Elexfinals

Large Signal Amplifiers
Engr. Yernell H. Cabungcal

Course Outline
•What is Large Signal Amplifiers
•Difference between Small signal amplifiers vs large signal amplifiers
in terms of DC parameters, input, output signal, etc.
•Performance Parameters of a large signal Amplifier

considerations for a good large signal Amplifier
•Classification of large signal amplifiers
ECE406 - Electronics Circuits Analysis and Design 2

Large Signal Amplifiers
• capable of providing large amount of power to the load.
• also known as power amplifiers
• They are used as last stage in electronic systems.
• uses power transistors
• A power amplifier takes the DC power supply connected to the
output circuit and converts it into AC signal power.
• generates more heat than small signal amplifiers

Multi-stage Amplifier
pre- Voltage Power

Amplifier Amplifier Amplifier
Small Signal Amplifiers Large Signal Amplifier

Differences:
Small vs Large signal Amplifiers
Small Signal Amplifiers Large Signal Amplifiers
• the variation of base current from its DC • the variation of base current from its DC value
value is small is Large
• Variation of collector current will be within • Variation of collector current may go into
the active region. So, output is exact replica cutoff or saturation or both. So, output might
of input signal (Linear Amplification) get distorted.
• Distortion is not present • Distortion is present
• Ex: Voltage Amplifiers • Ex: Power Amplifiers
• Applications: All stages in a multistage • Applications: last stage of amplifier is power
amplifiers, except last stage amplifier
• High Output Impedance for more amount of • Low output impedance to obtain maximum
voltage drop across output output power and handle large current
• few mV or uV input signal • Large input signal, typ. (V)

Differences:
Small vs Large signal Amplifiers
Voltage Amplifier Power Amplifier
High Low
Current gain (beta)
>100 5 to 20
input voltage Low High

Few mV or uV Volts range
Collector current Low High

~1mA >100mA
Power output Low High
output impedance High Low

Performance Parameters of a Power Amplifier
• Circuit efficiency – ratio of output AC power to DC input power
• Distortion - difference between the output & input of an amplifier
determined by the waveform or frequencies.
• Power dissipation capability – ability to dissipate the generated heat

Efficiency
• An ideal amplifier have an efficiency of 100% but since heat will

always be generated, it is theoretically impossible.
• The efficiency can be calculated as the ratio of AC output power with
the DC input power.
• Efficiency is most important in power amplifiers.
• Poor efficiency means that much of the input power is converted to
heat.
• High efficiency means less heat.

High efficiency means less heat. HEAT = PIN - POUT
Input signal Output signal

Power
POUT
Amplifier
POUT
Efficiency = x 100%
PIN
PIN = VCC x IDC
Distortion
• difference between the output & input of an amplifier
determined by the waveform
• Distortion can either be:
• Amplitude distortion – Due to non-linearity of transistor.
• Frequency distortion – When different frequency components of
the input signal are amplified differently frequency amplification
takes place. This is mainly due to the internal capacitance effect of
the transistors.
• Phase shift distortion – If the phase shift introduced by amplifier is
not proportional to the frequency, then phase distortion takes
place
Dissipation
• ability to dissipate the generated heat

• During amplification process, large current passes through
power transistor. It is hard to attain 100% efficiency thus,
some power were converted to heat.
• by connecting a heat sink power dissipation capability can be
increased.

Heat Sinks
• A heat-sink is designed to remove heat
from a transistor and dissipate it into the
surrounding air as efficiently as possible.
• Good physical contact between the
transistor and heatsink is essential, and a
heat transmitting grease (heat-sink
compound) is smeared on the contact
area before clamping the transistor to the
heat-sink.
• Where it is necessary to maintain
electrical insulation between transistor
and heat-sink a mica layer is used
between the heat-sink and transistor.
• a Mica sheet has excellent insulation and
very good heat conducting properties.

Thermal Stability
• When the output current is high, heat dissipation is greater. The
increase in temperature produces more charge carrier in the Base-
Emitter junction of transistor. that is why it is important to reduce the
production of heat by using a heat sink.
• heat sinks prevent the transistors from going to Thermal Run Away.
• Thermal runaway occurs in situations where an increase in
temperature changes the conditions in a way that causes a further
increase in temperature, often leading to a destructive result. It is a
kind of uncontrolled positive feedback.

