Operating Systems Concept o Provide user communication

 User issues commands to

Operating Systems
operating system
 Manage computer system o Unique to each operating system
hardware and software  May vary between versions
o Essential manager provide support
This text explores:
 What they are
 How they are
 What they do
 Why they do it
This chapter describes:
 How operating systems
works
 The evolution of operating
system
What is an Operating System?
 Computer System (Figure 1.1) this model of a non-networked
o Software (programs) operating system shows four subsystem managers
o Hardware (Physical machine and supporting the User command Interface.
electronic components)
 Each manager:
 Operating System
o Works closely with other managers
o Part of computer system (software)
o Performs a unique role
o Manages all hardware and software
 Manager tasks
 Controls every file, device,
o Monitor it’s resource continuously
section of main memory and
o Enforce policies determining:
nanosecond of processing
time  Who get what, when, and
 Controls who can use the how much
system o Allocate the resource (when
 Controls how system is used appropriate)
o Deallocate the resource (when
Operating System Software appropriate)
 Includes four essential subsystem managers
o Memory Manager
o Processor Manager
o Device Manager  Network Manager
o File Manager o Operating systems with networking
 Network Manager capability
o In all modern operating systems o Fifth essential manager
o Assumes responsibility for o Convenient way for users to share
networking tasks resources
o Discussed further in chapter 9 & 10 o Retains user access control
 User Command Interface  Resource include:
 o Hardware (CPUs, memory areas,
printers, tape drives, modems, and
disk drives)
o Software (compilers, application
programs, and data files)
Device Management
(figure 1.2) networked systems have a network
manager that assumes responsibility for networking
tasks while working harmoniously with every other
manager.
File Management
Main Memory Management
 In charge of main memory
o Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Responsibilities Include:
o Preserving space in main memory
occupied by operating system
o Checking validity and legality of
memory space request
o Setting up memory tracking table
 Tracks usage of memory by
sections
 Needed in multiuser
environment
o Deallocating memory to reclaim it
Cooperation Issues
Processor Management
 In charge of allocating Central Processing
Unit (CPU)
 Tracks process status
o An instance of program execution
 Two levels of responsibility:
o Handle jobs as they enter the system
 Handled by Job scheduler
o Manage each process within those
jobs
 Handled by Process
Scheduler
 In charge of monitoring all resources
o Devices, channels, and control units
 Responsibilities include:
o Choosing most efficient resource
allocating method
 Printer, ports, disk drives, etc.
 Based on scheduling policy
o Allocating the device
o Starting device operation
o Deallocating the device
 In charge of tracking every file in the system
o Data files, program files, compilers,
application programs
 Responsibilities include:
o Enforcing user/program resource
access policies
 Uses predetermined access
policies
o Controlling user/program
modification restrictions
 Read-only, read-write, create,
delte
o Allocating resource
 Opening the file
 Deallocating file (by closing
it)
 Essential Manager
o Perform individual task and
o Harmoniously interact with other
managers
 Requires incredible precision
o No single manager performs tasks in
isolation
o Network manager
  Convenient way to share
resources
 Controls user access
(figure 1.3) Each subsystem manager at the base of
the pyramid takes responsibility for its own tasks
while working harmoniously with every other
manager.
A Brief History of Machine Hardware
 Hardware: Physical machine and electronic
components
o Main Memory (RAM)
 Data/Instruction storage and
execution
o Input/Output devices (I/O devices)
 All peripheral devices in
system
 Printers, disk drives,
CD/DVD drives, flash
memory, and keyboards.
o Central processing unit (CPU)
 Control interpretation and
execution of instructions
 Controls operation of
computer system
(figure 1.4) A logical view of typical computer
system hardware configuration. The tower holds the
Central Processing Unit, the arithmetic and logic
unit, register, cache, and main memory, as well as
controllers and interfaces shown within the dotted
lines
 Computer classification
o By capacity and price (until mid-
1970s)
 Mainframe
o Large machine
 Physical size and internal
memory capacity
o Classic Example: 1964 IBM 360
model 30
 CPU required 18 square-foot
air-conditioned room
 CPU size: 5 feet high x 6 feet
wide
 Internal memory: 64k
 Price: $200,000 (1964
dollars)
 Minicomputer
o Developed for smaller institutions
o Compared to mainframe
o Smaller in size and memory capacity
 Cheaper
o Example: Digital Equipment Corp.
minicomputer
  Price: less than
 Today
o Known as midrange computers
o Capacity between microcomputers
and mainframes
 Supercomputer
o Massive machine
o Developed for military operations
and weather forecasting
o Example: Cray supercomputer
 6 to 1000 processors
 Performs up to 2.4 trillion
floating-point operations per
second (teraflops)
 Uses:
o Scientific research
o Customer support/product
development
 Microcomputer
o Developed for single users in the late
1970s
o Example: microcomputer by Tandy
Corporation and Apply Computer,
Inc.
