INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Beginning in the late eighteenth century in Great Britain, the Industrial Revolution
led to the industrialization that shaped the modern world. An economy based on machine
manufacture in factories replaced an economy focused on farming and handicrafts
throughout Europe. It took a long time for the Industrial Revolution to spread to other
Western nations. The following are some of the elements that made Great Britain the
beginning point:

1. The availability of food increased as a result of increased farmland, favorable

weather, better transportation, and new crops. Plenty of cops were made
available to fed more people with less labor. Even ordinary families can now
afford manufactured goods.
2. As a result of abundant food supply, the population grew. Parliament passed
enclosure movement laws in the 1700s. When farm owners restricted common
lands, peasants moved to towns which provided Britain a large labor force.
3. Britain has resources to spend in manufacturing and equipment. Many British
people were wealthy and had money or capital readily available to invest in
industrial factories and equipment where also give entrepreneurs new
opportunities and new ways to make profits.
4. There were several natural resources in Britain. The country’s many rivers
provided water power and a means for transporting raw materials and finished
products from one place to another. Britain also had abundant supplies of coal
and iron ore, essential in manufacturing processes.
5. A supply of markets gave British manufacturers a ready outlet for their goods.
Britain had a vast colonial empire, it also transported goods anywhere in the
world. Aside from population growth and cheaper food, domestic markets
dramatically increased. The growing demand for cotton cloth had pushed the
Britain manufacturers to look for new ways of production.

Changes in the Cotton Production

Great Britain had dominated the production of low-cost cotton items in the
eighteenth century. The method of making cotton cloth involved two steps. Cotton thread
was initially manufactured from raw cotton by spinners. The cotton thread was then used
by weavers to weave fabric on looms. In the eighteenth century, people spun the thread
in their rural cottages before weaving the cloth. Thus, this type of production was referred
to as a cottage industry.

A series of technological advances in the eighteenth century made cottage industry

inefficient. John Kay created the "Flying Shuttle" in 1733. With the help of this invention,
wider cloth could be woven more quickly than before. James Hargreaves created the
"Spinning Jenny" in 1765. Within twenty years the number of threads one machine could
spin rose from six to eighty. Edmund Cartwright created a water-powered loom in 1787.
It now became more efficient to bring workers to the new machines and have them work
in factories near streams and rivers, which were used to power many of the early
machines.

All of these inventions helped the economy of Great Britain. In fact, during the
eighteenth century, cotton was Britain’s most valuable product and was sold anywhere
thus created a fortune for the country. However, despite this industry bringing fortune to
Britain, it also has some underlying problems – low pay, excessive work, and dangerous
conditions.

The Coal and Iron Industries

England’s coal mines boomed during the Industrial Revolution. Without coal and
iron, the Industrial Revolution would not have been possible. Iron production and the
operation of steam engines both required coal. Beginning in the seventeenth century, little
had changed in the fundamental method of making iron since the Middle Ages. Early in
the 18th century, iron producers discovered a method to separate pure iron from iron ore.
To melt the ore, they used coke, which burned hotter and was purer than coal. In the
1780s, Henry Cort invented this procedure, which is known as puddling. England became
the world's top coal producer in the 19th century as miners dug deeper into the ground to
get as much coal as they could.

The New Factory

The factories created a new labor system in which it required workers to work
overtime to keep the machines working nonstop and steady. Factory owners pushed the
workers – which came mainly from rural areas to work who was used to working for hours.
They disciplined workers to a system of regular hours and repetitive tasks wherein anyone
who came late was either fined or fired. Disciplining the workers also did not turn out great
where all of the punishments were harsh especially to the children who are either whipped
or beaten with a rod.