Classification of large signal amplifiers
Amplifiers can be classified according to the duration that the transistor
is on.
• Class A amplifier conducts for the entire signal cycle. 360°
• Class B amplifier conducts for only half of the signal cycle. 180 °
• Class AB Amplifier in between 180-360 °
• Class C amplifier conducts for less than half of the signal cycle. <180 °
• Class D amplifier switches between cutoff and saturation.

Class A Amplifier
• conducts for the entire signal cycle (360 degrees
conduction angle)
• the transistor remains in the active region for the full
input signal. it is not operated in cut off or saturation
region
• The Q point is chosen at the middle of load line. This will
give equal swing on either direction
• The base current changes sinusoidally, above and below
to the quiescent base current. The collector output
current also changes sinusoidally above and below the
quiescent current value.
• Due to this IC change, VCE will also change sinusoidally,
but 180 degrees out of phase.

Class A amplifier
Operating Curve

Class A Amplifier
Advantages Disadvantages
• Simple Construction • Low efficiency (25% to 50%)
• Distortion less output • Large power dissipation in the
transistors. High power loss.
• Output impedance is very large
• It can handle only small signals

Class A Amplifier Efficiency
• RMS Values are needed to calculate
the parameters. VP-P = 2 2 * VRMS
• Eff = PAC/PDC * 100

Class B Amplifier
• conducts for half signal cycle (180 degrees)
• The transistor conducts one half cycle only for
the positive half cycle of the input and in
Negative cycle of input the transistor goes into
Off state.
• collector current flows only for one half cycle.
• the power dissipation of these class B amplifiers
are less than class A. Hence efficiency gets
increased.
• the Q-point is adjusted so that it is in cutoff
region

Class B Amplifier
Push-pull Amplifier Complementary Symmetry Amplifier

Class B Amplifier
• both the transistors are of same
type (NPN or PNP)
Push-pull Amplifier • For positive half cycle Q1(Active
region) gives output and Q2 is
OFF(cut off region).
• In negative cycle Q2 is ON & Q1
is OFF.
• Thus, at the output we get a full
cycle for a full input signal.

Class B Amplifier
• one of the transistors is NPN & the other
one PNP or vice versa. Complementary Symmetry Amplifier
• For better impedance matching the two
transistors Q1 & Q2 are connected as
emitter follower configuration.
• Positive half cycle Q1 is in Active region
so ON & Q2 in cut off So OFF.
• In negative half cycle Q2 is ON & Q1 is
OFF.
• Thus, for a complete input cycle output
is developed

Class B amplifier
Operating Curve
Q point is at x-axis because it

only conducts on one cycle

Class B Amplifier
• its efficiency is higher than class A • Output has crossover distortion
• Only one half of the input comes at
the output
• it can handle large signals

Class B Amplifier Parameters

Class B Amplifier

Crossover Distortion
• When the dc base voltage is zero,
both transistors are off and the input
signal voltage must exceed VBE before
a transistor conducts
• Because of this, there is a time
interval between the positive and
negative alternations of the input
when neither transistor is conducting
• The resulting distortion in the output
waveform is called crossover
distortion

Class AB
• This circuit uses 2 diodes whose characteristics matches with
that of the BE junction of the output transistors
• The advantage of this small bias voltage, provided by series
diodes or resistors, is that the crossover distortion created by
the class B amplifier characteristics is overcome, without the
inefficiencies of the class A amplifier design
• The class AB amplifier is a variation of a class B amplifier, except
that both devices are allowed to conduct at the same time
around the waveform's crossover point eliminating the
crossover distortion problems of the class B amplifier
• The class AB amplifier is a good compromise between class A
and class B in terms of efficiency and linearity, with conversion
efficiencies reaching about between class A and class B
• The AB classification of amplifier is currently one of the most
common used types of audio power amplifier design

Class AB amplifier
Operating Curve
Q point is ~0.7V above x-axis

Class C
• Class C power amplifier is a type of amplifier where the active element
(transistor) conduct for less than one half cycle of the input signal.
• the conduction angle is less than 180° and its typical value is 80° to 120°
• Less than 180° (half cycle) means less than 50% and would operate only
with a tuned or resonant circuit, which provides a full cycle of operation for
the tuned or resonant frequency.
• The reduced conduction angle improves the efficiency to a great extend
but causes a lot of distortion.
• Theoretical maximum efficiency of a Class C amplifier is around 90%.
• has the most non-linear response. poorest fidelity among analog
amplifiers.
• Due to the huge amounts of distortion, the Class C configurations are not
used in audio applications. The most common application of the Class C
amplifier is the RF (radio frequency) circuits like RF oscillator, RF amplifier
etc.,

