\

PHYSICAL SCIENCE
MODULE NO. 2

SHIELA A. FLORESCA, LPT

INSTRUCTOR
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction......................................................................................... 2
Module 1… ..........................................................................................3-7
Warm up Discussion… ............................................................. 3
Lecture .................................................................................... 4-6
Activity ................................................................................... 7

INTRODUCTION
Various philosophers and scientists contributed to the development of the modern concepts of
substances and atoms. Today matter is known to contain atoms that are composed of protons, electrons,
and neutrons. These sub atomic particles are found to contain more fundamental particles.

An atom is a complex arrangement of negatively charged electrons arranged in defined shells about a
positively charged nucleus. This nucleus contains most of the atom's mass and is composed of protons and
neutrons (except for common hydrogen which has only one proton). All atoms are roughly the same size.
A convenient unit of length for measuring atomic sizes is the angstrom (Å), which is defined as 1 x 10-
10
meters. The diameter of an atom is approximately 2-3 Å

At the end of the lesson the students should be able to:

1. Describe the ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the elements.
S11/12PS-IIIa-b-6
2. Describe the contributions of the alchemists to the science of chemistry
S11/12PS-IIIb-7
3. Point out the main ideas in the discovery of the structure of the atom and its subatomic particles
S11/12PS-IIIb-8
4. Cite the contributions of J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, Henry Moseley, and Niels Bohr to the understanding
of the structure of the atom
S11/12PS-IIIb-9
5. Describe the nuclear model of the atom and the location of its major components (protons, neutrons, and
electrons)
S11/12PS-IIIb-10

MARY THE QUEEN COLLEGE OF QUEZON CITY 2

PHYSICAL SCIENCE
 MODULE NUMBER: 2 (Atomic Structure)

WARM UP DISCUSSION

ACTIVITY : Hidden Words

Instructions: Find the hidden words inside the box of letters and encircle them. Use thewords you
found to match them with the guide sentences that follow.

A G B Y H N E D T E A F
T D E V O H E N R Y F R
O S D E J B P Q A S I I
M C G G L B L A N G U N
I J F D A A O S S K K G
C U A O S I Y D U U T T
W G O S D T Y U R T O D
E L E M E N T B A O S E
I Y T A W L I B N M A F
G K Y G C J R G I P E C
H K G A S K A T U N D L
T S D O Q R L R M I G O
Y D N P A E O E H A T K
N V B L A F P S R D R J
F D O T V U Y H T W G H

Guide Sentences:
DOWN
1. This is the term for the combined number of protons and neutrons.ANS: ________
2. This is what the heaviest elements are called. ANS: ________
3. This means that one part of a molecule is either more positively-charged ornegatively-charged,
to be discussed in Lesson 3.
ANS: _______
ACROSS
4. He was the one to fix Mendeleev’s periodic table of elements.ANS: ____
5. This is formed during the Big Bang, with Hydrogen as an example.ANS: _________
VOCABULARY

• Synthetic Elements: refers to the chemical elements formed in a laboratory throughcertain, man-
controlled processes.
• Transuranium Elements: these are elements heavier than Uranium.
• Isotopes: these are the same atoms with different number of neutrons.
• Atomic Number: this is the number of protons in an atom, pertaining to its identity.
• Atomic Weight: this is the number of protons and neutrons together of an atom.
• Periodic Trends: the chemical properties exhibited by the elements, reflected in the
periodic table through groups or families.

MARY THE QUEEN COLLEGE OF QUEZON CITY 3

PHYSICAL SCIENCE
 ` LECTURE
One of the first atomic theorists was Democritus, a Greek philosopher who lived in the fifth century BC.
Democritus knew that if a stone was divided in half, the two halves would have essentially the same properties as
the whole. Therefore, he reasoned that if the stone were to be continually cut into smaller and smaller pieces then; at
some point, there would be a piece which would be so small as to be indivisible. He called these small pieces of
matter "atomos," the Greek word for indivisible. Democritus, theorized that atoms were specific to the material which
they composed. In addition, Democritus believed that the atoms differed in size and shape, were in constant motion
in a void, collided with each other; and during these collisions, could rebound or stick together. Therefore, changes
in matter were a result of dissociations or combinations of the atoms as they moved throughout the void. Although
Democritus' theory was remarkable, it was rejected by Aristotle, one of the most influential philosophers of Ancient
Greece; and the atomic theory was ignored for nearly 2,000 years.

Another view was introduced by Empedocles (490-430 BCE) on the constituents of matter. He propose the
four elemental substances – earth, wind, fire, and air - that can mingle separate and reunite in different proportionsto
from different matter.

Early Atomic Theory

Although the idea of the atom was first suggested by Democritus in the fourth century BC, his suppositions were
not useful in explaining chemical phenomena, because there was no experimental evidence to support them. It was
not until the late 1700's that early chemists began to explain chemical behavior in terms of the atom. Joseph Priestly,
Antoine Lavoisier, and others set the stage for the foundation of chemistry. They demonstrated that substances could
combine to form new materials. It was the English chemist, John Dalton, who put the pieces of the puzzle together
and developed an atomic theory in 1803.