Railroads

The railway made it possible for people to travel to newer locations as well as to
swarm into cities. Because of the railroad and the massive influx of people and products,
businesses grew. The Blucher, the first prosperous flanged-wheel locomotive, was built
by George Stephenson as a form of steam engine that could go over rails. All of Britain's
major towns were connected by railroads in the twenty years that followed the opening of
the Liverpool to Manchester line in 1830. To choose the best locomotive for the job, the
investors organized a competition in 1829. The Rocket was their choice. The Rocket sped
along at 16 miles (25.7 km) per hour while pulling a 40-ton (36-t) train. Railroad expansion
had an impact on the economy. For farm laborers and peasants, the construction of
railroads resulted in additional occupations. Reduced transportation costs resulted in
cheaper goods, expanding markets. More sales demanded more manufacturing facilities
and equipment. Owners of businesses could use their profits to buy new machinery,
stimulating the economy. The new industrial economy came to be characterized by
consistent, ongoing economic expansion.

THE SPREAD OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

By the middle of the nineteenth century, Great Britain, the first industrial nation in
the world, was also the wealthiest nation. It produced manufactured goods and half of the
world's coal. In 1850, the size of its cotton industry alone was comparable to that of all
other European nations combined.

Europe

The rest of Europe was affected by the Industrial Revolution at different times and
at different speeds. Belgium, France, and the German states were continental Europe's
first industrialized nations. France was a major industrial rival on an equal footing with
Great Britain. Cotton supplies to textile factories increased five times faster than in the
British Isles in the 18th century. French manufacturers primarily concentrated on finished
goods. Belgium, one of the first countries to become industrialized, had abundant coal
and iron ore resources as well as a long history of textile manufacturing. As a result,
industrial development followed a pattern similar to that of Great Britain. Because the
country was divided into so many small states, new production methods developed in
Germany very late. Governments actively promoted industrialization in these regions. For
instance, governments provided funding for the construction of railroads, canals, and
roads. Europe was connected by a network of iron rails by 1850.

North America

The United States of America also experienced an Industrial Revolution. In 1800,

there were 5 million people living in the United States, and farmers employed 6 out of
every 7 Americans. By 1860, there were 30 million people living there. Also, cities had
grown. There were over 100,000 people living in nine cities. Farmers account for only
50% of employed Americans. The United States of America is a large nation, so moving
goods across the country required a reliable transportation system. To connect the east
and west, thousands of miles of roads and canals were constructed. In 1807, Robert
Fulton constructed the Clermont, the first paddle-wheel steamboat. The United States'
waterways were made easier to travel on thanks to steamboats. The railroad played the
most significant role in the development of the American transportation system. Farming
families provided the majority of the workforce for the expanding number of factories in
the Northeast. Women made up a large portion of the workforce in the brand-new
factories of New England. In fact, the vast majority of workers in large textile (cotton and
wool) factories were girls and women.
SOCIAL IMPACT IN EUROPE

The Industrial Revolution drastically changed the social life of Europe and the
world. In the first half of the nineteenth century, cities grew and two social classes— the
industrial middle class and the industrial working class—emerged. Along with the working
class, the Industrial Revolution created a new middle class. New factories, mines,
railroads, and other businesses were owned and operated by middle-class individuals.
Their standard of living was far superior to that of the industrial working class. Farm
families became factory or mine workers when they moved to the new industrial cities.
Many people were confused and lost. They had to work in difficult environments that were
uncomfortable. Despite the terrible working conditions, factory and mine workers
eventually developed their own sense of community.

Growth of Population and Cities

In 1750, there were approximately 140 million people living in Europe and the
population had nearly doubled to 266 million by 1850. A reduction in the number of
deaths, wars, and diseases like smallpox and plague was the key to this expansion. More
people were better fed and more resistant to disease as food supplies increased and
Western Europe was mostly spared from famine. The potato shortage in Ireland was an
exception as the potato was essential to the diet of the Irish. European towns and cities
experienced rapid expansion. This increase was sparked by industrialization. Numerous
businesses had settled in British and Belgian cities by the year 1850. Factory owners
could locate their plants in cities thanks to the steam engine. To find work, people moved
from the countryside to the cities. London was the only major city in Great Britain in 1800,
with approximately one million people living there. The population of six cities ranged from
50,000 to 100,000. Many people lived in squalor as a result of the rapid expansion of
cities in the first half of the nineteenth century. Urban reformers called on local
governments to clean up their cities in response to these conditions. In the second half of
the nineteenth century, there would be reform.