Class C Operation
• the input of the device has no bias voltage to the
base of transistor. any voltage needed to turn on
the transistor needs to come from the input.
• Biasing resistor Rb pulls the base of Q1 further
downwards and the Q-point will be set some way
below the cut-off point in the DC load line.
• the transistor will start conducting only after the
input signal amplitude has risen above the base
emitter voltage (Vbe~0.7V. That is the reason why
the major portion of the input signal is absent in
the output signal.
• A series of current pulses is produced by the
transistor (active element) according to the input
which flow through the resonant circuit.

Input vs Output
• more than half of the input
signal is missing in the output
and the output is in the form of
some sort of a pulse.

Class C amplifier
Operating Curve
Q point is beyond x-axis.

very little part of the input is replicated in the
output.
so, there is a lot distortion.

Class C Operation - Output
• Inductor L1 and capacitor C1 forms a tank
circuit.
• Once the tank circuit gets charged then
they can generate a precise frequency.
Resonant Frequency = 1/2π√LC
• The tank circuit oscillates in the frequency
of the input signal by selecting the proper
value of L and C. All other frequencies are
attenuated by tank circuit and the tank
circuit oscillates in one frequency.

Class C Amplifier
• High efficiency. • Lowest linearity.
• Excellent in RF applications. • Not suitable in audio applications.
• Lowest physical size for a given power • Creates a lot of RF interference.
output. • It is difficult to obtain ideal inductors

Class D Amplifier
• Class D type is designed to work with pulse or digital input signals. It is basically a non-
linear switching amplifier or Pulse-width modulation (PWM) amplifier.
• Class-D amplifiers theoretically can reach 100% efficiency, as there is no period during a
cycle were the voltage and current waveforms overlap as current is drawn only through
the transistor that is on.

Class D Operation
• Class-D amplifiers work by generating a train of rectangular pulses of fixed amplitude

but varying width and separation, or varying number per unit time, representing the
amplitude variations of the analog audio input signal.
• The modulator clock can synchronize with an incoming digital audio signal, thus
removing the necessity to convert the signal to analog.
• The output of the modulator is then used to gate the output transistors on and off
alternately.

Class D Operation
• Since the transistors are either fully "on" or fully "off", they spend very little time
in the linear region, and dissipate very little power. This is the main reason for
their high efficiency.
• A simple low-pass filter consisting of an inductor and a capacitor provides a path
for the low frequencies of the audio signal, leaving the high-frequency pulses
behind. It also converts Modulated PWM signals back to its sinusoidal form.

Summary
Amplifier Class Description Conduction Angle
Full cycle 360° of
Class-A θ = 2π
Conduction
Half cycle 180° of
Class-B θ=π
Conduction
Slightly more than
Class-AB π < θ < 2π
180° of conduction
Slightly less than
Class-C θ<π
180°of conduction
Class-D to ON-OFF non-linear
θ=0
T switching

Summary
Class A B C AB
In between the
Position of Centre Point of Exactly on the Below the
X-axis and the
the Q-point the Load Line X-axis X-axis
Centre Load Line
Better than A
Overall Poor Better Higher
but less than B
Efficiency 25 to 50% 70 to 80% than 80%
50 to 70%
Signal At the X-axis

Little to none Large Amounts Small Amounts
Distortion Crossover Point

Summary

End of Presentation
Questions, concerns, clarifications?
Operational Amplifiers
Engr. Yernell H. Cabungcal
Course Outline
•What is Operational Amplifiers?
•Characteristics/ Properties..
•Configuration..
•Applications..

Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amp)
• An Operational Amplifier or op-amp is a very high gain differential amplifier with
high input impedance and low output impedance usually packed in a small IC.
• Op-amp is a voltage amplifying device that can perform many operations like
comparator, sinking and sourcing currents, amplification, error correction, basic
math, calculus, etc.,
• The term operational refers to its capabilities to perform mathematical operation
(addition, subtraction, differentiation and integration) as its main applications.
• a device that possesses linear characteristics.

