UNDERGRADUATE FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT

Department of Mechanical Engineering

NED University of Engineering and Technology

[Title of the Project]

Group Number: 09 Batch: 2019 – 2023

Group Member Names:

Muhammad Nadeem Hashmi ME-19041

Muhammad Hamza Saleem ME-19028
Sayed Naquish Hussain Shah ME-19019

Approved by
……………………………………………………………………………………………...
Dr. Mubashir Ali Siddiqui
Chairman Mechanical Department
Project Advisor

© NED University of Engineering & Technology. All Rights Reserved – January-2023

 Author’s Declaration

We declare that we are the sole authors of this project. It is the actual copy of the project
that was accepted by our advisor(s) including any necessary revisions. We also grant
NED University of Engineering and Technology permission to reproduce and distribute
electronic or paper copies of this project.

Signature and Date Signature and Date Signature and Date

................................. ................................. .................................

M. Nadeem Hashmi M. Hamza Saleem Naquish Hussain

ME-19041 ME-19028 ME-19019

ii
 Statement of Contributions

[Mention here the contributions of each student in the project report work.]

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 Executive Summary

Write the summary of report here. Limit the summary to 350 words and use single-
spacing between lines. It should include the following details:

1. Problem statement

2. Background information

3. Methodology used to solve the problem

4. Major findings

5. Conclusions

It should give a clear idea to the reader about what is included in the report without
providing excessive details. Do not include citations, figures or cross references to tables
and figures in the summary.

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 Acknowledgments

[Write the acknowledgments here. Use single-spacing between lines. You can
acknowledge any faculty member, any national or international organization, or sponsor
for helping you out in completion of this project. They may have provided you valuable
resources in the form of data, personal experience, disciplinary expertise, instruments, or
technical support. Ideally it should be one or two short paragraphs.]

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 Dedication [Optional]

[Write dedication here. You may want to dedicate this work to immediate family
members or members of a board or society that works for your cause. Ideally, it should be
only one or two lines in length. However, if you do not wish to include a dedication,
delete this page. After deleting this page and updating the table of contents, this page will
automatically disappear from the table of content. In case, you have decided to delete this
page, the table of contents should begin from page v.]

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 Table of Contents
Author’s Declaration.................................................................................................................ii
Statement of Contributions.......................................................................................................iii
Executive Summary..................................................................................................................iv
Acknowledgments.....................................................................................................................v
Dedication [Optional]...............................................................................................................vi
Table of Contents....................................................................................................................vii
List of Figures...........................................................................................................................ix
List of Tables.............................................................................................................................x
List of Abbreviations................................................................................................................xi
List of Symbols........................................................................................................................xii
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals...................................................................xiii
Similarity Index Report..........................................................................................................xiv
Chapter 1 Introduction...............................................................................................................1
1.1 Background Information.......................................................................................................1
1.2 Significance and Motivation..................................................................................................1
1.3 Aims and Objectives.............................................................................................................1
1.4 Methodology.........................................................................................................................1
1.5 Report Outline.......................................................................................................................2
Chapter 2 Literature Review......................................................................................................3
2.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................3
2.2 ASME B31.4 Design Code....................................................................................................3
2.2.1 ASME B31.4 Pipeline Transportation System for Liquid Hydrocarbons and other
Liquid:.....................................................................................................................................4
2.3 Attachments to the Line........................................................................................................5
2.3.1 Floating Roof Storage Tanks..........................................................................................5
2.3.2 Valves.............................................................................................................................6
2.3.3 Actuators......................................................................................................................14
2.4 Cathodic Protection.............................................................................................................15
2.5 Summary.............................................................................................................................16
Chapter 3 Selection of Material...............................................................................................17
3.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................17
3.2 Stainless Steel......................................................................................................................17
3.2.1 Duplex Stainless Steel..................................................................................................18
3.3 High Density Polyethylene..................................................................................................23
3.3.1 Properties......................................................................................................................23
3.3.2 Why Use HDPE?..........................................................................................................24
3.3.3 PE-4710........................................................................................................................25
3.3.4 PE-100..........................................................................................................................27

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 3.3.5 PE-3608........................................................................................................................28
3.3.6 Comparison b/w PE4710 and PE3608:.........................................................................29
3.3.7 Selection of Grade PE-4710.........................................................................................30
Chapter 4 [Name of the Chapter].............................................................................................32
4.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................32
Chapter 5 Conclusions.............................................................................................................33
5.1 Summary.............................................................................................................................33
5.2 Recommendations for Future Work....................................................................................33
Appendix A [Title of Appendix].............................................................................................34
References................................................................................................................................35
Glossary [Optional].................................................................................................................36

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 List of Figures
Figure 1 Top View Open Configuration of Butterfly Valve................................................8
Figure 2 Top View Closed Configuration of Butterfly Valve.............................................8
Figure 3 Globe Valves.........................................................................................................9
Figure 4 Top View Open Configuration of Plug Valve.......................................................9
Figure 5 Top View Closed Configuration of Plug Valves.................................................10
Figure 6 Conventional Spring-Loaded safety valve...........................................................11
Figure 7 Bellows Spring Loaded Safety valve...................................................................12
Figure 8 Summary of Actuators.........................................................................................15
Figure 9 Cathodic Protection Schematic............................................................................16
Figure 10 Duplex Structure................................................................................................18

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 List of Tables
Table 1 Applications of different Valve types.....................................................................7
Table 3 Chemical composition of Duplex 2205................................................................20
Table 4 Mechanical Properties of Duplex 2205.................................................................20
Table 5 Physical properties of duplex 2507.......................................................................21
Table 6 Chemical Analysis of Duplex 2507......................................................................21
Table 7 Mechanical Properties of Duplex 2507.................................................................22
Table 8 Room temperature mechanical properties of Duplex 2507..................................22
Table 9 Physical Properties of PE-4710.............................................................................26

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 List of Abbreviations

FPC Flat Plate Collector

TSS Tubular Solar Still
EPBP Economic Payback Period

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 List of Symbols
Symbols

u⃗ m
Velocity Vector ( )
s
T Temperature (K )

( )
g m
Gravitational Acceleration ¿−9.8 2
s
Greek

σ Normal Stresses ( Pa)

ψ Streamline Function
β Tilt of Plate ( degrees ° )

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 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are the blueprint to achieve a better and
more sustainable future for all. They address the global challenges we face, including
poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace and justice. There
is a total of 17 SDGs as mentioned below. Check the appropriate SDGs related to the
project.

☐ No Poverty

☐ Zero Hunger

☐ Good Health and Well being

☐ Quality Education

☐ Gender Equality

☐ Clean Water and Sanitation

☐ Affordable and Clean Energy

☐ Decent Work and Economic Growth

☐ Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure

☐ Reduced Inequalities

☐ Sustainable Cities and Communities

☐ Responsible Consumption and Production

☐ Climate Action

☐ Life Below Water

☐ Life on Land

☐ Peace and Justice and Strong Institutions

☐ Partnerships to Achieve the Goals

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 Similarity Index Report
Following students have compiled the final year report on the topic given below for
partial fulfillment of the requirement for Bachelor’s degree in Mechanical Engineering.