The Industrial Middle Class

Entrepreneurs who initiated the Industrial Revolution reaped the greatest rewards.
This new middle class, or bourgeoisie, whose members came from a variety of
backgrounds, was created by the Industrial Revolution. Some were businesspeople who
put their rising profits into factories. Others were skilled artisans or inventors who created
new technologies. Some followed the pattern of "rags to riches," which was greatly
admired by the time.

Families from the middle class had access to a constant supply of water and lived
in spacious, well-furnished homes on paved roads. They ate well and dressed
extravagantly. Middle-class women did not leave the house to work; rather, they focused
on raising their children. This differentiated with the rich, who had maidservants to care
for their youngsters, and the common laborers, whose kids were a piece of the labor force.

The Industrial Working Class

During the industrial revolution, anyone who operated machinery, worked in skilled
labor, or worked in factories and textile mills made up the working class. In factories and
mills, machines powered by water or steam occupied a lot of the floor space, leaving little
room for workers and machinists. Workers had a difficult time maneuvering around such
powerful machinery due to crowded buildings and warehouses. The majority of laborers
in the 19th century worked extremely long hours for very little pay. In textile factories,
British women made up 50% of the workforce. They were paid half or less than half of
what men received, and they were mostly unskilled. Children and women were employed
as a result of the cottage industry, where families worked together. A new work pattern
developed when women's and children's work hours were restricted. The majority of the
family's income was now earned by men working outside the home. Women took care of
the family on a daily basis and worked low-paying jobs that could be done at home.
Women were able to continue contributing to the family's financial survival as a result of
this.

Early Socialism

The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain and spread to the rest of
the world at the end of the 18th century, was fueled by the development of the steam
engine. While many factory workers lived in increasing poverty and worked long hours in
difficult and sometimes dangerous conditions, factory owners became wealthy. Socialism
emerged primarily as a political ideology in response to the economic and social effects
of the Industrial Revolution. Literature abounds with evidence of the dramatic impact that
Europe's industrialization had on people's daily lives, particularly on the working classes.
Any political or economic theory that holds that the community, not individuals, should
own and manage property and natural resources is referred to as socialism. One utopian
socialist was British cotton manufacturer Robert Owen. He believed that humans would
show their natural goodness if they lived in a cooperative environment. Owen transformed
New Lanark, a filthy factory town in Scotland, into a thriving community. In the 1820s, he
established a community that was comparable at New Harmony, Indiana, in the United
States. Because not everyone was as committed to sharing as Owen was, New Harmony
failed.

REACTION AND REVOLUTION

CONGRESS OF VIENNA

The Congress of Vienna attempted to restore the monarchies Napoleon had

overthrown and ended the Napoleonic era, ushering in a period of retaliation. The
Congress established a system to maintain peace under the direction of Austrian prime
minister Prince Klemens von Metternich (1809–48). At the Congress of Vienna, practical
considerations of power were discussed. In the hope of creating a new balance of power,
the major powers reorganized their European territories. The authorities in Vienna wanted
to prevent any one nation from ruling Europe. This required striking a balance between
the political and military forces that ensured the great powers' independence. Prussia and
Austria, for instance, received new territories to offset Russian gains in territory.

Conservatism and the Balance of Power

Rulers who wished to contain the forces of change unleashed by the French
Revolution won with the arrangements negotiated at the Congress of Vienna. Like
Metternich, these rulers adhered to conservatism, a political philosophy. The major
European powers—Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and France—pled to meet regularly
to resolve disagreements under the Concert of Europe. Not only were old boundaries to
be restored, but the main powers had to be rebalanced in order for them to maintain
peace. The leaders were conservatives who disdained republicanism and revolution,
which both posed a threat to Europe's established order. This plan, which appeared to
promise a means of collectively managing European affairs and promoting peace, was
the first of its kind in European history.

