. The learner must combine knowledge of facts with
an ability to analyze situations, solve problems, and arrive at conclusions.

Benefits of Oral Questioning
Proper quizzing by the instructor:
• Reveals the effectiveness of the instructor’s training methods.
• Checks learner retention of what has been learned.
• Reviews material already presented to the learner.
• Can be used to retain learner interest and stimulate thinking.
• Emphasizes the important points of training.
• Identifies points that need more emphasis.
• Checks comprehension of what has been learned.
• Promotes active learner participation, which is important to effective learning.
Characteristics of Effective Questions
To be effective, questions must:
• Present a challenge.
• Apply to the subject of instruction.
• Be brief and concise, but also clear and definite.
• Be adapted to the ability, experience, and stage of training of the learners.
• Center on one idea (limited to who, what, when, where, how, or why, not a combination).
Types of Questions to Avoid
“Yes” or “No” Questions: Questions that require a short answer should be avoided. Instead, the instructor should use open-
ended questions, which typically begin with “how” or “why.”
Toss-Up Questions: A question with two possible options given, and the learner must make a choice. This is similar to a yes/
no question.
Example: “In an emergency, should you squawk 7700 or pick a landing spot?”
Puzzling Questions: A question with many parts (puzzle pieces) that must be assembled before it can be understood.
Example: “What is the first action you should take if a conventional gear airplane with a weak right brake is swerving left in a
right crosswind during a full flap, power-on wheel landing?”
Oversize Questions: Questions that are too broad.
Example: “What should you do before a cross-country flight?”
Bewildering Questions: A question that is hard to read or understand.
Example: “In reading the altimeter, you know you set a sensitive altimeter for the nearest station pressure. If you take
temperature into account, as when flying from a cold air mass through a warm front, what precaution should you take when
in a mountainous area?”
Trick Questions: Questions that are designed to purposely mislead the learner.
Example: A question in which the response options are “A): Class B airspace” and “B) Class A airspace”.
Irrelevant Questions: Questions that are not related to the learning objective.
Example: “How do you do a compression check?”
Responding to Learner Questions
Before answering a learner’s question, the instructor needs to ensure that it is clearly understood. The instructor can
paraphrase the question to show what the learner’s statement meant to the instructor. The learner can then make any
necessary corrections.
• Display interest in the question.
• Be concise.
• Determine if the learner understands the answer.
If a learner’s question is too advanced for the particular lesson, the instructor should:
• State that the question was good.
• Explain the answer would complicate the task at hand.
• Advise the learner to reintroduce the question later.

Occasionally, learners ask questions that the instructor cannot answer. The instructor should admit to not knowing the
answer and offer to help the learner look it up.
Critiques
Used in conjunction with either traditional or authentic assessment, a critique is a detailed analysis of a specific
performance. It covers the strengths, weaknesses, and provides suggestions for improvement.
Critiques Versus Assessments
A critique:
• Is informal (not graded).
• Provides feedback to the learner.
• Is provided immediately after the performance to help eliminate errors.
An assessment:
• Is formal when it has grade associated with it.
• May or may not be reviewed with the learner if it is a written test.
• Is typically provided at the end of each instructional period and course of training.
Types of Critiques
Instructor-Led Critique: An instructor critiques a learner’s performance to improve skill, proficiency, and learning. It may be
conducted privately or before an entire class. A classroom critique can be beneficial to all learners, but the instructor should
not embarrass the learner.
Instructor/Learner Critique: The instructor leads a group discussion in which members of the class are invited to offer
criticism of a performance. This method should be controlled carefully.
Learner-Led Critique: The instructor asks a learner to lead the assessment. If the learner is inexperienced, these critiques
may not be efficient.
Small-Group Critique: A class is divided into small groups, and each group is assigned a specific area to analyze. The groups
then present their findings to the class.
Individual Learner Critique by Another Learner: The instructor requires another learner to present a critique. A variation is for
the instructor to ask several learners about the performance.
Self-Critique: A learner critiques a personal performance.
Written Critique: Critiques in a written format can aid the instructor in covering all areas that were noticed during the flight or
ground lesson.
Advantages of written critiques:
• The learner gets a permanent record that he or she can refer to later.
• The instructor can devote more time and thought to the critique as compared to an oral assessment.
Best Practices for Critiques
• Remember that a critique is a step in the learning process, not the grading process.
• Consider the good as well as bad performance, the individual parts, and the overall performance.
• Identify no more than a few weaknesses at a time, starting with the most important ones first.
• Conduct critiques immediately after the learner’s performance while the details are easy to recall.
• Do not embarrass the learner in front of others: “praise in public, criticize in private.“
• Critique the behavior, not the learner, by avoiding the word “you” (e.g., “when the aircraft began to spin” versus “when you
put us into a spin”).
“ Don’t be overly critical. The critique aims to separate the wheat from the chaff, not to burn everything to the ground.

Fundamentals of Instruction: Planning Instructional Activity
PLANNING INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITY

Course of Training
Reference: AC 141-1
In education, a course of training is a complete series of studies leading to the attainment of a specific goal. The goal might
be a pilot certificate or an academic degree. It also may be limited to something like a high-performance airplane
endorsement.
All of the courses offered by an educational institution is called a curriculum. A curriculum for a pilot school usually includes
courses for the various pilot certificates and ratings. Curricula are contained in a training course outline (TCO).
Training Course Outline
A training course outline (TCO) describes a particular course’s content
within a curriculum. It typically includes statements of objectives,
descriptions of teaching aids, and definitions of assessment criteria.
Within the TCO is one or more training syllabi. A syllabus is a summary or
outline of an individual course of study.
A syllabus is comprised of multiple lesson plans. A lesson plan is an
organized outline for a single instructional period.
Pilot School Requirements
14 CFR Part 141 pilot schools must have an FAA-approved TCO. Each
course of training (e.g., Private Pilot Course or Commercial Pilot Course) requires a separate TCO. Compliance with the
appropriate, approved syllabus is a condition for graduation. Upon graduation, the learner receives a graduation certificate.
Blocks of Learning
Aviation training has traditionally followed a building-block concept. This means that new learning is based on existing
knowledge and experience. Learners progressively combine, or “stack,” new knowledge and skills until the overall training
objectives are reached.
Using the building-block approach can provide learners with a boost in self-confidence each time a block is completed. This
helps larger goals, such as earning a pilot certificate, seem more attainable.
The building-block concept can be implemented in three steps:
1. Determine the training objectives.
2. Identify blocks of learning within the training objectives.
3. Arrange the blocks of learning in a logical sequence.
Related: The Teaching Process: Training Objectives
Identification of Learning Blocks