Project Title To design storage tank for Paraxylene (PX) Transfer from Port Qasim to
Plant Site.

S. No. Student Name Seat Number Signature

___________________________
M. Nadeem Hashmi _____________
ME-19041
1.
_____________
___________________________
M. Hamza Saleem _____________
ME-19028
2.
_____________
___________________________
Sayed Naquish Hussain Shah _____________
ME-19019
3.
_____________

This is to certify that Plagiarism test was conducted on complete report, and overall
similarity index was found to be less than 20%, with maximum 5% from single source, as
required.

Signature and Date

..................................

Shoukat Ali Shaikh

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[Plagiarism Test must be conducted on the project report by the project advisor using
Turnitin Software, or any other software approved by the university. Project Advisor is
required to sign the Plagiarism Certificate if the similarity is found as per rules defined in
the guidelines. Plagiarism report must be included (only the first and last page) generated
by Turnitin. A sample of the plagiarism test report is provided with the FYP template
package.]

[Attach here the first and last page of the plagiarism report generated by Turnitin.]

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16
 Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Background Information

A project report usually contains five or six chapters. Chapters should be divided into
sections that should be numbered according to their chapter numbers. For instance, the
numbering of sections of chapter one should be 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, etc.

The first chapter should be “Introduction” and it should provide the background
information related to the project. The first section of the Introduction chapter should be
titled “Background Information”. While the other sections should be “Significance and
Motivation”, “Aims and Objectives”, “Methodology” and “Report Outline/Scope” of the
Project. It should inform the readers what you did in the project, why you did it, and how
you achieved it. This chapter provides a broad overview on what is discussed in the
report.

1.2 Significance and Motivation

The second section of the chapter one should be “Significance and Motivation”. It should
include the importance of the project and its benefits.

Subsections should have numbering in accordance with its chapter and section number.
For example, the numbering of subsections in section two of chapter one should be like
1.2.1, 1.2.2, 1.2.3, etc. It is not recommended to have only a single subsection in a
section.

1.3 Aims and Objectives

The third section of the chapter one should be “Aims and Objectives”.

1.4 Methodology
The fourth section of the chapter one should be “Methodology”. It should include the
details of the methodology that you have used to solve the problem.

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1.5 Report Outline
The fifth section of the chapter one should be “Report Outline”. It should include the
scope of the project and explain the general outline of the report by highlighting the
content that is covered in different chapters and sections.

Kindly include more sections in the Introduction chapter if you prefer.

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 Chapter 2
Literature Review

2.1 Introduction
Except for the Introduction chapter (first chapter) and the Conclusion chapter (last
chapter), all other chapters should have first section titled “Introduction” and last section
titled “Summary/Conclusions”. In Introduction sections, discuss the content of chapters
such that the readers will have an idea about what is discussed in the chapters. This
allows the readers to know in advance if the chapter is relevant to their interests. On the
other hand, the Summary sections discuss what has been achieved in the chapters. Write
the Summary sections by keeping in mind that many readers do not have time to read the
complete chapters; therefore, they only read Summary sections to get an overview.
Consequently, include the most important achievements and aspects in these sections and
use past tense to write Summary sections.

The goal of this chapter is you discuss how your work is different from the work already
done in the field. You should present a critical review on the past work on your topic.
This chapter will in return help students to gather updated knowledge on the project and
this will enable them to understand the limitations of previous work done on your topic.

2.2 ASME B31.4 Design Code

The code used for design and construction purposes for a pressure piping system is the
ASME B31 Pressure Piping Code. ASME B31 Pressure Piping code includes piping
systems that have operating pressures ranging from vacuum to high pressure. ASME B31
Code is not a book that provides detailed information on a job. However, the ASME B31
code only provides guidance on the minimum requirements for pipe installation according
to its designation.
Section B31.4 of the ASME Pressure Piping Code prescribes requirements for the design,
materials, construction, assembly, inspection, and testing of piping transporting liquids
such as crude oil, condensate, natural gasoline, natural gas liquids, liquefied petroleum
gas, liquid alcohol, liquid anhydrous ammonia, and liquid petroleum products between

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producers’ lease facilities, tank farms, natural-gas processing plants, refineries, stations,
ammonia plants, terminals, and other delivery and receiving points.
The scope of ASME B31.4 also includes the following:
 Primary and associated auxiliary liquid petroleum and liquid anhydrous ammonia
piping at pipeline terminals (marine, rail, and truck), tank farms, pump stations,
pressure-reducing stations, and metering stations, including scraper traps,
strainers, and prover loops
 Storage and working tanks, including pipe-type storage fabricated from pipe and
fittings, and piping interconnecting these facilities
 Liquid petroleum and liquid anhydrous ammonia piping located on property
which has been set aside for such piping within petroleum refinery, natural
gasoline, gas processing, ammonia, and bulk plants
 Those aspects of operation and maintenance of liquid pipeline systems relating to
the safety and protection of the general public, operating company personnel,
environment, property, and the piping systems.

2.2.1 ASME B31.4 Pipeline Transportation System for Liquid Hydrocarbons and
other Liquid:
Pipeline as per ASME B31.4 are found in pipeline systems that deliver fluids which are
generally in liquid form from a factory to a terminal, as well as within the terminal itself.
This Code covers requirements for the design, materials, construction, assembly,
inspection and testing of pipelines that transport liquids such as crude oil, condensate,
natural gas liquids, liquefied petroleum gas, carbon dioxide, liquid alcohol, liquid
anhydrous ammonia, and liquid petroleum products. others which are transported from
production facilities (places), tanks, processing places, stations / terminals (sea
transportation, rail, trucks) and other places of receipt and delivery. This piping consists
of pipes, bends, connections, gaskets, valves, support devices, fittings, and other piping
parts.
This Code also prescribes requirements for the design, materials, construction, assembly,
inspection, testing, operation, and maintenance of piping transporting aqueous slurries of
nonhazardous materials such as coal, mineral ores, concentrates, and other solid
materials, between a slurry processing plant or terminal and a receiving plant or terminal.

2.2.1.1 Limitation
ASME B31.4 does not apply to:
1. Auxiliary piping such as water, air, steam, lubricating oil, gas, and fuel

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2. Pressure vessels, heat exchangers, pumps, meters, and other such equipment, including internal
piping and connections for piping except as limited by Paragraph 423.2.4 (b) of ASME B31.4
3. Piping designed for internal pressures:
At or below 15 psi (100 kPa) gauge pressure regardless of temperature
Above 15 psi (100 kPa) gauge pressure if the design temperature is below -20 ° F (-29 ° C) or
above 250 ° F (120 ° C)
4. Casing, tubing, or pipe used in oil wells, wellhead assemblies, oil and gas separators, crude oil
production tanks, other producing facilities, and pipelines interconnecting these facilities
5. Petroleum refinery, natural gasoline, gas processing, ammonia, and bulk plant piping, except as
covered within the scope of the code
6. Gas transmission and distribution piping
7. The design and fabrication of proprietary items of equipment, apparatus, or instruments, except
as limited by this code
8. Ammonia refrigeration piping systems provided for in ASME B31.5, Refrigeration Piping
Code
9. Carbon dioxide gathering and field distribution systems.