LM741 Integrated Circuit

Key Properties of an Op-Amp
• Very high input impedance. Current in the
input is ideally zero.
IIN = 0
• The Output voltage is equal to the difference
of non-inverting input (V+) and inverting
input (V-) times the gain (A)
VIN = V+ −V-
VO = AVIN
VO = A (V+ −V-)
• The bias voltage should be greater than
expected output voltage.
• The Op-Amp tries to keep the inputs the
same voltage (apply only for closed loop)

Internal Block Diagram of an Op-Amp
• Differential Amplifier (Input Stage) - Provides amplification

between the difference of the two-input voltage.
• Voltage Amplifier (Gain Stage) - Provides additional gain
• Push-pull Amplifier (Output Stage) - Provides better power
output

Op-Amp Gain
Op-Amps have a very high gain. They can be connected open-loop or
closed-loop.
• Open-loop refers to a configuration where there is no feedback from
output back to the input. In the open-loop configuration the gain can
exceed 10,000.
• Closed-loop configuration reduces the gain. In order to control the
gain of an op-amp it must have feedback. This feedback is a negative
feedback. A negative feedback reduces the gain and improves many
characteristics of the op-amp.

Negative Feedback
• The open loop gain of an op-amp is usually very high that it will result to saturated
output states given a very small input voltage.
• With negative feedback, the closed-loop gain (𝐴𝑐𝑙) can be reduced and controlled so
that the amplifier can perform linear function.
• Negative feedback also provide stable voltage gain, and control of the input and
output impedances.

Input Signal Mode - Differential
• Differential mode operates in two different operation; single-

ended and double-ended differential mode. Single-ended
differential mode results when one signal is connected to one
input with the other input connected to the ground.
Input Signal Mode - Common Mode
• In common mode, two identical
signal voltages are applied to the
two inputs, where they tend to
cancel, resulting in a zero-output
voltage.

Common Mode Rejection
• A significant feature of a differential connection is that the signals
that are opposite at the inputs are highly amplified, whereas those
that are common to the two inputs are only slightly amplified. The
overall operation being to amplify the difference signal while rejecting
the common signal at the two inputs.
• Since noise is common to both inputs, the differential connection
tends to provide attenuation.
• Noise are pick-up energy on the input lines, power lines, or other
sources.
• Common-mode rejection means that this unwanted signal will not
appear on the output and distort the desired signal.
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
• Ideally, an op-amp provides a very high gain for differential-mode signals and zero gain for common-mode
signals.
• However, practical op-amps exhibit a very small gain (less than 1), while providing a high open-loop
differential voltage gain.
• The higher the open-loop gain with respect to common mode gain, the better the performance of the op-
amp in terms of rejection of common-mode signals.
• The good measure of an op-amp’s performance in rejecting unwanted common-mode signals is thru CMRR
• CMRR is the ratio of the open-loop differential voltage gain, 𝐴𝑜𝑙, to the common-mode gain, 𝐴𝑐𝑚
• The higher the CMRR the better and means 𝐴𝑜𝑙 is much higher and 𝐴𝑐𝑚 has much lower values

Slew Rate
• Slew rate of an op-amp is defined as the maximum rate of
change of the output voltage in a step input voltage.
• Measured n V/uS

Maximum Signal Frequency
• The slew rate determines the highest frequency of the op-
amp without distortion.
where VP is the peak voltage

Input Offset Voltage
• If the input of the op-amp is zero volts, ideally its output is equal to
zero also.
• However, in practical op-amp, there is a small dc output voltage
(𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡(𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟)) when there is no differential input voltage.
• Its primary cause is a slight mismatch of the base emitter voltages of
the differential amplifier input stage of an op-amp.
• The input offset voltage (𝑉𝑜𝑠) is the differential dc voltage required
between the inputs to force the output to zero volts. Ideally its value
should be equal to zero. In practical op-amp, the 𝑉𝑜𝑠 is in the range
of 2𝑚𝑉 or less.
Input Bias Current
• the average of the currents into the two input terminals
• ~ 1uA

Input Offset Current
• In ideal operation of the op-amp, if two input bias currents are equal,
the difference is zero.
• But in practical op-amp, the bias currents are not equal.
• The input offset current (𝐼𝑜𝑠) is the absolute value of the difference
of the input bias currents define by equation

Input Impedance (𝒁𝒊𝒏)
• Differential Input Impedance, 𝑍𝑖𝑛(𝑑) - total resistance between inverting and
noninverting input. It can be measured by determining the change in bias
current for a given change in differential input voltage.
• Common-Mode Input Impedance, 𝑍𝑖𝑛(𝑐𝑚) - the total resistance between
each input terminal and ground. It can be measured by determining the
change in bias current for a given change in common-mode input voltage.