Blocks of learning should be fairly consistent in scope. They should represent units of learning that can be measured and
evaluated.
The instructor should examine each identified block to ensure it is an integral part of the structure. Extraneous blocks of
instruction that detract from the completion of the final objectives should be removed.
Arrangement of Learning Blocks
Once identified, the blocks can be arranged in a logical learning sequence, such as from the simple to the complex. In this
way, learners can master blocks individually and progressively until the overall training objectives are met.
For example, the block of learning to obtain a private pilot certificate might be identified and arranged as follows:
1. The knowledge and skills necessary for solo flight.
2. The knowledge and skills necessary for solo cross-country flight.
3. The knowledge and skills appropriate for obtaining a private pilot certificate.
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Example of Presolo Learning Blocks [ASEL]
Training Syllabus
A syllabus is an outline and summary of topics to be covered in a training course. It serves as a road map, showing
instructors how to accomplish the overall objectives in a training course.
Purpose of a Syllabus
A syllabus can:
• Ensure that training is accomplished in a logical sequence and that all of the requirements are completed.
• Act as a checklist to ensure that the required training has been completed (useful for recordkeeping).
• Help in the development of lesson plans since it contains much of the essential information that is needed.
Syllabus Format and Content
Note: Syllabi developed for FAA-approved pilot schools must contain specific information outlined in 14 CFR Parts 141.
The syllabus format and organization may vary, but it should contain the blocks of learning to be completed in the most
efficient order.
Some syllabi include:
• Tables to show recommended training time for each lesson and the overall minimum time requirements.
• Training objectives and completion standards for each lesson.
• Examples of instructional aids and reference materials.
• Descriptions of progress checks and tests to measure learner accomplishments.
How to Use a Training Syllabus
Note: Training provided by an FAA-approved pilot school (14 CFR Part 141) must be conducted in accordance with the training syllabus. Compliance
with the appropriate, approved syllabus is a condition for graduation.
A training syllabus needs to be used primarily as a guide. It should be flexible enough so it can be adapted to weather
variations, aircraft availability, and scheduling changes.
When departing from the order prescribed by the syllabus, it is the instructor’s responsibility to consider how the
relationships of the blocks of learning are affected.
Lesson Plans
Instructors should prepare a lesson plan for each training period. It tells the instructor what to do, what order to do it, and
what procedures to use when teaching.
To be effective, a lesson plan must be in writing. A so-called “mental outline” is not a lesson plan.
Purpose of a Lesson Plan
A lesson plan can:
• Keep the instructor on track.
• Give inexperienced instructors confidence.
• Ensure that important points are not overlooked.
• Organize content in a sequence for efficient learning.
• Promote consistent instruction regardless of the instructor or the date on which the lesson is given.
• Include a checklist for indicating what portions of the lesson were completed (useful for recordkeeping).

Lesson Plan Format and Contents
A lesson plan’s format and style can vary widely, but it generally includes the following items:
• Objective: What the learner will be able to do when the lesson is completed.
• Content: The knowledge necessary to fulfill the lesson objective.
• Schedule: The estimated amount of time to be spent on the lesson.
• Equipment: Instructional materials required to teach the lesson.
• Instructor’s Actions: The instructor’s proposed procedures for presenting the lesson.
• Learner’s Actions: A statement of desired responses to instruction.
• Completion Standards: The standards for determining the learner’s performance.
How to Use a Lesson Plan
To use a lesson plan properly, instructors should:
• Be familiar with it.
• Revise it periodically.
• Adapt it to the learner(s).
• Use it as a guide, not a script.
• Use creativity when adapting premade lesson plans.
Characteristics of a Well-Planned Lesson
Unity: Each lesson should be a unified segment of instruction. A lesson is concerned with limited objectives that are stated
in terms of desired learner learning outcomes.
Content: Each lesson should contain new material. The new facts, principles, procedures, or skills should be related to and
build upon the lesson previously presented. A short review of earlier lessons is usually necessary, notably in flight training.
Scope: A person can master only a few principles or skills at a time, the number depending on complexity. Presenting too
much material in a lesson results in confusion, and too little material results in inefficiency.
Practicality: Each lesson should be planned regarding the conditions under which the training is to be conducted. Lesson
plans performed in an aircraft or ground trainer differ from those delivered in a classroom.
Relation to Course of Training: Each lesson should be planned and taught so that its relation to the course objectives is clear
to each learner.
Instructional Steps: Every lesson should follow the four steps of the teaching process (preparation, presentation, application,
and review and evaluation).
Flexibility: Although the lesson plan provides an outline and sequence for the training, a degree of flexibility should be
included.
Best Practices for Creating Lesson Plans
• List the reference materials and instructional aids to be used.
• Incorporate the answer’s to questions that learners are likely to ask.
• Standardize the content, but modify the teaching method to match the learner’s preferred learning style.
• Use a format that allows you to takes notes and list the items completed during a lesson.
Scenario-Based Lesson Plans
Scenario-based lesson plans incorporate training elements into real-world scenarios. This does not preclude traditional
maneuver-based training. Rather, flight maneuvers are integrated into scenarios and are conducted as they would occur in
the real world.

Fundamentals of Instruction: Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism
INSTRUCTOR RESPONSIBILITIES AND PROFESSIONALISM