2.3 Attachments to the Line

2.3.1 Floating Roof Storage Tanks

Floating roof storage tanks are industrial storage containers used for storing liquids, such
as petroleum and chemicals. They feature a roof that floats on the surface of the stored
liquid, rather than being fixed to the tank walls. This design helps prevent evaporation
and minimizes exposure to the atmosphere. The roof rises and falls with the changing
liquid levels, maintaining a safe and secure environment for workers. The floating roof
design also reduces environmental impact by preventing the release of volatile chemicals
into the atmosphere.

2.3.1.1 Floating Roof Tanks(As compared to Fixed Roofs) – PROS and CONS
Floating roof storage tanks have advantages over fixed roof tanks as they minimize vapor
emissions and reduce the risk of fire or explosions. They are commonly used for storing
stable liquids. However, adverse weather conditions can affect floating roofs, with the
accumulation of snow and rain potentially causing submersion of the roof in the stored
liquid. The static load can be accounted for in the design of the tank with a factor of
safety. Another challenge is the dynamic loads due to splashing water or leaks that can
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flood the roof compartments. Having sufficient stiffness in the circumferential direction
of the roof can help mitigate this, but it is difficult to accurately predict the magnitude of
these loads.
As the liquid level decreases, the floating roof approaches the bottom and creates a wet
shell, leading to evaporation of liquid droplets and emissions similar to those from fixed
roof tanks. A properly designed rim seal can prevent these emissions, but most seals have
a loss factor based on tank diameter and wind.
An alternative to external floating roofs is internal roofs that consist of conical fixed roofs
on top of pontoons. These also face withdrawal and storage losses, which can be reduced
using similar means. Recent advancements in design have led to floating roof tanks with
secondary seals to prevent emissions and reduce seal friction.

2.3.2 Valves
Valves play a crucial role in piping systems, as they allow control and direction of
process fluids. Selecting the right valve and material for the process fluid is important as
valves are expensive, engineered components. Valves can be operated manually with
methods such as hand wheel, lever, or wrench. They can also be actuated or automatically
controlled. The piping material engineer is responsible for manual valves, while
instrument engineers handle the automatically controlled ones. Different valves are
available for specific functions, and the design can be finalized after selection with
reference to design codes and choice of material.

2.3.2.1 Responsibility for a Valve Selection

The piping material engineer is accountable for choosing the right valves for the process
and utility piping systems in a processing plant. These valves must be able to handle the
fluid's design conditions, including pressure, temperature, and corrosion resistance.

2.3.2.2 Function of a Valve

Valves, which come in a variety of types, are selected to perform a specific function:
On or Off – Gate Valve, Ball Valve or Plug Valve.
Throttling, fluid control – Globe Valve (sizes to approx. 16’’), Butterfly Valve (for larger
sizes).
Prevent flow reversal – Swing Check Valve, Wafer Check Valve, Piston Check Valve.

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Speed Of Operation – Multiturn (Gate, Globe or Quarter turn).

2.3.2.3 Valve Types

A large number of valve options exist for use in systems. Four of the most frequently
utilized valves in processes are ball valves, butterfly valves, globe valves, and plug
valves. A brief overview of these four valve types and their suitable applications is
outlined in the accompanying table.

Table 1 Applications of different Valve types

Valve Type Application Other Information

Ball Flow is ON or OFF Easy to clean
Butterfly Good Flow Control at high capacities Economical
Globe Good Flow Control Difficult to clean
Plug Extreme On/Off Conditions More rugged, costly than ball valve

Following is a detailed description of the four main valve types.

2.3.2.3.1 Ball Valves

A ball valve is a type of valve that uses a spherical disc to control flow. It has a hole in
the center, which when aligned with the ends of the valve, allows flow. When the valve is
closed, the hole is perpendicular to the ends, blocking flow. There are four types of ball
valves including full port, reduced port, V port, and trunnion. Full port ball valves have
an oversized ball, but the larger size results in excessive cost and is not necessary for
industrial applications. Reduced port ball valves have a smaller flow area, but the flow
discharge remains constant. V port ball valves have a "v" shaped ball or seat for better
control and flow characteristics. Trunnion ball valves are anchored at the top and bottom,
making them suitable for larger and high-pressure applications. Ball valves are commonly
used for on/off situations, including emergency shut offs.

2.3.2.3.2 Butterfly Valve

A butterfly valve is a type of valve that consists of a rotating disk attached to a shaft. The
flow characteristics of the fluid can be adjusted by altering the design of the disk. High-
performance butterfly valves offer benefits such as reduced torque, tight shutoff, and
efficient throttling. When choosing a butterfly valve, it is important to take into account
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the torque that will be exerted on the valve due to the flow of water on both sides. These
valves are popular due to their small size and cost-effectiveness, and a seal is necessary to
prevent leaks. An example of a butterfly valve in use is the air intake in older
automobiles.

Figure 1 Top View Open Configuration of Butterfly Valve

Figure 2 Top View Closed Configuration of Butterfly Valve

2.3.2.3.3 Globe Valves

A globe valve is a pipeline flow regulation device that consists of a stationary ring seat and a
movable disk element in a spherical body. It may have a stem or cage like a ball valve to control
the disk's movement. The fluid's flow properties can be adjusted by the design of the disk. It is
sealed to prevent leakage and is easy to maintain, with a removable top for access to the disk and
seal. Globe valves are suitable for on/off and precise throttling, and are particularly effective in

8
reducing noise and cavitation. A common usage is controlling hot and cold water in kitchen or
bathroom sinks.

Figure 3 Globe Valves

2.3.2.3.4 Plug Valves

Plug valves are valves that feature cylindrical or cone-shaped "plugs" that can rotate within the
valve body to control the flow of fluid. The plugs in these valves contain one or more lateral
passageways that allow fluid to flow when the valve is open. Plug valves are known for their
simplicity and affordability. There are two main types of plug valves, one of which features a
cylindrical plug with a port perpendicular to the pipeline that opens and closes to allow fluid flow.
In the closed position, the cylinder rotates around its axis, blocking fluid flow. These valves are
highly effective for rapid shutoff, but the friction generated by their design restricts their use for
precise modulation or throttling.

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Figure 4 Top View Open Configuration of Plug Valve

Figure 5 Top View Closed Configuration of Plug Valves

2.3.2.4 Safety Valves

2.3.2.4.1 Pressure Releif Valves

Pressure relief valves serve as a safety mechanism to prevent equipment damage due to
overpressure events in fluid processes. Causes of overpressure can include loss of heating and
cooling, valve malfunctions, and poor ventilation and draining. The pressure relief system used
depends on the specific process, either redirecting fluid to an auxiliary passage or opening a port
to release pressure to the atmosphere. These valves are commonly used in reaction vessels and
storage tanks, and in industries such as the petroleum refining sector, where safety codes require
multiple pressure relief valves in high-pressure/high-temperature processes like the Fluidized
Catalytic Cracker (FCC) reactor. The valves come with varying pressure ratings to control the
amount of material released to the environment.