Principle of Intervention

The great powers eventually settled on the principle of intervention. In accordance

with this principle, the great powers possessed the authority to send armies into
revolution-ravaged nations with the intention of restoring legitimate monarchs to their
thrones. Britain argued that the great powers should not interfere in the affairs of other
states and refused to accept the principle. However, the other great powers used military
might to put an end to revolutions in Spain and Italy and bring monarchs back to power.

FORCES OF CHANGE

Liberalism

The Enlightenment's ideas were the foundation for liberalism. Freedom of speech
and individual liberty were two of these concepts, and they continued to develop from
there. The belief in no monarchy and a small central government is known as liberalism.
The liberalists defended the ideas of the definitive rights of an individual’s liberty, equality
and property. The liberals wanted written laws and an equality-based constitution for their
government. Liberals believed that a written document like the American Bill of Rights
should guarantee all of these freedoms.

Nationalism
 In the nineteenth century, nationalism was even more of a force for change than
liberalism. People's awareness of belonging to a community with shared institutions,
traditions, languages, and practices led to nationalism. This group is referred to as a
nation. People are more loyal to the nation than to a dynasty, city-state, or other political
unit, according to nationalists. After the French Revolution, nationalism did not become a
popular force for change. Nationalists came to believe that each nation should have its
own government from that point on. As a result, the German people, who were divided
into numerous principalities, desired a German nation-state with a single central
government. Subject peoples wanted the right to form their own governments, like the
Hungarians.

Revolutionary Outbursts

The forces of change—liberalism and nationalism—began to challenge Europe's

conservative dominance in 1830. In 1830, liberals overthrew Charles X the Bourbon
monarch, and established a constitutional monarchy in France. The upper middle class
provided Louis-Philippe, a cousin of Charles X, with political support. In three other
revolutions that occurred in the same year, nationalism played a major role. In 1815,
Belgium which had been annexed to the former Dutch Republic, rebelled and established
itself as its own nation. Poland's and Italy's revolutions were less successful. The Poles'
attempt to emancipate themselves from foreign rule was crushed by Russian forces.
Revolts in a number of Italian states were put down by Austrian troops as they entered
Italy.

THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848

Another French Revolution

Another nation's revolution was sparked by France's revolution and in 1848, the
monarchy was finally overthrown. A provisional, or temporary, government was
established by a group of moderate and radical republicans. The republicans wanted
France to be a republic – a government in which its leaders are elected. The election of
representatives to a Constituent Assembly that would draft a new constitution was called
for by the provisional government. Universal male suffrage, or the right to vote for all adult
men, was to govern elections. In addition, the provisional government established
national workshops to provide unemployed individuals with work. The number of
unemployed individuals enrolled in the national workshops increased from approximately
66,000 to nearly 120,000 between March and June. The moderates reacted by closing
the workshops on June 21 after this emptied the treasury and scared them. The workers
stormed the streets after rejecting this decision. The working-class uprising was crushed
by government forces after four days of bloody struggle. The new constitution, which was
ratified on November 4, 1848, established a republic that would later be known as the
Second Republic.
Trouble in the German States

Upheaval spread throughout Europe as a result of news of the French revolution

in 1848.The German Confederation, or 38 independent German states, was recognized
by the Congress of Vienna in 1815.Austria and Prussia were the two great powers among
these. The size of the other states varied. Many German rulers promised constitutions, a
free press, and jury trials in 1848 in response to demands for change. In fact, a liberal
and nationalist dream was realized when an all-German parliament known as the
Frankfurt Assembly was held to draft a constitution for a new, unified Germany. The
parliament's deputies were chosen through universal male suffrage. However, in the end,
the Frankfurt Assembly was unable to accomplish its objective. The members came up
with a constitution, but they didn't have any real way to get the German rulers to accept
it. Unification of Germany did not occur.

Revolutions in Central Europe

The Austrian Empire also had its problems. The empire was a multinational state—
a collection of different peoples, including Germans, Czechs, Magyars (Hungarians),
Slovaks, Romanians, Slovenes, Poles, Croats, Serbians, and Italians. Only a quarter of
the population, played a leading role in governing the Austrian Empire. In Vienna,
revolutionary forces took control. To appease the revolutionaries, the government gave
Hungary its own legislature. Austrian officials had made concessions to appease the
revolutionaries but were determined to reestablish their control over the empire. In June
1848, Austrian military forces crushed the Czech rebels in Prague. The revolutions in the
Austrian Empire had failed.

