D1, Human nutrition

Nutrition
- Nutrition are chemical substances in food that are used in the human body
- Nutrition are sometimes essential, due to the inability of our body to produce it on our own
- Several nutrients such as minerals, vitamins (chemically diverse carbon compounds needed in
small amounts that cannot be synthesized by the body), some amino acids, and some fatty
acids
- Malnutrition is a deficiency, imbalance, or excess of specific nutrients in someones diet
Energy in our diet
- Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins can be broken down into energy
- If energy from the foods is not enough, reserves of glycogen and fats can be metabolized
- Starvation are prolonged shortage of food up to the point where glycogen and fats are no
longer available that the body starts breaking down its own tissue
- Anorexia is a condition in which an individual does not eat, albeit the availability of foods
- Obesity is an excessive storage of fat in adipose tissue, due to taking more foods than needed
Energy content of a food
- Combustion can be used to measure the amounts of energy in a food
- The foods are being burned and temperature rise of the water is being recorded (along with
the amounts of water and mass of food)
Cholesterol and heart disease
- LDL is implicated in CHD
- Reducing dietary cholesterol has a small impact on reducing overall cholesterol, instead
consumption of saturated fats has been shown to increase LDL
- Genetic factors also play a role
Vitamin D deficiency in human
- Vitamin D allows calcium to be absorbed at a sufficient quantity
- Vitamin D deficiency lead to a disease known as osteomalacia
- Osteomalacia is an inadequate bone mineralization due to calcium not being deposited
- Vitamin D is found in fish, egg, dairy, and liver
- Vitamin D can be synthesized in the skin if UV light strikes the skin intensive enough
- The intensity of UV light during winter is too low
- The liver can store vitamin D
Vitamin C deficiency in human
- Ascorbic acid is needed for the synthesis of collagen fibers in many tissues
- Humans cannot synthesize it, so it must be taken dietarily
Phenylketonuria
- Phenylketonuria is when the level of phenylalanine in the blood is too high
- This is caused by a genetic mutations that prevents phenylalanine hydroxylase from being
synthesized sufficiently
- PKU is a genetic disorder that is caused by recessive allele
- The treatment of this disease is to eat phenylalanine rich foods such as meat, fish, nuts,
cheese, and beans at a low quantity
- Tyrosine supplementation might be necessary
- Fetus mother ensures that the concentration of phenylalanine is appropriate
- This is why phenylketonuria didn't developed until it reaches adulthood
- Phenylketonuria caused the brain and head to be reduced, causing mental retardation
Cholera
- Cholera is a disease caused by the infection of the gut with bacterium Vibrio Cholerae
- The bacteria releases toxins that can be absorbed by the body
- The toxins triggers the secretion of Cl- and HCO3- ions from the cell into the intestine
- Water will follow the concentration gradient, due to osmosis
- This can caused dehydration
Excessive stomach acid secretion
- The secretion of stomach acid is caused by proton pump
- These pumps donate H+ in turns of K ions from the stomach
- This makes the content of the stomach very acidic
- A naturally occurring mucus barrier protects the stomach lining
- In some people, the mucus barrier breaks, this condition is known as ulcers
- Circular muscle on top of the stomach can also be damaged and won’t prevent acid reflux
- This condition is often treated with proton-pump inhibitors
- Ulcers is caused by bacteria called Helicobacter pylori
- This is found out by using antibiotics that kills Helicobacter pylori
- Stress and excessive acid secretion is also known to cause ulcers

D.2, Digestion and absorbtion

Secretion of digestive juice
- There are 2 types of glands, exocrine (secretes substances to the lumen through a duct) and
endocrine (secretes hormones to the bloodstream)
- Exocrine cells can be identified by having many rER, golgi apparatus, and secretory vesicles
Gastric juice
- Is secreted by cells in epithelium that lines the stomach
- This creates and acidic environment inside the stomach
- This kills pathogen and allows hydrolysis reaction (such as pepsin)
- Pepsin for example is secreted by the chief cell of stomach informs of pepsinogen, which the
stomach acid converts to pepsin
- Gastric juice secretion is controlled by hormones and nerves
- When we smell food, our brain will send an impulse to parietal cells, which responds through
secreting acids (HCL)
- This is followed by releasing Na Cl which draws water to the stomach, forming gastric juice
- When food enter the stomach, our body sense the distension of the stomach, which causes
the endocrine glands cells in the wall of duodenum and stomach to secrete gastin (a hormones)
- Gastrin stimulates further secretion of acid by the parietal cell of the stomach and pepsinogen
by the chief cell
- Secretin and somatostatin inhibit gastrin secretion if the stomach is too acidic
Intestinal villi
- Microvilli, increases surface area for food absorption
- Mitochondria, allows food to be taken with active transport
Fibres
- Fibers ensures food passes through smoothly