2.3.2.4.1.1 Conventional Spring-Loaded Safety Valves

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As the pressure rises, this causes a force to be put on the valve disc. This force opposes the spring
force until at the set pressure the forces are balanced and the disc will start to lift. As the pressure
continues to rise, the spring compresses more, further lifting the disc and alleviating the higher
pressure. As the pressure inside the vessel decreases, the disc returns to its normal closed state.
Advantages:
 Most reliable type
 versatile

Disadvantages:
 Pressure relief is affected by back pressure
 Susceptible to chatter

A conventional spring-loaded safety valve looks like this:

Figure 6 Conventional Spring-Loaded safety valve

2.3.2.4.1.2 Bellows Spring Loaded Safety Relief Valve

The bellows spring loaded safety relief valve has the same principle as the conventional spring
valve, with the exception of a vent located on the side of the valve. This vent lets releases the
contents of the valve out to the surrounding environment.
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Advantages:
 Pressure relief is not affected by back pressure
 Can handle higher built-up back pressure
 Spring is protected from corrosion

Disadvantages:
 Bellows can be susceptible to fatigue
 Not environmentally friendly (can release of toxics into atmosphere)
 Requires a venting system

A conventional bellows spring loaded safety relief valve looks like this:

Figure 7 Bellows Spring Loaded Safety valve

2.3.2.4.1.3 Pilot Assisted Safety Relief Valve

The pilot operated safety relief valve is also similar to the conventional safety relief valve except
a pneumatic diaphragm or piston is attached to the top. This piston can apply forces on the valve

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when the valve is closed to balance the spring force and applies additional sealing pressure to
prevent leakage.

Advantages:
Pressure relief is not affected by back pressure
Can operate at 98% of set pressure
Less susceptible to chatter
Disadvantages:
Pilot is susceptible to plugging
Has limited chemical use
Condensation can cause problems with the valve
Potential for back flow.

2.3.2.4.1.4 Other Valves

In addition to the four main types of control valves, there are numerous other valves that may be
necessary to manipulate fluid flow in a certain system. Some valves important to chemical
engineering processes are stated below with a brief description of their design and application.
Angle valves include inlet and outlet ports that are oriented at a 90-degree angle. The fluid leaves
at right angles to the direction in which it enters the valve.
Bleed valves vent signal line pressure to atmosphere before removal of an instrument or to assist
in calibration of control devices. Common bleed valves include ball and plug bleed valves.
Check valves are one way valves. Check valves only allow fluid in one way and out the other.
They are often placed on individual fluid streams when mixing fluids so as to prevent the mixture
from flowing back into the original streams. Also, the speed with which the valve closes is
significant to prevent reverse-flow velocity. There are different types of check valves which
include lift check, swing check, tilting disk and diaphragm.
Lift check valves are quick closing. This valve should only be used for low viscosity fluids
because they can be slowed by viscous fluids.
Swing check valve has a disc like closing method from a hinge which may or may not be spring
loaded.
Tilting disk check valve is spring loaded for quick response. These are often more expensive and
harder to fix when broken.
Diaphragm valves have excellent shut-off characteristics and are used when there is particulate
matter in the fluids. Not a good choice for controlling flow. A diaphragm valve has both a flexible
and a rigid section. One advantage is that there are no crevices that affect the flow of the fluid
when open. Used mostly in the pharmaceutical and food industry for their ability to be sanitary.
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Piston valves have a closure member shaped like a piston. When the valve opens, no flow is
observed until the piston is fully moved from the seat bore, and when the valve closes, the piston
removes any solids that might be deposited on the seat. Therefore, piston valves are used with
fluids that have solid particles in suspension.
Gate valves work by raising a gate or barrier out of the way of the flowing fluid. The water spigot
outside a house works as a gate valve. Have the positive quality that, when fully open, the fluid
flow is totally unobstructed. Two major types of gate valves are used: parallel and wedge gate
valves. The wedge gate valve, in which the closure member has a wedge shape, provides the
advantage of sealing against low pressure, as well as high pressure, flow. Gate valves have the
ability to open very quickly. Advantages of gate valves are that they have a high capacity, have
good seals, relatively inexpensive, and don't have very much resistance to flow. Some
disadvantages of gate valves are that they sometimes can have poor control, they can cavitate at
lower pressures, and they cannot be used for throttling.
Needle valves are similar to gate valves; however, they are usually applied to a much smaller
orifice. Needle valves are excellent for precise control of fluid flow, typically at low flow rates.
Flush Bottom valves are usually at the lowest point of a tank or reactor and used to drain out
contents. Unique because it leaves no dead space in the valve when it is closed, this eliminates the
problem of product buildup within the valve.
Pinch valves are mainly used in order to regulate the flow of slurries in certain processes and
systems. Pinch valves have flexible bodies that can be shut by pinching them. They are often used
when it is necessary for the slurry to pass straight through when the valve is not pinched. They are
often used for sanitary processes such as medical and pharmaceutical applications. Pinch valves
can be controlled mechanically or with fluid pressure.
Knife valves are used in systems that deal with slurries or powders. They are primarily used for
on and off purposes; whether or not the slurry or powder flows or not. A knife gate valve can be
used for fibrous material because it can cut through to close the valve.
Ballcock valves are used in controlling levels in tanks. The valve is connected to a float in the
tank using a lever. When the level in the tank rises, the float rises and forces the valve to be shut
at the maximum level of the tank allowed. Ballcock valves are used mostly in water tanks and
other low-risk areas within a certain process.
Solenoid valves are used very frequently in industry. The valves have a loop of wire that is
wrapped around a metal core. A current is shot through the valve creating a magnetic field, which
in turn opens or closes plungers in pipelines controlling flow in that pipe.

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2.3.3 Actuators
Actuators are the mechanical equipment that supply the force necessary to open or close a valve.
Actuators are, essentially, the alternative to manual operation of a valve. The method of applying
the opening/closing force to a valve is what differentiates the various types of actuators. When
selecting the actuator, the most important feature to specify is whether you want fail-safe open or
closed. This is determined entirely by a careful analysis of the process to decide which is safer. If
all the power goes out or some other emergency occurs, the decision on the fail-safe mode of the
valve is a huge factor in saving lives. For example, if a reaction is exothermic, the fail-safe mode
of the cooling water in the jacket of the reactor should be fail-safe open. Pneumatic actuators have
a delayed response which make them ideal for being resilient against small upsets in pressure
changes of the source. Hydraulic actuators on the other hand use an incompressible fluid, so the
response time is essentially instantaneous.