Revolts in Italian States

Nine states were established in Italy by the Congress of Vienna, including the
Kingdom of Piedmont in the north; the Kingdom of two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily); the
Papal States; a small number of states; and Lombardy and Venetia in the north, which
were now part of the Austrian Empire. In Lombardy and Venetia, a revolt against the
Austrians broke out in 1848.In an effort to establish liberal constitutions and a unified Italy,
revolutionaries in other Italian states also enlisted in the military. However, the Austrians
had regained full control of Lombardy and Venetia by 1849.The rest of Italy was also
governed by the old system. In 1848, popular uprisings started throughout Europe,
resulting in liberal governments and constitutions. However, conservative rule was
reestablished as the goals of more radical revolutionaries and moderate liberals quickly
diverged. However, the forces of liberalism and nationalism continued to have an impact
on political events despite the fact that conservative governments were reestablished.
 NATIONALISM

Breakdown of the Concert of Europe

Crimean War
 This was due to the long-term struggle between Russia and the Ottoman Empire
(centered in what is know Turkey).
 The Ottoman Empire have taken control over most Balkans in the Southeastern
Europe. In 1800, its authority over Balkans began to decline.
 Russia was a country without much access to ports with warm water. It had always
sought land in the Balkans. Russian ships would be able to navigate the
Dardanelles, a channel between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, if they
controlled this land. If Russia were to succeed in this endeavor, it would take over
as the dominant force in eastern Europe and potentially pose a threat to British
naval dominance in the eastern Mediterranean. Other European countries planned
to expand their borders if the Ottoman Empire fell but also feared the ambitions of
the Russians.
 The Turkish regions of the Balkans were attacked by the Russians in
1853, Walachia and Moldavia. The Ottoman Turks responded by declaring war on
Russia. The following year, out of fear for Russian gains, Great Britain and France
waged war on Russia. The Crimean War is the name given to this conflict.
 The Crimean War took its name from the peninsula of Russia in the Black Sea,
site of significant wars. Both planning and execution of the war were inadequate.
The Russians eventually sought peace after suffering significant losses. Russia
consented to enable Moldavia and Walachia to come under the protection of all
the major countries by signing the Treaty of Paris in March 1856.
 The effect of the Crimean War was to destroy the Concert of Europe. Austria and
Russia, the chief powers maintaining the status quo before the 1850s, were now
enemies. Austria had declined to support Russia in the Crimean War because of
its own interests in the Balkans. For the following 20 years, a humiliated and
defeated Russia withdrew from European affairs. Now, among the great powers,
Austria had no allies. The possibility of bringing Italy and Germany together was
made possible by this circumstance.