Aviation Instructor Responsibilities
The primary responsibilities of all ground and flight instructors:
• Helping learners learn
• Providing adequate instruction
• Demanding adequate standards of performance
• Emphasizing the positive
• Minimizing learner frustrations
• Ensuring aviation safety
Helping Learners Learn
Make Learning Enjoyable: This does not mean the instructor makes things easy for the learner or sacrifices standards of
performance to please the learner. The learner experiences satisfaction from doing a good job or successfully meeting the
challenge of a difficult task.
Make Learning Beneficial: The idea that people need to be led to learning by making it easy is a fallacy. Learners devote
more effort to activities that bring rewards.
Make Learning Interesting: Knowing the objective of each period of instruction gives meaning and interest to the learner. Not
understanding the objective of the lesson can lead to confusion and disinterest.
Set Measurable Standards: Meeting standards gives learners satisfaction. People want to feel capable; they are proud of the
achievement of challenging goals.
Providing Adequate Instruction
Tailored Instruction: No two learners are alike, and a particular instruction method cannot be equally effective for all
learners. The instructor can tailor the teaching methods by first learning about the learner’s background, interests, and way of
thinking.
Slow Learners: A learner whose slow progress is due to discouragement and a lack of confidence should be assigned sub-
goals that can be attained more quickly than the usual learning goals. Complex lessons can be separated into elements, and
each element practiced until acceptable performance is achieved.
Fast Learners: Because fast learners make few mistakes, they may assume that the correction of errors is unimportant. For
these learners, the instructor continually raises performance standards, demanding greater effort.
Awareness of Errors: Learners retain what they have practiced better when they are made aware of their errors. However,
unfair criticism destroys confidence in the instructor.
Instructor Development: New instructors tend to adopt the teaching methods used by their previous instructors. Those
methods may not be the best methods. Instructors need to continue to improve, seeking other resources and information to
enhance their teaching skills.
Demanding Standards of Performance
Testing Standards: Instructors are responsible for training applicants to acceptable standards in all subject matter areas
included in the Airman Certification Standards (ACS). But the ACS is not a teaching tool. It is a testing tool.
Minimal Standards: Instructors should encourage each learner to perform to his or her highest level of ability and keep
raising the bar. When introducing lesson tasks, flight instructors should not focus on the minimum acceptable standards for
passing the checkride.
Emphasizing the Positive
“ Positive instruction results in positive learning.
Instructor’s Influence: The instructor’s attitude and approach to flying may influence learners more than any specific lesson.
Therefore, instructors should set a good example and give learners support and encouragement throughout the training
process.
First Lessons: On a learner’s first flight, the instructor should avoid experiences that might make the learner wonder if
learning to fly is a good idea. An example would be to demonstrate stalls to someone with no aviation experience. Instead, a
good first flight should involve a routine flight to a nearby airport and return.
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Emergency Procedures: Emergency procedures should only be introduced after the learner is familiar with normal
operations. Instructors should use a syllabus to avoid overwhelming the learner with information that they may not be
prepared to digest.
Instructional Methods: Instructors should modify their method of instruction when a learner has difficulty grasping a task. In
essence, a learner’s failure to perform is viewed as an instructor’s inability to transfer the information.
Minimizing Learner Frustrations
Motivate Learners: More can be gained from wanting to learn than from being forced to learn. When learners can see the
lesson’s benefits and purpose, their enjoyment and efforts increase.
Keep Learners Informed: Learners feel insecure when they do not know what is expected or what will happen. The ability to
measure progress reduces frustration and increases motivation.
Instructors can keep learners informed by:
• Using a syllabus and lesson plans.
• Giving them an overview of the course.
• Keeping them posted on their progress.
• Giving them adequate notice of tests and assignments.
Approach Learners as Individuals: Everyone has a unique personality. Instructors should not limit their thinking to the whole
group without considering the individuals who make up that group.
Give Credit When Due: When learners do something well, they expect their abilities and efforts to be noticed. Otherwise, they
may become frustrated. Praise increases learner effort and achievement when deserved, but when given too freely, it
becomes valueless.
Criticize Constructively: It does not help to tell learners they have made errors and not provide explanations. Errors that are
not identified cannot be corrected.
Be Consistent: Learners want to please their instructor. If the same thing is acceptable one day and unacceptable the next,
the learner becomes confused.
Admit Errors: The instructor can win the respect of learners by honestly acknowledging mistakes. If the instructor tries to
cover up or bluff, learners are quick to sense it. Such behavior tends to destroy learner confidence in the instructor.
Ensuring Aviation Safety
Aviation Instructors are general aviation safety gatekeepers. Generally, learners consider their instructor to be a role model
whose habits they attempt to imitate, whether consciously or unconsciously. By emphasizing safety by example, instructors
play a role in reducing GA accidents.
An instructor can enhance aviation safety by:
• Attending aviation safety seminars.
• Joining the FAA Safety Team (FAASTeam).
• Participating in the Pilot Proficiency Award Program (WINGs).
• Placing special emphasis upon areas considered critical to flight safety.
• Interweaving aeronautical decision-making (ADM) and risk management into the training process.
Flight Instructor Responsibilities

References: 14 CFR 61.35, 14 CFR 61.39, 14 CFR 61.49, 14 CFR 61.87, 14 CFR 61.195
“ The most important responsibility a flight instructor has is to produce a safe pilot.
Additional responsibilities of flight instructors:

• Physiological obstacles for flight learners
• Ensuring learner skill set
• Endorsements and recommendations
• Evaluation of learner piloting ability
• Emphasizing safety of flight practices
Physiological Obstacles for Flight Learners
Learners unfamiliar with small aircraft may react to unfamiliar noises or vibrations, or experience strange sensations due to
G-force, or an uncomfortable feeling in the stomach. Instructors cannot ignore the existence of these negative factors. These
sensations can usually be overcome by understanding the nature of their causes.

Ensuring Learner Skill Set
Flight instructors have the responsibility to provide guidance and restraint to their learners’ solo operations. This is by far the
most important flight instructor responsibility.
Skill Requirements for Solo Flight
Before solo flight, a student pilot must be able to:
• Make competent go/no-go decisions.
• Perform all of the basic flight maneuvers.
• Prioritize maintaining control of the aircraft.
• Determine the location of all other traffic while in the pattern.
• Establish and maintain a stabilized approach.
• Determine wind direction and make proper drift corrections.
• Manage the aircraft’s energy so that landings occur at the planned touchdown point.
• Land with and then maintain the proper pitch attitude.
• Keep the longitudinal axis parallel to and over the runway centerline.
• Respond correctly and positively to any abnormality or emergency.
• Communicate accurately and effectively with other traffic or ATC.
• Ask for assistance or help from ATC when needed.
• Handle any common problems that may occur, such as traffic pattern congestion, a change in the active runway, or
sudden crosswinds.
If a learner cannot perform these functions without any guidance or assistance from the instructor, he or she is not ready to
solo.
Limitations on Instructors Authorizing Solo Flight
Before authorizing solo flight, the instructor must determine that:
• The learner’s training and written tests are complete and documented.
• The learner meets the minimum standards for solo flight.
• The required logbook entries for solo flight are endorsed.
Presolo Written Exams
Before being authorized to fly solo, a student pilot must satisfactorily complete a knowledge exam that covers:
• Applicable sections of 14 CFR Parts 61 and 91.
• Airspace rules and procedures for the airport where the solo flight will be performed.
• Flight characteristics and operational limitations for the make and model of aircraft to be flown.
The instructor who endorses the learner’s logbook for solo flight must:
• Administer this test.
• Grade this test.
• Review all incorrect answers with the learner before authorizing the learner to conduct a solo flight.
Limitations on Solo Flight Privileges
When authorizing a student pilot for solo flight, instructors can assign specific operating limitations. These limitations
should be specified for each make and model of aircraft in the pilot’s logbook.
Examples of operating limitations:
• Maximum surface winds that are appropriate for the learner’s experience.
• Ceiling and visibility requirements that are more restrictive than the weather requirements of 14 CFR Part 61 for student
pilots.
Endorsements and Recommendations
Knowledge Tests: An instructor who prepares a learner for a knowledge test is required to ensure the learner has adequate
aeronautical knowledge in the subject areas listed in 14 CFR Part 61. The instructor provides the learner with an
endorsement to certify he or she has the required knowledge to pass the test.
Practical Tests: The written recommendation of a flight instructor is required for most practical tests. The endorsement is a
serious responsibility. An instructor who makes a recommendation should require the applicant to thoroughly demonstrate
the knowledge and skills needed for the certificate or rating. This demonstration should, in no instance, be below the
standards prescribed in the applicable PTS/ACS.
Retesting: If an applicant fails a test, the instructor must make an endorsement stating that he or she has provided
additional training in the areas the applicant failed.
Endorsements: If an instructor fails to ensure that a pilot meets the regulatory requirements before making an endorsement,
that instructor is exhibiting a serious deficiency in performance. The FAA will hold him or her accountable. It is also a breach
of faith with the learner.
Swapping Instructors: Instructors should be cautious of providing recommendations for applicants who were trained by
another instructor. The recommending instructor is held accountable for deficient performance.
Related:
• Pilot Training and Testing Standards
• Instructor Endorsement Guide
Evaluation of Learner Piloting Ability
No skill is more important to an instructor than the ability to continuously analyze, appraise, and judge a learner’s
performance.
Demonstrated Ability: Evaluation of demonstrated ability during flight instruction is based upon established performance
standards, suitably modified to fit the learner’s experience level. The evaluation considers the individual elements and the
overall performance.
Keeping the Learner Informed: In evaluating a learner’s performance, it is essential to keep the learner informed of his or her
progress. A review can be conducted after each procedure or maneuver is completed or summarized during the postflight
debriefing. Corrective measures should always be suggested with the critique.
Emphasizing Safety of Flight Practices
See and Avoid Responsibility: From the start of flight training, instructors must ensure learners develop the habit of looking
for other air traffic at all times. If learners believe the instructor assumes all responsibility for scanning and collision
avoidance procedures, they do not develop the habit of maintaining constant vigilance.
Proper Checklist Usage: The importance of using a checklist cannot be overstated in training. The goal is to establish a habit
pattern that will serve pilots well throughout their flying career. The instructor must promote a positive attitude toward the
use of checklists.
Related:
• Visual Scanning and Collision Avoidance: “See and Avoid” Concept
• Flight Deck Management: Checklist Usage
Flight Instructor Qualifications