Dalton's atomic theory contains five basic assumptions:

• All matter consists of tiny particles called atoms. Dalton and others imagined the atoms that composed
all matter as tiny, solid spheres in various stages of motion.
• Atoms are indestructible and unchangeable. Atoms of an element cannot be created, destroyed,
divided into smaller pieces, or transformed into atoms of another element. Dalton based this
hypothesis on the law of conservation of mass as stated by Antoine Lavoisier and others around
1785.
• Elements are characterized by the weight of their atoms. Dalton suggested that all atoms of the
same element have identical weights. Therefore, every single atom of an element such as oxygen is
identical to every other oxygen atom. However, atoms of different elements, such as oxygen and
mercury, are different from each other.
• In chemical reactions, atoms combine in small, whole-number ratios. Experiments that Dalton and
others performed indicated that chemical reactions proceed according to atom to atom ratios which
were precise and well-defined
• When elements react, their atoms may combine in more than one whole-number ratio. Dalton used
this assumption to explain why the ratios of two elements in various compounds, such as oxygen and
nitrogen in nitrogen oxides, differed by multiples of each other.

John Dalton's atomic theory was generally accepted because it explained the laws of conservation of mass, definite
proportions, multiple proportions, and other observations. Although exceptions to Dalton's theory are now known,
his theory has endured reasonably well, with modifications, throughout the years.

MARY THE QUEEN COLLEGE OF QUEZON CITY 4

PHYSICAL SCIENCE
 LECTURE

Modern Atomic Theory: Models

In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electron by experimenting with a Crookes, or cathode ray, tube. He
demonstrated that cathode rays were negatively charged. In addition, he also studied positively charged particles in
neon gas. Thomson realized that the accepted model of an atom did not account for negatively or positively charged
particles. Therefore, he proposed a model of the atom which he likened to plum pudding. The negative electrons
represented the raisins in the pudding and the dough contained the positive charge. Thomson's model of the atom did
explain some of the electrical properties of the atom due to the electrons, but failed to recognize the positive charges
in the atom as particles.

In 1911, Ernest Rutherford, a former student of J.J. Thomson, proved Thomson's plum pudding structure incorrect.
Rutherford with the assistance of Ernest Marsden and Hans Geiger performed a series of experiments using alpha
particles. Rutherford aimed alpha particles at solid substances such as gold foil and recorded the location of the alpha
particle "strikes" on a fluorescent screen as they passed through the foil. To the experimenters’ amazement, although
most of the alpha particles passed unaffected through the gold foil as expected, a small number of particleswere
deflected at an angle, and a few ricocheted straight back. Rutherford concluded that the atom consisted of a small,
dense, positively charged nucleus in the center of the atom with negatively charged electrons surrounding it. The
discovery of the nucleus is considered to be Rutherford's greatest scientific work.

Modern Atomic Theory: Models

In 1913, Neils Bohr, a student of Rutherford's, developed a new model of the atom. He proposed that electrons are
arranged in concentric circular orbits around the nucleus. This model is patterned on the solar system and is known
as the planetary model. The Bohr model can be summarized by the following four principles:

1. Electrons occupy only certain orbits around the nucleus. Those orbits are stable and are called "stationary"
orbits.

2. Each orbit has an energy associated with it. The orbit nearest the nucleus has an energy of E1, the next
orbit E2, etc.

3. Energy is absorbed when an electron jumps from a lower orbit to a higher one and energy is emitted when
an electron falls from a higher orbit to a lower orbit.

4. The energy and frequency of light emitted or absorbed can be calculated by using the difference between
the two orbital energies.

MARY THE QUEEN COLLEGE OF QUEZON CITY 5

PHYSICAL SCIENCE
 LECTURE

In 1926 Erwin Schrödinger, an Austrian physicist, took the Bohr atom model one step further. Schrödinger used
mathematical equations to describe the likelihood of finding an electron in a certain position. This atomic model is
known as the quantum mechanical model of the atom. Unlike the Bohr model, the quantum mechanical model does
not define the exact path of an electron, but rather, predicts the odds of the location of the electron. This model can
be portrayed as a nucleus surrounded by an electron cloud. Where the cloud is most dense, the probability of finding
the electron is greatest, and conversely, the electron is less likely to be in a less dense area of the cloud. Thus, this
model introduced the concept of sub-energy levels.

Until 1932, the atom was believed to be composed of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged
electrons. In 1932, James Chadwick bombarded beryllium atoms with alpha particles. An unknown radiation was
produced. Chadwick interpreted this radiation as being composed of particles with a neutral electrical charge and the
approximate mass of a proton. This particle became known as the neutron. With the discovery of the neutron, an
adequate model of the atom became available to chemists.

Since 1932, through continued experimentation, many additional particles have been discovered in the atom. Also,
new elements have been created by bombarding existing nuclei with various subatomic particles. The atomic theory
has been further enhanced by the concept that protons and neutrons are made of even smaller units called quarks.
The quarks themselves are in turn made of vibrating strings of energy. The theory of the composition of the atom
continues to be an ongoing and exciting adventure.

MARY THE QUEEN COLLEGE OF QUEZON CITY 6

PHYSICAL SCIENCE
 ACTIVITY NO.
NAME: ADVISER:
GRADE AND SECTION: CONTACT NUMBER:

I. Answer the following.

1. Compare and contrast each pair of terms.

a. electron and proton

b. proton and neutron

c. atomic number and atomic mass

2. Give the contribution of the following scientist to the establishment of the nature of an atom.

a. J.J. Thompson

b. Ernest Rutherford

c. Henry Moseley

d. Neil Bohr.

3. Describe the key features of the following atomic models.

a. Thomspson’s atomic model

b. Rutherford’s atomic model

c. Bohr’s planetary model

d. Quantum mechanical model

MARY THE QUEEN COLLEGE OF QUEZON CITY 7

PHYSICAL SCIENCE