Italian Unification
Throughout the Italian Peninsula in 1850, Austria continued to hold sway.
Following the 1848 revolution's collapse, citizen
began to look to the state of Piedmont in northern Italy for guidance in bringing
about the unification of Italy. The Kingdom of Piedmont was ruled by the Savoy family.
Piedmont, the island of Sardinia, Nice, and Savoy were all included in the kingdom.
starting in, the monarch or queen of the realm Victor Emmanuel II, who reigned from 1849
to 1852, appointed Camillo di Cavour as his prime minister. Cavour was an honorable
politician. As prime minister, he sought an expansionist economic strategy to boost tax
receipts and allow the country to fund a sizable army. Cavour, however, knew that
Piedmont’s army was not strong enough to defeat the Austrians. So, he made an alliance
with the French emperor Louis-Napoleon. Cavour then provoked the Austrians into
declaring war in 1859.
Later on, Nice and Savoy were given away to the French through a peace
settlement. For forming the alliance, Cavour had offered the French Nice and Savoy.
Piedmont received Lombardy, which had been under Austrian rule. Venetia remained
under Austrian rule. As a result of Cavour's popularity, nationalists in Parma, Modena,
and Tuscany, three other Italian states, to overthrow their rulers and incorporate them
into Piedmont. A new figurehead for Italian unification had emerged in southern Italy in
the meantime. Italian Giuseppe Garibaldi was a devoted person.patriot gathered a
thousand volunteer soldiers. Due to the color of their uniforms, they were known as Red
Shirts.
A branch of the bourbon dynasty ruled the Two Sicilies (Sicily and Naples), and a
revolt had broken out in Sicily against the king. Garibaldi’s forces landed in Sicily and, by
the end of July 1860, controlled most of the island. In August, Garibaldi and his forces
crossed over to the mainland and began a victorious march up the Italian Peninsula.
Naples and the entire Kingdom of the Two Sicilies fell in early September. Garibaldi chose
to turn over his conquests to Piedmont. On March 17, 1861, a new state of Italy was
proclaimed under King Victor Emmanuel II. The task of unification was not yet complete,
however. Austria still held Venetia in the north; and Rome was under the control of the
pope, supported by French troops. The Italians gained control of Venetia as a result of a
war between Austria and Prussia. In the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the new Italian
state allied with Prussia. Prussia won the war, and the Italians were given Venetia.
In 1870, during the Franco-Prussian War, French troops withdrew from Rome.
Their withdrawal enabled the Italian army to annex Rome on September 20, 1870. Rome
became the capital of the united Italian state.

German Unification
Germans looked to Prussia for leadership in the goal of German unity after the
Frankfurt Assembly failed to achieve it in 1848 and 1849. Throughout the nineteenth
century, Prussia had grown to be a powerful and successful nation. It had an autocratic
political system. The Prussian king had complete authority over the nation's
administration and military. Additionally, Prussia was renowned for its militarism and
reliance on military might.
King William I attempted to strengthen the Prussian army in the 1860s. William I
appointed Count Otto von Bismarck as his new prime minister when the Prussian
assembly declined to impose new taxes to pay for the proposed military upgrades.

Real politik
- politics based on reality rather than philosophy or ethics.
- widely seen as being best practiced by Bismarck in the nineteenth century.

Bismark claimed that, “Germany does not look to Prussia’s liberalism but to her
power.” From 1862 to 1866, Bismarck governed Prussia without approval of the
parliament. In the meantime, he followed an active foreign policy, which soon led to war.
After defeating Denmark with Austrian help in 1864, Prussia gained control of the duchies
of Schleswig and Holstein.
 June 14, 1866, Bismarck sparked conflict with the Austrians and propelled them
into war. Austrians unable to compete with the
 July 3, a disciplined Prussian force was defeated. The North German
Confederation was now established by Prussia among the German states located
north of the Main River. the majority of the southern German states
Fearing Protestant Prussia, Catholics. They feared France, though; it was their
western neighbor. They consequently consented to sign military pacts with Prussia for
defense against France. Prussia now dominated all of northern Germany, and the
growing power and military might of Prussia worried France. Bismarck was aware that
France would never be content with a united German state to its east because of the
potential threat to French security.
 The succession to the Spanish throne of a relative of the Prussian king sparked a
controversy between Prussia and France in 1870. The situation was exploited by
Bismarck, who provoked France to declare war on Prussia on July 19, 1870. The Franco-
Prussian War was the name of this war. The better led and more proficiently arranged
Prussian forces proved to be more than a match for the French. German states in the
south. Honoring their military pacts with Prussia, they entered the fight against France.
Armies from Prussia entered France. On September 2, 1870, in Sedan, the whole French
army and the French ruler, Napoleon III, were captured.
 On January 28, 1871, Paris finally surrendered.
The Hall of Mirrors in the palace of Versailles, 12 miles outside of Paris, was filled on
January 18, 1871, with Bismarck and 600 German princes, nobility, and generals. The
Second German Empire's William I of Prussia was crowned kaiser, or emperor (the first
was the medieval Holy Roman Empire). German unification had been achieved by the
Prussian monarchy and army. In the new German state, the military and authoritarian
Prussian values prevailed. The new state had emerged as the most powerful force on the
European continent thanks to its industrial capabilities and military prowess.