A flight instructor needs to be thoroughly familiar with:
• Current pilot training techniques and certification requirements.
• The flight instruments, avionics, and systems of the aircraft being used for training.
Teaching Tips from Veteran Flight Instructors
Seek Advice:
• Get a second opinion on how well a learner is performing during critical phases of flight training.
• A postflight debriefing with the examiner after a practical test is an excellent opportunity for additional learning.
Protect Yourself:
• Maintain a high level of supervision of student pilot operations.
• Carefully document all training events as though the NTSB were going to read them.
• Know the background of the learner before climbing into the airplane with him or her.
Lesson Delivery:
• Encourage a high standard of performance.
• Use a video device to practice teaching until delivery is polished.
• Assign organized, specific, appropriate homework after each session.
• Use all available learning aids (e.g., videos, images, and flight simulators).
Flight Safety:
• Develop a safety-culture environment.
• Encourage each learner to establish personal minimums.
• Include a review of accident reports during advanced instructional activity.
• If the learner “locks up” on the controls, try covering his or her eyes with your hand.

Professionalism
Professionalism is an attitude. No single definition can encompass all of the qualifications and considerations that a true
professional must possess.
Professionalism:
• Exists only when a service is performed.
• Is based on study and research.
• Demands a code of conduct/ethics.
• Is achieved only after extended training and preparation.
• Requires the ability to make good judgment decisions and reason logically.
Characteristics of Professional Instructors
Sincerity (Genuineness): Aviation instructors should mean what they say and say what they feel. Sincerity is the opposite of
phoniness.
Acceptance (Warmth): Instructors should accept learners as they are, including their faults. Learners experience acceptance
as a feeling of being understood, liked, and respected.
Personal Appearance (“Dress for Success”): The image that instructors portray sends a powerful message and influences
how they feel about themselves. Learners expect
instructors to be neat, clean, and appropriately dressed.
Personal Habits (Tendencies): Instructors who are rude, thoughtless, and inattentive cannot hold the respect of learners.
Annoyances, such as bad breath, can cause a distraction from learning.
Demeanor (Outward Behaviors): The professional image requires a calm, thoughtful, and disciplined demeanor. Instructors
should be consistent and avoid unpredictable mood changes.
Proper Language (Messages): Professional instructors speak positively and descriptively, without profanity. The use of
obscene language leads a lack of confidence in the instructor. Many people object to such language.
Code of Conduct (Ethics): Professional instructors adhere to a code of conduct. A code of conduct serves as a tool to
promote safety, good judgment, ethical behavior, and personal responsibility.
Aviation Instructor’s Code of Conduct
All aviation instructors should:
• Make safety the number one priority.
• Develop and exercise good judgment in making decisions.
• Recognize and manage risk effectively.
• Be accountable for his or her actions.
• Act with responsibility and courtesy.
• Adhere to prudent operating practices and personal operating parameters.
• Adhere to applicable laws and regulations.
In addition, flight instructors should:
• Seek proficiency in control of the aircraft.
• Use cockpit technology safely and appropriately.
• Be confident in a wide variety of flight situations.
• Be respectful of the privilege of flight.
Related: Professional Aviation Organizations and Programs: Aviators Code Initiative
Professional Development
Professional instructors do not become complacent or satisfied with their qualifications and abilities. They are always alert
for ways to improve their knowledge, skills, and effectiveness as a teacher.
Continuing Education: The FAA and commercial organizations provide aviation training materials, seminars, and workshops.
Participation in the Pilot Proficiency Awards Program (WINGs) is a good way for a flight instructor to improve proficiency.
Reflective Teaching: Professional instructors continually self-critique their teaching strategies behaviors, looking for ways to
increase their effectiveness. This process, reflective teaching, supports the development of professional expertise.
Library: Professionals build a library of resources that keeps them in touch with their field through the most current
procedures, publications, and educational opportunities.