Figure 8 Summary of Actuators

2.4 Cathodic Protection

Cathodic protection is a widely used technique to prevent corrosion in pipelines. Pipelines are
susceptible to corrosion due to the presence of electrolytes, such as soil and water, that can
interact with the metal surface and cause corrosion. Cathodic protection works by applying an
electrical current to the pipeline, which creates a cathodic environment that prevents corrosion
from occurring.
There are two main types of cathodic protection applied to pipelines: galvanic and impressed
current. Galvanic cathodic protection makes use of the difference in electrochemical potential
between two metals, one of which acts as the anode and corrodes preferentially, while the other
serves as the cathode and remains protected. For example, zinc is commonly used as the anode in
15
galvanic cathodic protection because it has a lower electrochemical potential than the pipeline
material, making it prone to corrosion.
Impressed current cathodic protection involves the application of a direct electrical current to the
pipeline from an external power source. This method is more flexible and can be used on a wider
range of pipeline materials. The current supplied by the external source is used to drive a reaction
at the pipeline surface that counteracts the corrosion process. The current required for impressed
current cathodic protection can be adjusted to suit the specific requirements of the pipeline and
the environment in which it is located.
Pipeline cathodic protection is typically installed during the construction phase of a pipeline and
is designed to provide long-term protection against corrosion. The design of a cathodic protection
system starts with an assessment of the pipeline and the environment in which it is located.
Factors such as the composition of the pipeline material, the nature of the electrolyte, and the
level of electrical resistance must be taken into account in order to determine the best approach
for preventing corrosion.
Once the design of the cathodic protection system is complete, the next step is installation. This
involves the placement of anodes, if necessary, and the connection of the external power source to
the pipeline. The cathodic protection system must be installed in a manner that ensures that the
electrical current is distributed evenly along the pipeline, and that the system is protected from
damage.
Finally, it is important to maintain the cathodic protection system to ensure that it continues to
function correctly. This may involve regular monitoring of the current levels, replacement of
depleted anodes, and repair of any damage to the system.
In conclusion, cathodic protection is an effective technique for preventing corrosion in pipelines.
Proper design, installation, and maintenance of the cathodic protection system are key to ensuring
that the pipeline is protected against corrosion and remains functional for its intended lifespan. By
preventing corrosion, cathodic protection helps to maintain the integrity and safety of pipelines
and the environment in which they operate.

16
Figure 9 Cathodic Protection Schematic

2.5 Summary
Last section of each chapter should be Summary or Conclusion.

Chapter 3
Selection of Material

3.1 Introduction
Material selection is the act of choosing the material best suited to achieve the
requirements of a given application. Many different factors go into determining the
selection requirements, such as mechanical properties, chemical properties, physical
properties, electrical properties and cost. These must be weighed during the material
selection process.
Material selection involves a broad set of considerations. As a result, a correspondingly
wide variety of knowledge is required to make an appropriate selection. Incorrect material
selection can have a huge impact on safety and application success. In addition to
considering how a single material may behave in isolation during the material selection
process, it is also important to consider how two or more materials might behave when in
contact with each another. A carbon steel part placed in contact with a stainless-steel part

17
in an electrolytic solution will undergo galvanic corrosion at a much faster rate than it
would if it was not contacting the stainless-steel part.
In our case we are asked to select any suitable grade of iron or steel, high-dense polymer
and PVC.

3.2 Stainless Steel

First, we are considering Steel from the three materials we have been asked. So we select
the grades of stainless steel as it is more resistant to corrosion as compared to carbon steel
whose corrosion rate is quite higher. Stainless steel is an iron alloy composed primarily of
iron and chromium. The chromium in the material reacts with oxygen on the surface to
create an oxidized “passive layer”, which prevents corrosion and rust. While all stainless
steels have at least 10.5% chromium content, alloys with higher percentages demonstrate
greater corrosion resistance. 
Stainless steel is often alloyed with other elements, such as nickel, carbon, silicon,
manganese, and molybdenum, to enhance certain material characteristics. Manufacturers
leverage this ability to increase the material’s formability, heat resistance, and durability,
depending on the needs of the final product.

3.2.1 Duplex Stainless Steel

Duplex Stainless Steels are called “duplex” because they have a two-phase microstructure
consisting of grains of ferritic and austenitic stainless steels.

Figure 10 Duplex Structure

18
When duplex stainless steel is melted it solidifies from the liquid phase to a completely
ferritic structure. As the material cools to room temperature, about half of the ferritic
grains transform to austenitic grains (“islands”). The result is a microstructure of roughly
50% austenite and 50% ferrite.

3.2.1.1 Properties of Duplex Stainless Steels

The duplex structure gives this family of stainless steels a combination of attractive
properties. These properties have been used as the basis for the selection of the following
class of stainless steels which are:
Strength: Duplex stainless steels are about twice as strong as regular austenitic or ferritic
stainless steels.
Toughness and ductility: Duplex stainless steels have significantly better toughness and
ductility than ferritic grades.
Corrosion resistance: As with all stainless steels, corrosion resistance depends mostly on
the composition of the stainless steel. For chloride pitting and crevice corrosion
resistance, their chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen content are most important.
Duplex stainless-steel grades have a range of corrosion resistance.
Stress corrosion cracking resistance: Duplex stainless steels show very good stress
corrosion cracking (SCC) resistance, a property they have “inherited” from the ferritic
side.
Cost: Duplex stainless steels have lower nickel and molybdenum contents than their
austenitic counterparts of similar corrosion resistance. Due to the lower alloying content,
duplex stainless steels can be lower in cost, especially in times of high alloy surcharges.
Additionally, it may often be possible to reduce the section thickness of duplex stainless
steel, due to its increased yield strength compared to austenitic stainless steel. The
combination can lead to significant cost and weight savings compared to a solution in
austenitic stainless steels.
After finalizing the selection of the series of Duplex Stainless Steel, it’s time to select the
specific grade of Duplex Stainless Steel. We have selected the following grades of duplex
steels:
2205/2507 Stainless Steel:

19
2205 and 2507 are widely used grades of duplex stainless steel. Due to their high strength
and corrosion resistance, they are often used in components like process piping for the
marine, chemical, oil, and gas industries.

3.2.1.1.1 Duplex 2205

Designated as UNS S32205 or DIN W.Nr. 1.4462, duplex 2205 is an austenitic & ferritic
two-phase Cr-Mo-Ni alloyed stainless steel which has a roughly mixed 1:1 ferrite and
austenite structure. It is the most widely used duplex stainless-steel grade and is
characterized by high-yield strength, double that of standard austenitic stainless-steel
grades. Piping components made from duplex 2205 have good fatigue strength, as well as
outstanding resistance to stress-corrosion cracking, crevice, pitting, and general corrosion
in severe environments. They are widely used in chemical processing, oil & gas piping,
marine & high chloride environments, pulp and paper industry, and food industry, etc.
Duplex 2205 materials can be furnished in the form of plates, bars, pipes, tubes, fittings,
flanges, and valves in accordance with relative standards such as ASTM A240, ASTM
A479, ASTM A484, ASTM A276, ASTM A789, ASTM A790, ASTM A182, etc.