Nationalism and Reform in Europe

Great Britain
 Avoided the revolutionary upheavals of the first half of the nineteenth century.
 In 1815, aristocratic landowning classes, which dominated both houses of
Parliament, governed Great Britain.
 In 1832, Parliament passed a bill that increased the number of male voters.
 Britain avoided revolution in 1848.
 In the 1850s and 1860s, Parliament continued to make social and political reforms
that helped the country to remain stable.
 Queen Victoria- sense of duty and moral respectability reflected the attitudes of
her age, later known as the Victorian Age.

France
 Monarcy Restoration after the revolution of 1848.
 Louis Napoleon returned to the people to ask for empire restoration, four years
after being elected as the president.
 On December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon assumed the title of Napoleon III, Emperor
of France.
 Napoleon III's administration was blatantly authoritarian. Napoleon III had
command over the military forces, police, and civil service in his capacity as head
of state. He was the only one who could propose laws and declare war. The
members of the Legislative Corps were chosen by universal male suffrage for six-
year tenure, giving the organization the appearance of representative governance.
 However, they were unable to propose legislation or make changes to the budget.
Napoleon III severely restricted civil freedoms and had total authority over the
government. However, his first five years in power were a resounding success. He
put his attention on growing the economy in order to divert attention away from the
public's loss of political freedom. Government aid encouraged the quick building of
roads, canals, harbors, and railroads. Production of iron tripled.
 In the midst of this economic expansion, Napoleon III also carried out a vast
rebuilding of the city of Paris.
 In the 1860s, opposition to some of Napoleon’s economic and governmental
policies arose. In response, Napoleon III began to liberalize his regime.
Austrian Empire
 Nationalism presented special problems for the Austrian Empire due to different
ethnic groups and many were campaigning for indepence.
 The Hapsburg emperors reinstated centralized, autocratic power throughout the
empire after putting down the uprisings of 1848 and 1849. However, the Prussians'
defeat of Austria in 1866 obliged the Austrians to make compromises with the
ferociously nationalistic Hungarians. The Compromise of 1867 was the outcome
of these concessions.
 Due to this arrangement, Austria-Hungary has a dual monarchy. Now that these
two parts of the empire had been established, each had its own constitution,
legislature, government bureaucracy, and capital cities (Vienna for Austria and
Budapest for Hungary). Francis Joseph served as both the emperor of Austria and
the king of Hungary. The two realms also shared an army, a foreign policy, and a
financial system. The Hungarians were now a sovereign nation in their own right.
Of course, the various ethnicities that comprised the diverse Austro-Hungarian
Empire were not satisfied with the compromise.

Russia
 In the early stages of the 19th century, Russia was overwhelmingly rural,
agricultural, and autocratic.
 The Russian czar was still regarded as a divine-right monarch with unlimited
power. However, the Russian government faced challenges. It used soldiers,
secret police, repression, and censorship to withstand the revolutionary fervor of
the early 1800s.
 But as was already mentioned, the Crimean War in 1856 ended in a humiliating
loss for the Russians. Even ardent conservatives acknowledged that Russia was
utterly lagging behind the nations of western Europe. Alexander II, the czar, made
some changes. The biggest difficulty in czarist Russia was serfdom, a complex
dilemma that had implications for Russia's future in terms of its economy, society,
and politics. The serfs were set free by an emancipation decree that Alexander
issued on March 3, 1861. Now, peasants could choose their spouses and own
property. The government gave peasants access to land through purchase from
landlords.
 The goal of reformers was greater and more rapid transformation. Conservatives
believed that the czar was attempting to undermine Russian society's fundamental
structures. In 1881, a gang of revolutionaries killed Alexander II. Alexander III, his
son, ascended to the throne in his place. Alexander III rejected reform and reverted
to the previous repressive strategies.