Additional Ratings: Flight instructors may increase their knowledge and experience by adding additional category and class
ratings to their certificates. Another way is to work toward the Gold Seal Flight Instructor Certificate.
Industry Organizations: Aviation organizations publish educational information and sponsor training programs. Many have
local chapters that provide opportunities for instructors to exchange information.
Related: Professional Aviation Organizations and Programs

Fundamentals of Instruction: Techniques of Flight Instruction
TECHNIQUES OF FLIGHT INSTRUCTION

System Safety
A key component of a flight instructor’s job is to train clients to operate their aircraft safely. But what does “safety” really
mean?
According to one definition, safety is the freedom from conditions that can cause death, injury, or illness, damage to/loss of
equipment or property, or damage to the environment.
Flight instructors are a critical part of the aviation safety system. As such, they should teach and be able to assess the
practices found to make flight safer on a systemic basis, which include aeronautical decision-making (ADM), single-pilot
resource management (SRM), and situational awareness (SA).
Related:
• Teaching Risk Management: Teaching Aeronautical Decision-Making
• Teaching Risk Management: Assessing Decision-Making Skills
Practical Flight Instructor Strategies

All Times: Remember that individuals learn by observing; therefore, model safe and professional behavior.
Before Flight: Discuss risk management, the importance of a proper preflight, and checklist usage.
During Flight: Prioritize the tasks of aviating, navigating, and communicating. Instill the importance of aircraft control, “see
and avoid,” situational awareness, and workload management.
During Landing: Conduct stabilized approaches and demonstrate sound judgment for go-arounds, wake turbulence, traffic,
and terrain avoidance.
After the Flight: Discuss flight events and choices using aeronautical decision-making (ADM) principles.
Flight Lesson Briefings and Debriefings

Briefings allow instructors and learners to discuss and review any points involved in the lesson. They should be conducted
before and after all flights, whether or not new material is covered.
Related: Flight Lesson Briefing Guide
Task Briefing (Board Brief)

A task briefing is a type of ground instruction dedicated to a flight maneuver or procedure. It may be part of the preflight
briefing or occur several days earlier, depending on the training and preparation time the learner needs.
This briefing is sometimes called a “board brief” because the instructor typically explains the maneuver on a whiteboard.
The AMOL model can be used to ensure that all aspects of the task are covered:
• Aim: The “what” of the procedure. What is the objective?
• Motivation: The “why” for the procedure. Why does the learner need to know this?
• Outline: The “how” for the procedure. What are the steps or stages?
• Link: The “connection” of the procedure. How does this relate to what the learner knows or will do later?
Related: The Teaching Process: Best Practices for Using Marker Boards
Preflight Briefings
A preflight briefing is a one-to-one discussion conducted to ensure that the learner understands the flight objectives.
The preflight briefing should include:
• An overview of what will be done during the flight.
• An explanation of how it will be done.
• Safety considerations.
• Review questions to determine that there is sufficient understanding to proceed with the flight.
The preflight briefing should also include a review of the weather, weight and balance, and performance calculations.
Learners should prepare for each lesson by assembling the necessary information and completing these tasks.
Postflight Debriefings
Instructors should approach the debriefing as an opportunity to maximize learning. The learner should feel like the instructor
is providing facts and advice rather than criticism.
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The postflight debriefing should include:
• A self-assessment by the learner and a detailed assessment by the instructor (collaborative assessment).
• A comparison of the instructor’s assessment to the learner’s self-assessment.
• A list of the learner’s strengths, then advice on how to correct errors.
• Answering any questions the learner may have.
• A look ahead to the next lesson and an assignment of study subjects.
The following process is recommended for introducing areas that need improvement:
• Explain the problem affecting the learner’s performance.
• Ensure the learner understands the problem.
• Ask the learner to provide input as to how to solve the problem.
• Provide specific direction and advice on how to correct the problem.
Related: Assessment: Collaborative Assessment
Best Practices for Briefings and Debriefings

• Set aside ample time before and after the flight so that there is no pressure to feel rushed.
• When possible, let the learner lead the discussion through guided questions.
• Make positive comments about the learner’s progress before discussing areas that need improvement.
• Provide the learner with a written record of all strong and weak areas noticed during the flight.
Integrating Instruction Techniques

Flight instructors use a mix of instructional techniques to maximize learning and optimize time.
Use of Ground Instruction
Ground instruction can be highly effective if it follows a plan designed to prepare the learner for flight. The instructor should
point out the connections between elements taught on the ground (theory) and their practical application in the airplane.
Using a variety of teaching methods provides the best balance during ground instruction. Learners should be exposed to a
mix of electronic media, lectures, discussions, and one-on-one instruction.
Use of Flight Simulation and Training Devices
An integrated training curriculum uses flight simulation and training devices (FSTD) to provide seamless training from the
classroom to the aircraft. An instructor initially provides classroom instruction and then follows with procedural training in
the simulator. When the learner is proficient in the simulator, the instruction transitions to the aircraft to verify proficiency and
reinforce learning.
Related: Federal Aviation Regulations: Flight Simulation and Training Devices
Use of Flight Instruction

Flight training must be tailored to the individual and paired with previous ground instruction. The flight instructor should
prepare for each flight to the same extent as the learner. Previously learned tasks should always be reviewed during the
preflight briefing to reinforce the learning process.
Demonstration-Performance Delivery Method

The demonstration-performance training delivery method effectively teaches physical skills, so flight instructors find it
valuable in teaching procedures and maneuvers.
The demonstration-performance method is divided into four phases:
1. Instructor explanations
2. Instructor demonstrations
3. Learner performance and instructor supervision (performed concurrently)
4. Instructor evaluation
Instructor Explanations
The explanation phase is accomplished before the lesson with a discussion of the objectives and completion standards.
Learners need to know how the lesson will proceed and how they will be evaluated.
Explanations must be clear, pertinent to the objectives, and based on the learners’ experience and knowledge. In addition to
the necessary performance steps, the instructor should include the appropriate safety precautions and encourage learners to
ask questions.

Instructor Demonstrations
Each lesson should start with a perfect demonstration. If the demonstration does not closely conform to the explanation, the
deviations should be immediately acknowledged and explained.
Instructors should never feel guilty about taking the controls from a learner to demonstrate a maneuver. While it is good to
be concerned, this step should never be skipped because the instructor feels that he or she is wasting the learner’s time or
money.
Learner Performance and Instructor Supervision
Learning new skills takes practice. Learners should perform the skill as soon as possible after a demonstration. While a
learner is performing an exercise, the instructor should supervise the actions very closely.
The development of bad habits must be prevented. If a performance error is noticed, the instructor should make appropriate
comments or stop the learner and teach the correct method.
With potentially hazardous or difficult maneuvers, the instructor should be alert and ready to take control. On the other hand,
if a learner is progressing normally, the instructor should avoid unnecessary interruptions or too much assistance.
Instructor Evaluation
In this phase, the instructor reviews what has been covered in the lesson and determines to what extent the learner has met
the objectives.
When pointing out areas that need improvement, the instructor should offer concrete suggestions that help and, if possible,
avoid ending the evaluation on a negative note.
Telling-and-Doing Technique
The telling-and-doing technique is a variation of the demonstration-performance method that includes specific variations for
flight instruction.
The telling-and-doing technique is divided into five phases:
1. Preparation
2. Instructor Tells–Instructor Does
3. Learner Tells–Instructor Does
4. Learner Tells–Learner Does
5. Learner Does–Instructor Evaluates
The main difference between the demonstration-performance method and the telling-and-doing technique is step number
three (learner tells–instructor does).
Benefits of the learner tells–instructor does step:
• By not concentrating on flying, the learner can organize his or her thoughts regarding the steps involved. Perceptions
develop into insights.
• With the learner doing the talking, the instructor can evaluate the learner’s understanding of the maneuver.
Safety of Flight Practices

In the interest of safety and proper habit pattern formation, certain flight safety practices and procedures must be
emphasized by the instructor beginning with the first dual flight. These include, but are not limited to, collision avoidance
procedures, positive transfer of controls, the sterile cockpit rule, and checklist usage.
Related:
• Visual Scanning and Collision Avoidance
• Flight Deck Management: Positive Transfer of Controls
• Flight Deck Management: Sterile Cockpit Rule
• Flight Deck Management: Checklist Usage
Use of Distractions
Pilots at all skill levels should be aware of the increased risk of an accident while performing tasks that are secondary to
controlling the aircraft.