3.2.1.1.1.1 Chemical Composition of Duplex 2205

Table 2 Chemical composition of Duplex 2205

Carbon ≤0.03
Manganese ≤2.00
Silicon ≤1.00
Phosphate ≤0.03
Sulfur ≤0.02
Chromium 21.0-23.0
Nickel 4.5-6.5
Molybdenum 2.5-3.5
Nitrogen 0.08-0.2

3.2.1.1.1.2 Mechanical Properties of Duplex 2205

20
Table 3 Mechanical Properties of Duplex 2205

Tensile Strength Yield Strength Elongation Rockwell Charpy V-Notch Imp

ksi.(Mpa) ksi. (Mpa) % Hardness mm-N/mm2 mm-
125(862) 90(621) 28 25C 1310 844

3.2.1.1.1.3 Manufacture, Heat treatment & Weldability

Duplex stainless steel 2205 can be manufactured from billets, bars, pipes, or tubes
through forging, bending, extruding, or pressing process. It has better formability than
that of the ferritic stainless-steel grades, but not quite as good as the austenitic stainless
steels. Duplex 2205 shall be solution-annealed at 1020-1100°C and then be quenched in
air or water quickly. 2205 duplex stainless steel can be readily welded with GTAW,
GMAW, plasma and SMAW welding methods. The alloy shall be welded without
preheating, followed by cooling to at least 300°F(150°C) between each step. A welding
procedure should be developed so that a ferrite content of 30-55% is present in the weld
fusion and heat affected zones of the final welding.

3.2.1.1.2 Duplex 2507

Alloy 2507 (UNS S32750) is a super duplex stainless steel with 25% chromium, 4%
molybdenum, and 7% nickel designed for demanding applications which require
exceptional strength and corrosion resistance, such as chemical process, petrochemical,
and seawater equipment. The steel has excellent resistance to chloride stress corrosion
cracking, high thermal conductivity, and a low coefficient of thermal expansion. The high
chromium, molybdenum, and nitrogen levels provide excellent resistance to pitting,
crevice, and general corrosion. Some common standards for this material used in different
manuals are:
ASTM/ASME ……… A240 – UNS S32750
EURONORM ………. 1.4410 – X2 Cr Ni MoN 25.7.4
AFNOR ………. Z3 CN 25.06 Az

3.2.1.1.2.1 Physical Properties

21
Denisty : 7800 kg /m3 – 0.28lb/¿3

Table 4 Physical properties of duplex 2507

Interval Thermal Resistivity Thermal Specific heat Young Shear

temp expansion µ (cm) conductivity (J.kg-1.k-1) modulus modulus
o
C (W.m-1.k-1) (Gpa)
20-100 13 90 17 450 200 75
20-100 13 92 18 500 190 73
20-200 13.5 100 19 530 180 70
20-300 14 105 20 560 170 67

3.2.1.1.2.2 Chemical Analysis

Table 5 Chemical Analysis of Duplex 2507

Carbon 0.020
Chromium 25
Nickel 7
Molybdenum 4.0
Nitrogen 0.27
Others 0.001

3.2.1.1.2.3 Mechanical Properties

Table 6 Mechanical Properties of Duplex 2507

0.2% Offset Yield Strength 80 ksi

ksi Ultimate Tensile Strength 116 ksi
0.1% Offset Yield Strength 0.2% 91 ksi
Elongation in 2 inches, % 15 %
Hardness Rockwell C 32
Impact Energy 74 ft – lbs

3.2.1.1.2.4 Room temperature Mechanical Properties

22
Table 7 Room temperature mechanical properties of Duplex 2507

Tensile Strength 800 to 100 MPa or 116 to 145 ksi

0.2 % proof stress 620 to 720 MPa or 90 to 105 ksi
Elongation % 25 %
Hardness 320 Hv10 or 32 HRC

23
3.3 High Density Polyethylene
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) or polyethylene high-density (PEHD) is a hard,
opaque, and extremely strong thermoplastic. High-Density Polyethylene is stronger than
standard polyethylene and known for its large strength to density ratio.
High Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE) is a thermoplastic polymer made from petroleum.
As one of the most versatile plastic materials around, HDPE plastic is used in a wide
variety of applications, including plastic bottles, milk jugs, shampoo bottles, bleach
bottles, cutting boards, and piping. Known for its outstanding tensile strength, HDPE
plastic has a high-impact resistance and melting point.

3.3.1 Properties
Flexible, weatherproof, good low temperature toughness (to -60'C), easy to process by
most methods, low cost, good chemical resistance.

3.3.1.1 Easily Meltable and Moldable:

One of the primary benefits of this plastic material comes from its inherent malleability.
With this in mind, HDPE in particular excels. Thanks to a high melting point, HDPE
remains rigid until very high temperatures. However, once it’s reached its melting point,
the plastic material can be quickly and efficiently molded for use across a variety of
unique applications including cutting boards, detergent bottles, milk jugs, food storage
containers, corrosion-resistant piping, geomembranes, plastic lumber, and so much more

3.3.1.2 Corrosion Resistance:

HDPE resists mold, mildew, and rotting, making it the ideal material for underground
piping used to deliver water. Long-lasting and weather-resistant, HDPE can be sterilized
by boiling, making it an ideal material for food and beverage containers. Additionally,
HDPE can withstand most strong mineral acids and bases and has excellent resistance to
naturally occurring chemicals found in soil. Moreover, the material is virtually
impervious to most common chemicals, water, solvents, acids, detergents, and cleaning
fluids

24
3.3.1.3 Large Strength-to-Density Ratio:
The density of HDPE can range from 0.93 to 0.97 g, although the density of HDPE is
only marginally higher than LDPE (low-density polyethylene). However, when under the
microscope, HDPE’s linear structure means the material has little branching, which offers
it stronger intermolecular forces and tensile strength than LDPE. It’s for this reason that a
60-gram HDPE container can safely carry over a gallon of liquid or roughly eight pounds
of weight.

3.3.1.4 Easily Recycled:

Considering how much plastic we use in our day-to-day lives, one of the most important
factors when deciding on a material is plastic recycling. Fortunately, HDPE plastic is
easily recyclable, helping keep non-biodegradable waste out of landfills, while helping
reduce plastic production by up to 50 percent! If you’re looking for a cost-effective,
environmentally responsible material, HDPE may be the plastic for you.