D.3, Liver
Functions of liver
- Liver absorbs toxic substances from blood and converts it into less toxic or non toxic
substances
- Liver also breaks down erythrocytes (RBC)
- RBC has a lifespan of 3 months
- Kupffer cell is a special macrophage that is located in the sinusoids (capillaries in liver cell)
- Kupffer cell breaks down RBC and allows its components to be recycled
- The RBC contains hemoglobin, which is splitted into heme and globin (protein)
- Globins are hydrolysed to amino acids, which will be carried away in blood
- Iron is removed from the heme group, and extracts a yellow colored substance called bile
pigment (bilirubin)
- The iron is moved to bone marrow to create brand new RBC, and the bile is carried to liver
- Hepatocytes can also converts cholesterol into bile salts which is part of bile
- Bile is needed to emulsify fats droplets
- Plasma protein (protein in our blood) are mostly produced by the liver
- Liver is able to regulate the amounts of substance that circulates around the body because the
blood that enters the liver (through hepatic portal vein) has been circulating around the body
first, such as to the small intestine
- They enter the liver from hepatic portal vein through a fenestrated blood vessels called
sinusoids
- Glucose is regulated by hepatocytes, and minerals and vitamins are stored in liver when they
are in surplus
Blood flow in the liver
- Hepatic portal vein>sinusoids (wider, more porous, and thinner than capillaries)
- Hepatic artery > capillaries > sinusoids
- Sinusoids > wider vessels that branches from the hepatic vein
Jaundice
- Yellowing of the skin and eyes due to the accumulation of bilirubin
- Caused by various disorders
- In infants, jaundice can caused brain damage
- In adults, it causes itchiness

D.4, The heart

Cardiac muscle
- Electron micrograph shows junctions between cardiac muscle cells called intercalated disc
- Intercalated disk allows the movement of ions, which causes rapid conduction of electric signal
- Cardiac muscle is also packed with many mitochondria
- It has a branched shapes, which allows rapid contraction to happen
Cardiac cycle
- A small region located on the right atrium called sinoatrial (SA node), initiates the heartbeat
- Impulse generated by the SA node cannot pass through the ventricles directly, as it is blocked
by fibrous tissue
- Impulses will then travel to atrioventricular node, which the transmission of the impulse is
delayed for several seconds
- This allows atria to contract and emptied, before the ventricles contract
- The rest of the heart receives the impulse through purkinje fibers
Electrocardiogram
- The P waves is a small waves on the left side of the diagram that indicates the atrial systole
- The QRS waves is a huge waves on the middle of the diagram that indicates the ventricular
systole,
- The T waves, which is a slightly bigger waves than the P indicates the diastole of the ventricle

D.5, Endocrine gland and hormone

Hormones
- Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands into the bloodstream to the
target organs
- Hormones are either peptide or steroid based
- Steroid hormones enters the target cell by passing through the plasma membrane
- Then, they bind to the receptor protein in the cytoplasm of the target cell to form
hormone-receptor complex
- Peptide hormones do not enter the cell and only binds to the receptor on the plasma
membrane of the cell
Types of hormones
- Growth hormones is a peptide hormones that the pituitary gland secretes
- It stimulates synthesis of proteins, breakdown of fats, mineralization of bones, etc
- GH has been used by athletes to boost their performance
- Hypothalamus controls the secretion of hormones, by the pituitary gland that is located below it
- Milk secretion is controlled by prolactin (triggers the growth of mammary gland), which is
released by the anterior pituitary
- High levels of estrogen during pregnancy caused increased of prolactin
- Oxytocin is needed to let-down the milkxx`
Ion deficiency disorder (IDD)
- Iodine is needed for the synthesis of thyroxin hormones, which is released by thyroid gland
- Symptoms of IDD is swelling of thyroid gland in the neck

D.6, The lung

Lung tissue
- Lung tissue consist of one layer of pneumocyte
- Capillaries between the wall of alveoli is only permeable for RBC to pass through on single
- Epithelium forms the wall of alveolus and endothelial forms the capillary wall
Carbon dioxide transport
- Small amounts of CO2 is dissolved in the blood plasma, and most were bound to hemoglobin
- Carbon dioxide is transformed into hydrogencarbonate ions in RBC
- When CO2 diffuses to the RBC, it will combine with water to form carbonic acid, which
dissociates into hydrogen carbonate and hydrogen ions
- hydrogen carbonata moves out of RBC through active transport
- A carrier protein is employed to move chloride ion to the RBC to prevent charge imbalance

Controlling the ventilation rate

- The walls of aorta and arteries contains chemoreceptors that detect Ph of the blood
- When Ph decrease, because CO2 builds up, signals will be sent from chemoreceptors to the
respiratory control center
- The respiratory control center responds to this by increasing the ventilation rate