To provide training for inflight distractions, instructors can:
• Discuss a topic unrelated to the flight that the learner enjoys.
• Ask the learner to perform a nonessential task during a critical phase of flight (safety permitting).
• Intentionally misplace a checklist and ask the learner to find it.
• Ask the learner to obtain an inflight weather update through onboard electronics.
• Ask the learner to identify terrain or objects on the ground.
• Ask the learner to identify a field suitable for a forced landing.
• Have the learner climb 200′ and maintain altitude, then descend 200′ and maintain altitude.
Distractions can teach learners to divide their attention while performing tasks that have been mastered to some degree.
However, during the initial stages of learning a new skill, distractions should be avoided.
Related: Flight Deck Management: Errors in Task Management
Integrated Flight Instruction

Integrated flight instruction occurs when learners are taught to perform flight maneuvers both by outside visual references
and by reference to the flight instruments from the first time each maneuver is introduced.
Related: Basic Flight Maneuvers: Attitude Flying
Benefits of Integrated Flight Instruction

Formation of Habit Patterns: From the start, learners establish the habit of observing and relying on flight instruments. They
monitor the aircraft’s performance continuously.
Precision: When beginning pilots use this technique, they develop a more precise piloting ability.
Operating Efficiency: As flying precision increases, the aircraft’s performance increases.
Increased Safety: It can help beginning pilots control an aircraft in flight for limited periods if outside visual references are
lost.
“See and Avoid” Responsibilities
At least 90% of the pilot’s attention should be devoted to outside visual references and traffic scanning. The pilot must
develop the skill to quickly focus on the appropriate flight instruments and then immediately return to the outside references
to control the airplane’s attitude.
Related: Visual Scanning and Collision Avoidance: “See and Avoid” Concept
Assessment of Piloting Ability

Assessment is an essential component of the teaching process and determines how well a learner is progressing. A well-
designed assessment provides a learner with something constructive upon which he or she can work or build.
Related: Assessment
Reteaching Flight Maneuvers

An assessment can be used to determine if a flight maneuver requires reteaching. If a deficiency is observed, the instructor
demonstrates the maneuver again, allows the learner to practice, and finally reassesses the performance.
First Solo Flights
For a learner to be signed off for a solo flight, the instructor needs to determine that the learner is qualified and proficient in
the flight tasks necessary for the flight. The instructor bases this assessment on the learner’s ability to demonstrate
consistent proficiency on several flight maneuvers.
Solo Flight Briefing
During a student pilot’s first solo flight, the instructor must be present to assist in answering questions or resolving any
issues.
To ensure the solo flight is a positive, confidence-building experience for the learner, the flight instructor needs to consider
the time of day. Time of day is a factor in traffic congestion, possible winds, sun angles, and reflection.
Solo Flight Supervision
The flight instructor needs access to a portable radio during supervised solo operations. A radio enables the instructor to
terminate the flight if he or she observes a situation developing. The instructor must use good judgment on when and what
to communicate.

The FAA recommends that flight instructors teach full-stop landings to student pilots. By requiring the solo flight to consist
of landings to a complete stop, the instructor has the opportunity to end the flight if necessary.
Solo Flight Debriefing
The flight instructor should debrief the learner immediately after a solo flight and answer any questions. With the flight
vividly etched in the learner’s memory, questions come quickly.
Postflight Evaluations
Flight instructors should take notes during a lesson on all performances that are noticed (strengths and weaknesses). Notes
are beneficial during postflight debriefings to ensure all areas are covered. Constructive, written critiques should also be
provided to learners.
Correction of Learner Errors
Correction of learner errors does not include the practice of taking over from learners immediately when a mistake is made.
When safety permits, it is better to let learners progress part of the way into the mistake and find a way out.
Sometimes, learners may be able to perform a procedure correctly but not fully understand the principles involved. When the
instructor suspects this, learners should be required to vary the performance slightly. Without a knowledge foundation,
learners will probably not be able to do this successfully.
Dealing with Normal Challenges
Instructors should teach learners how to solve ordinary problems encountered during flight. Traffic pattern congestion,
change in the active runway, or unexpected crosswinds are challenges the learner masters individually before performing
them collectively.
Visualization
Visualization (chair flying) can be used to assess how a learner would handle a scenario. During this visualization, the flight
instructor can ask questions to check the learner’s thought processes.
Example: The instructor can have a learner visualize how a flight may occur under normal circumstances. Then, the
instructor adds unforeseen circumstances such as a sudden change in weather. The learner must visualize and describe
how he or she will handle the unexpected change.
Practice Landings
Aircraft speed and control take precedence over other actions during landings and takeoffs. Full stop landings help the
learner develop aircraft control, allow for careful checklist use, and allow time for detailed instruction.
The flight instructor should stress the importance of landing in the first third of the runway to ensure adequate stopping
distance. If the learner is unable to do so or the airplane bounces, a go-around is necessary.