3.3.2 Why Use HDPE?

HDPE often replaces heavier materials which help companies and individuals alike
pursue sustainable and affordable manufacturing and project goals. Thanks to its high
malleability, rigid strength, and corrosion resistance. HDPE is the perfect combination of
strength, cost-efficiency, and environmental friendliness.
The polyethylene family of plastics consist of several grades, named according to their
density / molecular weight. The 3 standard grades normally used for a max pressure
rating of 10 bar is: PE4710, PE-100 and PE3608.
These 3 grades have a variety of different applications they are best suited to but do share
a lot of the same polyethylene characteristics.
Some of their shared characteristics include:
 Excellent chemical resistance
 Low water absorption
 Machinability
 Low economic cost

25
3.3.3 PE-4710
PE4710 is a grade of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) that is commonly used in
underground piping systems. It is a high-performance material that offers a number of
advantages over other grades of HDPE.
 High pressure rating: PE4710 has a higher-pressure rating than other grades of HDPE,
making it suitable for use in high-pressure applications. This is especially important for
underground water and sewer piping systems, where the pressure can be quite high.
 Chemical and corrosion resistance: PE4710 is highly resistant to chemicals and
corrosion. This makes it an ideal material for use in underground piping systems,
where it will be in contact with soil, water and other potential sources of corrosion. It
also exhibits excellent resistance to UV light, which is an important consideration for
underground piping systems that may be exposed to sunlight.
 High temperature resistance: PE4710 is able to maintain its integrity and strength even
in high temperature environments, which is important for underground piping systems
that may be exposed to high temperatures due to the surrounding soil.
 Flexibility: PE4710 is a very flexible material, which allows for easy installation and a
high degree of resistance to cracking and damage. This flexibility also makes it easier
to bend and shape the pipe to fit the contours of the underground environment, which
can help to reduce the need for additional fittings and connections.
 Long-term durability: PE4710 is known for its long-term durability, which means it
can withstand harsh conditions over long period of time, making it a cost-effective
solution for underground piping systems.
 High impact resistance: PE4710 has a high resistance to impact, which means it can
withstand heavy loads and impacts without breaking or cracking.
 High tensile strength: PE4710 has a high tensile strength, which means it can resist
stretching and pulling without breaking or tearing.
Overall, PE4710 is a versatile, high-performance material that is well-suited for use in
underground piping systems. It offers a combination of high-pressure rating, chemical
and corrosion resistance, high temperature resistance and flexibility, making it a great
choice for underground piping applications.

26
3.3.3.1 Physical Properties of PE-4710:
The specific physical properties of PE4710 can vary depending on the manufacturer and
the specific product. However, some typical physical properties of PE4710 include:

Table 8 Physical Properties of PE-4710

Property Test Typical Value Units

Material Designation PPI TR-4 PE4710 -
Cell Classification ASTM D3350 445574C -
Pipe Properties
Density ASTM D1505 0.96 g/cm3
Melt Index (190ºC / 2.16kg) ASTM D1238 0.08 – 0.15 g/10 min
HDB @ 73ºF (23ºC) ASTM D2837 1,600 psi
HDB @ 140ºF (60ºC) ASTM D2837 1,000 psi
HDS @ 73ºF (23ºC) PPI TR-4 1,000 psi
HDS @ 140ºF (60ºC) PPI TR-4 630 psi
Color – Carbon Black UV Stabilizer ASTM D3350 2 minimum %
Material Properties
Tensile Strength @ Yield (2 in/min) ASTM D638 3,400 – 4,000 psi
Elongation @ Break (2 in/min) ASTM D638 > 700 %
Flexural Modulus ASTM D790 110,000 – 160,000 psi
Hardness ASTM D2240 62 – 64 Shore D
PENT ASTM F1473 > 500 hrs
Thermal Properties
Thermal Expansion Coefficient ASTM D696 1.0 x 10-4 in/in/ºF
Brittleness Temperature ASTM D746 < -103 ºF
Vicat Softening Temperature ASTM D1525 255 ºF

27
3.3.4 PE-100
PE100 is a grade of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) that is considered to be the highest
strength and most flexible material available for underground piping systems. It is
commonly used for potable water and sewage systems.
One of the main advantages of PE100 is its high-pressure rating. It has a higher-pressure
rating than other grades of HDPE, making it suitable for use in high-pressure
applications. This is especially important for underground water and sewer piping
systems, where the pressure can be quite high.
PE100 is also highly resistant to chemicals and corrosion. This makes it an ideal material
for use in underground piping systems, where it will be in contact with soil, water, and
other potential sources of corrosion. It also exhibits excellent resistance to UV light,
which is an important consideration for underground piping systems that may be exposed
to sunlight.
PE100 is also known for its high flexibility and high resistance to crack propagation. It
offers a high degree of resistance to cracking and damage, which makes it easy to install
and can help to reduce the need for additional fittings and connections. This flexibility
also makes it easier to bend and shape the pipe to fit the contours of the underground
environment.
In addition, PE100 is also a good option for large diameter pipes, as it can be extruded in
large diameters without losing its strength and flexibility. This makes PE100 a suitable
choice for large-scale underground piping systems, such as water distribution networks
and sewage collection systems.
Overall, PE100 is a versatile, high-performance material that is well-suited for use in
underground piping systems. It’s high-pressure rating, chemical and corrosion resistance,
high flexibility, and high resistance to crack propagation make it a great choice for
underground piping applications, especially for potable water and sewage systems and
large diameter pipes.

3.3.4.1 Physical Properties of PE-100

The specific physical properties of PE100 can vary depending on the manufacturer and
the specific product. However, some typical physical properties of PE100 include:
 Density: PE100 has a density of 0.955 g/cm³.

28
 Melt Flow Rate (MFR): PE100 typically has a melt flow rate of 0.05 g/10 min to
0.25 g/10 min
 Tensile Strength at Yield: PE100 typically has a tensile strength at yield of greater
than 42 MPa (6,000 psi).
 Elongation at Break: PE100 typically has an elongation at break of greater than
600%.
 Notched Izod Impact Strength: PE100 typically has a notched Izod impact strength
of greater than 20 ft-lb/in.
 Environmental Stress Crack Resistance (ESCR): PE100 typically has an
Environmental Stress Crack Resistance (ESCR) greater than 1000 hrs.
 Hydrostatic Design Basis (HDB): PE100 typically has a Hydrostatic Design Basis
(HDB) of 1250 psi
 Hydrostatic Design Stress (HDS): PE100 typically has a Hydrostatic Design Stress
(HDS) of 800 psi

3.3.5 PE-3608
PE3608 is a grade of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) that is used for underground fuel
and chemical piping systems. It is known for its high resistance to chemicals and
corrosion, making it suitable for use with a wide range of fuels and chemicals.
One of the main advantages of PE3608 is its chemical resistance, which makes it suitable
for use with a wide range of fuels, chemicals and solvents. This is important for
underground piping systems that transport these types of fluids, as it helps to ensure that
the piping will not degrade or fail due to chemical exposure.
PE3608 is also highly resistant to corrosion. This makes it an ideal material for use in
underground piping systems, where it will be in contact with soil, water, and other
potential sources of corrosion. This feature is critical for underground piping systems that
are exposed to harsh environments, where the piping system must be able to withstand the
corrosive effects of the surrounding soil or water.
PE3608 is also known for its high flexibility and high resistance to crack propagation. It
offers a high degree of resistance to cracking and damage, which makes it easy to install
and can help to reduce the need for additional fittings and connections. This flexibility
also makes it easier to bend and shape the pipe to fit the contours of the underground
environment.
PE3608 is typically used in applications such as fuel and chemical storage, transfer and
distribution, waste water treatment and disposal, industrial processing, and underground
fire protection systems.