Output Impedance
• Output Impedance (𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡) are measure across the output terminal of the op-amp

Ideal Op-Amp Characteristics
Parameter Values
Input Impedance ZIN = ∞
Output Impedance ZOUT = 0
Open-loop Gain A=∞
Input Offset Voltage VOUT = 0 when VIN = 0
Input Bias Current IIN = 0
Slew Rate SR = ∞
Common Mode Rejection Ratio CMRR = ∞

Op-Amp Applications
Configurations

Comparators
• Comparator is an op-amp configuration that compares two input
voltages, with output is either one of two states (high or low).
VOUT = V+, if V1 > v2

VOUT = V-, if V1 < v2
VOUT ~= 0, if V1 = v2

Zero-Level Detection
• The inverting input is connected to the ground to produce zero lever reference
and the input voltage is connected to the noninverting terminal.
• A very small difference in the input voltages will produce a saturation level at the
output because of the high open-loop gain of the amplifier.

Nonzero-Level Detection
• The modified zero-level detector by applying fixed reference voltage
source to the reference input terminal

Buffer
• a.k.a Unity gain, voltage follower

• Gain = 1
• used to isolated circuits from each other, impedance
matching, source larger current

Inverting Amplifier
• Input is connected to inverting input
• produces 180 degrees phase shift
𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑉 = −
𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑂 = − 𝑉
𝑅𝑖 𝐼𝑁

Non-inverting Amplifier
• Input is connected to non-inverting input
• No phase shift
𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑉 = 1 +
𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑂 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ( 1 + )
𝑅𝑖

Summing Amplifier
• A summing amplifier has two or more inputs
that provide a means of algebraically
summing multiple voltages, each multiplied
by a constant-gain factor

Voltage Subtraction

Differentiator
• The differentiator circuit consists
of capacitor as input element and
resistor as feedback element.
• The differentiator circuit produced
an output that is proportional to
the rate of change of the input
voltage.
• This circuit is useful in high-pass
filter circuits

Integrators
• An op-amp integrator simulates
mathematical integration, which is
basically a summing process that
determines the total area under
the curve of a function.
• An ideal integrator used capacitor
as feeding element forms an RC
circuit with the input resistor
• This circuit is useful in low-pass
filter circuits

Oscillators

Multiple-Stage Gains

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Large Signal Amplifiers

Engr. Yernell H. Cabungcal

•Performance Parameters of a large signal Amplifier

•Classification of large signal amplifiers

ECE406 - Electronics Circuits Analysis and Design 2

ECE406 - Electronics Circuits Analysis and Design 3

pre- Voltage Power

Small Signal Amplifiers Large Signal Amplifier

ECE406 - Electronics Circuits Analysis and Design 4

ECE406 - Electronics Circuits Analysis and Design 5

input voltage Low High

Collector current Low High

Power output Low High

output impedance High Low

ECE406 - Electronics Circuits Analysis and Design 6

ECE406 - Electronics Circuits Analysis and Design 7

• An ideal amplifier have an efficiency of 100% but since heat will

ECE406 - Electronics Circuits Analysis and Design 8

Input signal Output signal

• ability to dissipate the generated heat

ECE406 - Electronics Circuits Analysis and Design 11

ECE406 - Electronics Circuits Analysis and Design 12

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Push-pull Amplifier Complementary Symmetry Amplifier

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ECE406 - Electronics Circuits Analysis and Design 22

Q point is at x-axis because it

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Q point is ~0.7V above x-axis

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Q point is beyond x-axis.

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• Class-D amplifiers work by generating a train of rectangular pulses of fixed amplitude

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Signal At the X-axis

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• Differential Amplifier (Input Stage) - Provides amplification

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