Fundamentals of Instruction: Teaching Risk Management
TEACHING RISK MANAGEMENT

When to Teach Risk Management
Risk management should be integrated into flight training rather than taught as a separate subject. It should be a part of all
forms of training (e.g., transition training, flight reviews, and instrument proficiency checks).
Lesson Briefings and Debriefings
Risk management should be discussed in all lesson briefings and debriefings. Learners should be encouraged to participate
and even lead the discussion as their experience increases.
Related: Techniques of Flight Instruction: Flight Lesson Briefings
Accident Investigations
Accident data reveals that many aircraft accidents involve poor risk management decisions. Therefore, effective risk
management needs to be learned, understood, and practiced to the point of becoming a habit.
“ Four things cause accidents if you factor out catastrophic airframe failures, engine failures, and pilot
incapacitation. If you factor those things out, you’re left with (1) arrogance, (2) ignorance, (3) complacency, and (4)
distractions. One or more of those four things are present in every single NTSB report. – Pat Brown, AOPA Ambassador
and DPE
Traditional Accident Investigation Taxonomy

Aviation accidents are investigated by:
• The NTSB to determine the probable cause and make safety recommendations.
• The FAA to determine if the accident was caused by deficiencies in pilot training, aircraft certification, or ATC.
The two government entities are often assisted by other interested parties, such as aircraft or engine manufacturers, to
determine the facts.
Accident Case Studies
Since flight instructors continually deal with risk, they quickly become subject matter experts. Instructors can pass on their
knowledge to learners by examining the primary causes and contributing factors to aircraft accidents.
Related: The Teaching Process: Case Study Method
Risk Analysis
To teach the steps in the risk management process (identify, assess, and mitigate), instructors should devise realistic
scenarios that include simulated hazards. These methods can provide the learner with “hands-on” practice in each step.
Identifying Hazards (Perceive)
PAVE Checklist: Pilot, Aircraft, EnVironment, and External Pressures
The PAVE checklist is an effective means for identifying hazards. Its four categories provide the learner with “buckets” for
hazard identification.
Instructors involve learners in all risk management decisions. In many cases, learners are professionals who manage risk in
their workplace, although the hazards may be very different. Instructors should acknowledge the learner’s expertise in those
areas.
Related: Risk Management: Identifying Risk
Assessing Risk (Process)

CARE Checklist: Consequences, Alternatives, Reality, and External Pressures
The CARE checklist can be used when a risk matrix is unnecessary (e.g., too formal) or unavailable (e.g., in flight).
Risk Assessment Tools: Risk Matrix and Flight Risk Assessment Tool
A risk matrix can be used for almost any operation by assigning likelihood and severity. Instructors should initially lead
learners through the assessment phase of each risk identified and provide examples.
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For more complex flights, a more sophisticated flight risk assessment tool (FRAT) is needed.
Related:
• Risk Management: CARE Checklist
• Risk Management: Risk Assessment Matrix
• Flight Risk Assessment Tool
Mitigating Risk (Perform)

TEAM Checklist: Transfer, Eliminate, Accept, or Mitigate
Transfer: Instructors should teach that the risk management process begins days or even weeks before a specific flight.
Example: A pilot identifies a risk that cannot be easily mitigated, such as a forecast weather system. The pilot can transfer
the risk by getting an airline ticket.
Eliminate: A pilot can eliminate risk by canceling the flight.
Example: If the crosswind component exceeds the pilot’s personal minimums, risk can be eliminated by not flying.
Accept: The next step in risk mitigation is to consider whether or not to accept the remaining risk. During flight instruction,
the instructor mitigates the risk associated with a learner’s actions by operating at a safe altitude and guarding the controls.
The instructor consciously accepts the risk that remains.
Mitigate: Whenever a flight is contemplated, the process to mitigate each identified risk assessed as high (red) or serious
(yellow) can begin. Instructors should emphasize to learners that medium (green) risks may be mitigated, if possible,
following the principle of not accepting unnecessary risk.
Related: Risk Management: Assessing Risk
Teaching Techniques by Phase of Instruction

All Phases
• Teach risk management using a building-block approach.
• Teach learners not only how, but also why and when.
Presolo
• Risk management training should be instructor-led and guided.
• Introduce and demonstrate the PAVE checklist during the first few flights.
• By the first solo, the learner should be able to conduct a basic risk analysis.
Before Cross-Country Training
• Let the learner to perform a risk analysis before dual flights. Coach if necessary.
• Review the learner’s risk analysis for all solo flights and provide feedback.
Cross-Country Training
• Require the learner to perform full risk analysis before every dual and solo cross-country flight. The process should
include the use of a flight risk assessment tool (FRAT).
• Review and approve the risk analysis, just as would be done for other aspects of the learner’s preflight preparation and
calculations.
Teaching Technique for Experienced Pilots
Risk management training should be a part of all training events for all certificated pilots.
Operational Flights:
• Encourage pilots to scale their risk management procedures to match the complexity of the flight.
Example: For a local flight, it is acceptable to use the PAVE checklist. However, for longer or more complex flights, it may be
desirable to complete a FRAT.
Instrument Training:
• Emphasize risk management techniques and strategies that allow a pilot to analyze weather and other elements that
generate risk.
Transition Training:
• Use scenarios that emphasize single-pilot resource management (SRM) skills, such as automation management, task
management, and maintaining situational awareness.

Recurrent and Proficiency Training:
• Use scenarios to evaluate the pilot’s risk management proficiency.
• Construct scenarios in a way that mirrors the pilot’s typical operating profile.
Teaching Techniques for Professional Pilots
Pilots who operate professionally as a crew may not be used to operating as a single-pilot, without the support infrastructure
of their professional employer. Risk management training for these pilots should emphasize SRM skills.
Managing Risk During Flight Instruction

The risk management techniques to use during flight instruction are the same as taught to learners; however, there are
unique hazards. Instructors must expand their situational awareness to include what the learner is doing and planning to do.
• Stay alert for the unexpected.
• Perform maneuvers with sufficient altitude.
• Be prepared to take over the control of the aircraft.
• Choose practice areas that provide safe emergency landing options.
• Discuss hazards and risk mitigation in detail during lesson briefings and debriefings.
• Before asking the learner to perform a new maneuver, give the appropriate ground training and an inflight demonstration.
• Don’t attempt to teach something at an inappropriate time (e.g., discussing takeoff techniques while entering the
runway).
Pilot Risks
For both the learner and the instructor, pilot risks include:
• Qualification risks (currency and proficiency).
• Aeromedical factors.
• Be prepared for the learner to make mistakes.
• Constantly monitor aeromedical risks using the I’M SAFE checklist.
• Encourage learners to disclose aeromedical issues before scheduled flights.
• Involve the learner in decision-making processes (“two eyes are better than one”).
Aircraft Risks
Aircraft risks include:
• Limited payload, requiring a reduction in fuel carried.
• Marginal performance in high density-altitude situations.
• Inoperative systems and equipment or overdue inspections that the instructor is not aware of.
• Be familiar with the aircraft and its avionics. Any unfamiliarity creates a hazard.
• Determine the aircraft’s airworthiness status before conducting the preflight. Resolve any questions with maintenance
personnel.
Environmental Risks
Environmental risks include:
• Weather and restricted visibility.
• Terrain and obstructions in the practice area.
• Complex airspace that is subject to restrictions.
• Crowded airspace that creates a potential collision hazard.
• Involve the learner in every step of the preflight planning process.
• Emphasize that the learner is responsible for maintaining a lookout to see and avoid other air traffic.
• On bad weather days, take advantage of flight simulation training devices or conduct a ground school lesson.
• On marginal weather days, discuss ways to mitigate risks, such as changing the lesson to stay in the traffic pattern.