Nationalism in the United States

The nation's commitment to liberalism and nationalism is embodied in the United States
Constitution. But achieving national unity was not simple. The split of power in the new
government sparked a fierce conflict between two factions. A powerful central
government was supported by the Federalists. Republicans wanted the federal
government to be below state governments out of a distrust of centralized power.
 The War of 1812 against the British put an end to these differences. The nation's
divides were covered up by this wave of patriotism. Slavery had started to threaten
the unity of America by the middle of the nineteenth century.
 By 1860, there were four million slave African Americans in the South, up from one
million in 1800.
 The economy of the South was focused on the plantation-based production of cotton,
primarily using slave labor. The cotton industry and slavery on plantations were
connected by blood. The South was adamant about keeping them.
Abolitionism- a movement to abolish slavery, emerged at the same time and opposed
the Southern way of life in the North. Compromise became less likely as views on slavery
became increasingly polarized.
When Lincoln was elected president in November 1860, war became inevitable,
notwithstanding what Abraham Lincoln had claimed in an 1858 address that "this
government cannot remain forever half slave and half free."
In a vote held on December 20, 1860, South Carolina decided to secede from the
United States. Six additional Southern states did the same in February 1861. The
Confederate States of America, a rival nation, was established. Fighting broke out
between North and South—the Union and confederacy—in April.
The American Civil War, which lasted from 1861 to 1865, was a particularly violent
conflict. The majority of the nation's slaves were declared "forever free" by Lincoln's
Emancipation Proclamation, and the Confederate armies' capitulation on April 9, 1865,
guaranteed that the United States would be "one nation, indivisible."
References:

Schlegel, H. (2012). Industrialization and Nationalism. The Industrial Revolution.

Retrieved on September 27, 2022, from
https://www.slideshare.net/HeidiSchlegel/industrialization-and-nationalism

Trueman, C. (2015). The History Learning Site. The Cotton Industry And The Industrial
Revolution. Retrieved on September 27, 2022, from
https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/britain-1700-to-1900/industrial-
revolution/the-cotton-industry-and-the-industrial-revolution/

Bright, S. & Troolin, A. (2022). AP: European History: The First Industrial Revolution.
Industrial Revolution Working Class Conditions. Retrieved on September 27,
2022, from https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-working-class-during-the-
industrial-revolution-growth-ideologies.html

Boundless Editors. Boundless World History. The Congress of Vienna. Retrieved on

September 27, 2022, from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-
worldhistory2/chapter/the-congress-of-vienna/
 Assessment (Industrialization and Nationalism)

Direction: Read each question carefully. Choose the letter that corresponds to the correct
answer.

1. It is collectively known as the other term for new middle class.

a) Median People

b) Bourgeoisie

c) Equatorial Tribe

d) Bureaucracy

2. During the industrial revolution, what do you call the people who operated
machinery, worked in skilled labor, or worked in factories and textile mills?

a) Iron Man

b) Officemates

c) Working Class

d) Muggles

3. It is the belief in no monarchy and a small central government.

a) Authoritarian

b) Monarchy

c) Autocracy

d) Liberalism

4. It is a written document that the liberals believed to guarantee freedom.

a) American Dream

b) American Bill of Rights

c) Rights Conformity

d) American Certificate of Freedom

5. This attempted to restore the monarchies Napoleon had overthrown and ended
the Napoleonic era, ushering in a period of retaliation.

a) Congress of Vietnam

b) Congress of Vienna

c) Congress of Vinci

d) Congress of Vilma

6. This was due to the long-term struggle between Russia and the Ottoman Empire

a) Abolitionism

b) Hall of Wars

c) Crimean War

d) Creamy White
7. Politics based on reality rather than philosophy or ethics

a) Great Powers

b) European Politik

c) Congress of Vienna

d) Real politik

8. She embodied a sense of duty and moral respectability reflected the attitudes of
her age, later known as the Victorian Age.

a) Queen Elizabeth

b) Queen Victory

c) Queen Victoria

d) Queen Ivory

9. Belonging to a community with shared institutions, traditions, languages, and

practices.

a) Nation

b) Nationalism

c) Nationality

d) National Geographic Channel

10. The date when Paris finally surrendered.

a) January 28, 1871

b) January 31, 1871

c) June 28, 1871

d) Paris did not surrender.