29
3.3.5.1 Physical Properties of PE-3608
The specific physical properties of PE3608 can vary depending on the manufacturer and
the specific product. However, some typical physical properties of PE3608 include:
 Density: PE3608 typically has a density of 0.955 g/cm³.
 Melt Flow Rate (MFR): PE3608 typically has a melt flow rate of 0.05 g/10 min to
0.25 g/10 min
 Tensile Strength at Yield: PE3608 typically has a tensile strength at yield of
greater than 42 MPa (6,000 psi).
 Elongation at Break: PE3608 typically has an elongation at break of greater than
600%.
 Notched Izod Impact Strength: PE3608 typically has a notched Izod impact
strength of greater than 20 ft-lb/in.
 Environmental Stress Crack Resistance (ESCR): PE3608 typically has an
Environmental Stress Crack Resistance (ESCR) greater than 1000 hrs.
 Hydrostatic Design Basis (HDB): PE3608 typically has a Hydrostatic Design
Basis (HDB) of 1250 psi
 Hydrostatic Design Stress (HDS): PE3608 typically has a Hydrostatic Design
Stress (HDS) of 800 psi.

3.3.6 Comparison b/w PE4710 and PE3608:

HDPE 4710 is an improved high-performance polyethylene compound for pressure pipe.
Compared to conventional pressure piping materials such as HDPE 3608, HDPE 4710
has several characteristics that significantly improve its performance.
HDPE 4710 has a higher density than HDPE 3608, as well as increased tensile strength,
stiffness, ductility, and resistance to fracture. These superior performance characteristics
enable HDPE 4710 pipe to operate at higher internal pressures with greater resistance to
chemical and environmental stresses and an increased lifespan.

3.3.6.1 Pressure Rating:

HDPE 4710 pipes with superior ductility, resistance to fracture, and increased
performance characteristics allow higher internal pressures than HDPE 3608 without
reducing service life. The increase in pressure rating is due to several factors.
HDPE 4710 has significantly higher requirements for test data quality, analysis, and
substantiation. HDPE 4710 is required to demonstrate ductility beyond 50 years, a
condition not required for other materials. Variations between lots are also reduced,
providing more consistent processing and reducing the extrusion quality variable as a
design factor component.

30
3.3.6.2 Slow Crack Growth:
Slow crack growth, or SCG, is the long-term failure mode for PE pressure piping
materials. SCG is not due to brittleness but from internal pressure stresses, which cause
cracks to develop and grow through the pipe wall. Testing of HDPE 4710 pipes has
shown that a transition to SCG takes four times longer than HDPE 3608.
SCG resistance is determined using PENT resistance testing, which empirically correlates
25 to 35 hours PENT SCG resistance to 100 years in pressure gas service. HDPE 3608 is
required to have a minimum SCG resistance of 10 hours, while HDPE 4710 must have at
least 500 hours PENT SCG resistance, a 50 to 1 increase. Current HDPE 4710 materials
exceed 10,000 hours of PENT SCG resistance.

3.3.6.3 Density:
HDPE 4710 has a higher density than HDPE 3608. This higher density directly relates to
an HDPE 4710 pipe’s increased tensile strength or its resistance to breaking under
tension. The increase in density and tensile strength also provides added stiffness and
improves the material’s resistance to chemicals.
HDPE 3608 with 2% carbon black have a density of 0.955 gm/cc compared to HDPE
4710 materials with 2% carbon black which have a density of 0.960 gm/cc. HDPE 4710
offers higher density, which results in improved tensile strength, better stiffness, and
better chemical resistance.

3.3.7 Selection of Grade PE-4710

Major reasons for selection of PE4710 is:
One of the main advantages of PE4710 is its high-pressure rating. It has a higher-pressure
rating than other grades of HDPE, making it suitable for use in high-pressure
applications. This is especially important for underground water and sewer piping
systems, where the pressure can be quite high.
PE4710 is also highly resistant to chemicals and corrosion. This makes it an ideal
material for use in underground piping systems, where it will be in contact with soil,
water and other potential sources of corrosion. It also exhibits excellent resistance to UV
light, which is an important consideration for underground piping systems that may be
exposed to sunlight.

31
PE4710 is also known for its high temperature resistance, which is a major advantage
when compared to other materials. The material is able to maintain its integrity and
strength even in high temperature environments, which is important for underground
piping systems that may be exposed to high temperatures due to the surrounding soil.
In addition, PE4710 is also a very flexible material, which allows for easy installation and
a high degree of resistance to cracking and damage. This flexibility also makes it easier to
bend and shape the pipe to fit the contours of the underground environment, which can
help to reduce the need for additional fittings and connections.
Overall, PE4710 is a versatile, high-performance material that is well-suited for use in
underground piping systems. It offers a combination of high-pressure rating, chemical
and corrosion resistance, high temperature resistance and flexibility, making it a great
choice for underground piping applications.

32
 Chapter 4
[Name of the Chapter]

4.1 Introduction
More chapters.

33
 Chapter 5
Conclusions

5.1 Summary
The last chapter should be “Conclusions”. It is ideally the fourth or fifth section of the
report. This chapter should include the aims and objectives of the project. It should also
summarize the important points in the previous chapters, and the findings and
achievements of your project. If possible, write some recommended future work on the
project based in your conclusions. Therefore, the last section of this chapter should
ideally be “Recommendations”. For example, you may provide recommendations by
discussing constraints of your project and ideas to eliminate them. You may also highlight
other possible investigations to improve the efficiency of your project. Use present
perfect tense to write the conclusions. The recommended two sections for the
Conclusions chapter are “Summary” and “Recommendations for Future Work”.
Do not use cross referencing, external references, or footnotes in the Conclusions chapter.
Make it a stand-alone chapter.

5.2 Recommendations for Future Work

Write details here.

34
 Appendix A
[Title of Appendix]

Include appendices, if applicable. Appendices should include the information that is not
the primary part of the main body of the project report. This means that if this information
is removed from the main body, it would not negatively affect the flow of ideas in the
main body of the report. For example, it may include long computer programming codes
while keeping a flow chart of the code in the main body of the report. It may also include
lengthy numerical data while keeping their graphs in the main body of the report.

If the project report has only one appendix, then the label of this chapter should be
“Appendix” (not “Appendix A”). To cite an appendix in the text, write full title of the
appendix that is “Appendix A”, “Appendix B”, etc. Each appendix should start from a
new page and should also include a short description of what is included in that appendix.

35
 References

Shepherd, D. G. (1956). Performance of one-row tube coils with thin-plate fins, low
velocity forced convection. Heating, Piping Air Cond, 28, 137-144.

36
 Glossary [Optional]

[Page at
which it
first
appeared]
Term Definition

Azimuth angle between North, measured clockwise around the Pg. 1

observer's horizon and sun
Zenith an imaginary point directly above the observer/system, Pg. 5
complement of altitude angle

37