External Pressure Risks
External pressure risks include:
• Scheduling conflicts.
• Unpredictable events.
• Work, family, finance, and other issues.
All of these can create distractions, anxiety, and other responses that can degrade learner performance.
• Emphasize the ability to make schedule changes as needed.
• Be conscious of each learner’s schedule limitations that could affect their performance.
• Reschedule a lesson early if the learner appears apprehensive about time pressures or other external concerns.
Teaching Aeronautical Decision-Making

Good decision-making can help get pilots out of difficult situations and, more importantly, prevent them from getting into
trouble in the first place.
System Safety Approach
Flight training can be seen as a system rather than individual concepts. By taking a “system approach” to aviation training,
instructors interweave aeronautical knowledge, stick-and-rudder skills, and aeronautical decision-making (ADM) into the
training process.
System safety flight training occurs in three phases:
1. The initial focus is on developing the stick-and-rudder skills.
2. Learners identify hazards, manage risk, and use all available resources to make each flight as safe as possible. Simple
scenarios should be used.
3. The hazards, risks, and considerations are incorporated into more complex scenarios. Complex scenarios focus on
several safety-of-flight issues.
Higher-Order Thinking Skills
Higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) include the three highest cognitive domain levels, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
HOTS are taught like other cognitive skills, from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract.
The basic approach to teaching HOTS:
1. Set up the problem.
2. Determine the learning outcomes for the problem.
3. Solve the problem or task.
4. Reflect on the problem-solving process.
5. Consider additional solutions through guided discovery.
6. Reevaluate the solution with additional options.
7. Reflect on the solution. Why is it the best solution?
8. Consider what “best” means. Is the best solution always the same?
Scenario-Based Training
Scenarios provide a method for learners to practice and develop HOTS and ADM skills in a realistic environment.
With thoughtful planning, instructors can devise scenarios that incorporate training for:
• Hazardous attitudes and operational pitfalls.
• Poor judgment chains.
• Personal minimums.
• Frequent causes of GA accidents.
Briefing Learners on the Use of Judgment Training

Learners should be advised that scenarios will be interjected randomly during training. The instructor may occasionally act
as a passenger or controller. Learners should remain alert and make decisions without further prompting.
Some situations may encourage the learner to make a poor decision, such as ATC vectoring a VFR aircraft towards a cloud.
The instructor’s actions are not meant to be viewed as tricks, but rather to provide training for real-world situations.

Assessing Decision-Making Skills

Cognitive processes cannot be seen or easily measured. The instructor must ask questions and allow the learner to make
choices without unnecessary intervention.
Example: If a discrepancy is found during the preflight inspection, the learner should be allowed to determine the action to be
taken initially. Then the effectiveness of the learner’s choice and other options that may be available can be discussed.
Learner Observations
To assess skills that can’t be easily measured (“soft” skills), the instructor should look for observable behaviors, also known
as behavioral indicators. These are occurrences that indicate that the learner is handling the event properly.
The following lists are examples of competencies that can be observed and assessed. The list is recommended by the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
Application of Procedures:
• Follows standard operating procedures (SOPs) unless a higher degree of safety dictates an appropriate deviation
• Complies with applicable regulations
Leadership and Teamwork:
• Admits mistakes and takes responsibility
• Communicates relevant concerns and intentions
• Gives and receives constructive feedback
Problem-Solving and Decision-Making:
• Seeks accurate and adequate information from appropriate sources
• Identifies and considers options effectively
• Monitors, reviews, and adapts decisions as required
Situational Awareness:
• Identifies and assesses accurately:
◦ The state of the airplane and its systems
◦ The airplane’s vertical and lateral position, as well as its anticipated flight path
◦ The general environment and how it might affect the operation
• Keeps track of time and fuel
• Anticipates what could happen, plans, and stays ahead of the situation
Task Management:
• Maintains self-control in all situations
• Plans, prioritizes, and schedules tasks effectively
• Reviews, monitors, and cross-checks actions
• Manages and recovers from interruptions, distractions, and failures effectively
When to Intervene During a Scenario
A practice scenario should be stopped at one of two points:
• The learner has recognized the situation as one inviting poor judgment and has objected to continuing the situation.
• The learner fails to recognize a potentially hazardous situation and makes a decision representing poor judgment.
How to Respond
There are six decisive actions, called action ways, which result from pilot judgments:
• Do: The pilot did something which he or she should not have done.
• No Do: The pilot did not do something which he or she should have done.
• Under Do: The pilot did not do enough when he or she should have done more.
• Over Do: The pilot did too much when he or she should have done less.
• Early Do: The pilot reacted too soon when he or she should have waited.
• Late Do: The pilot reacted too late when he or she should have reacted sooner.
Instructors should provide feedback and reinforcement using the six action ways and the subject area (e.g., pilot, aircraft, or
environment). If the learner’s performance is unsatisfactory, instructors should describe how the behavior could develop into
a poor-judgment chain.

Assessment Methods for Decision-Making Skills
A collaborative assessment is used to evaluate decision-making skills. The grading system is learner-centered, consisting of
two rubrics to assess the learner’s proficiency level on skill-based maneuvers and single-pilot resource management (SRM).
Related:
• Assessment: Authentic Assessment
• Assessment: Collaborative Assessment
Best Practices for Assessing Decision-Making Skills

• Allow the learner to explain his or her reasoning.
• Remember, punishment does not help–positive reinforcement does.
• Do not criticize the learner’s decision-making abilities, flying skills, or aviation knowledge.
• Remind learners that better judgment comes through practice, and some errors are expected during training.

Fundamentals of Instruction

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Fundamentals of Instruction

Human Behavior Assessment

The Learning Process Planning Instructional Activity

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Human Needs and Motivation

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Human Nature and Motivation

System 1 (Fast) System 2 (Slow)

McGregor’s X-Y Theory

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Learner Emotional Reactions

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Instructor Actions Regarding Seriously Abnormal Learners

The average age of a student pilot is 34.

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THE LEARNING PROCESS

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Sense Percent of Learning

Factors Affecting Perception

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Thorndike’s Laws of Learning

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Higher-Order Thinking Skills

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Left Brain Right Brain

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Zone of Proximal Development

Phases of Skill Development

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“ To err is human. – Alexander Pope

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“ Memory is the residue of thought. – Daniel Willingham

Steps in the learning process:

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Why People Forget

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“FLY SAFE” = First learn your stupid acronyms for everything.

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The Making of an Expert

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“ The incompetent are often blessed with an inappropriate confidence, buoyed by

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Basic Elements of Communication

Characteristics of Effective Communicators

Barriers to Effective Communication

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Developing Communication Skills

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THE TEACHING PROCESS

Essential Teaching Skills

Steps in the Teaching Process

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Types of Training Objectives

How to Write Training Objectives

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