 Very little memory (by
today’s standards)
 64K maximum capacity
 Microcomputer’s distinguishing
characteristic
o Single-user status
 Workstations
o Most powerful microcomputers
o Developed for commercial,
educational, and government
enterprises
o Networked together
o Support engineering and technical
users
 Massive mathematical
computations
 Computer-aided design
(CAD)
o Applications
 Requiring powerful CPUs,
large main memory, and
$18,000 extremely high-resolution
graphic displays
 Servers
o Provide specialized services
 To other computers or
client/server networks
 Perform critical network task
 Examples:
 Print servers
 Internet servers
 Mail servers
 Advances in computer technology
o Dramatic Changes
 Physical size, cost, and
memory capacity
o Networking
 Integral part of modern
computer systems
o Mobile society information delivery
 Creating strong market for
handled devices
o New Classification
 By processor capacity, not
memory capacity
o Moore’s Law
 Computing power rises
exponentially
(table 1.1) a brief list of platforms and sample
operating systems (listed here in alphabetical
order).
Types of Operating Systems
 Five categories
o Batch
  Input relied on punched cards  Perform specific set
or tape of programs
 Efficiency measured in  Not interchangeable
throughput among systems
 Small kernel and
flexible function
o Interactive capabilities
 Faster turnaround than batch  Two distinguishing features
systems o Response time
 Slower than real-time o How data enters into the system
systems  1940s: First generation
 Introduced to provide fast o Computer based on vacuum tube
turnaround when debugging technology
programs o No standard operating system
 Time-sharing software
software
developed for operating
o Typical program included every
system
instruction needed by the computer
o Real-time
to perform the tasks requested
 Reliability is key
o Poor machine utilization
 Fast and time limit sensitive
 CPU processed data and
 Used in time-critical
performed calculations for
environments
fraction of available time
 Space flights, airport
o Early programs
traffic control, high-
 Designed to use the resources
speed aircraft
conservatively
 Industrial processes
 Understandability is not a
 Sophisticated medical priority
equipment
 Distribution of
electricity
 Telephone switching
 Must be 100% responsive,
100% of the time
o Hybrid
 Combination of batch and
interactive
 Accept and run batch
programs in the background
 Interactive load is
light
o Embedded
 Computer placed inside other
products
 Adds features and capabilities (figure 1.7) Dr. Grace Hopper’s research journal
 Operating system from her work on harvard’s Mark I computer in
requirements 1945 included the remains of the first computer
“bug,” a moth that had become trapped in the
computer’s relays causing the system to crash. The
term is still in use today.
 1950s: second generation
o Focused on cost effectiveness
o Computer we’re expensive
 IBM 7094: $200,000
o Two widely adopted improvements
 Computer operators: humans
hired to facilitate
 Concept of job scheduling:
group together programs with
similar requirements
o Expensive time lags between CPU
and I/O devices
o I/O device speed gradually became
faster
 Tape drives, disk, and drums
o Record blocked before retrieval or
storage
o Access methods developed
 Added to object code by
linkage editor
o Buffer between I/O and CPU
introduced
 Reduced speed discrepancy
o Timer interrupts developed
 Allowed job-sharing
 1960s: third generation
o Faster CPUs
o Speed caused problems with slower
I/O devices
o Multiprogramming
 Allowed loading many
programs at one time
o Program scheduling
 Initiated with second-
generation systems
 Continues today
o Few advances in data management
o Total operating system customization
 Suit user’s needs
 1970s
o Faster CPUs
o Speed caused problems with slower
I/O devices
o Main memory physical capacity
limitations
 Multiprogramming schemes
used to increase CPU
 Virtual memory developed to
solve physical limitation
o Database management software
 Became a popular tool
o A number of query systems
introduced
o Programs started using English-like
words, modular structures, and
standard operations.
(figure 1.9) The Cray I supercomputer introduce in
1976 boasted 8 mb main memory and a world-
record of 160 million floating-point operations per
second. Its circular design meant that no wire was
more than 4 feet (1.2 meters) long
 1980s
o Cost/performance ratio improvement
of computer components
o More flexible hardware (firmware)
o Multiprocessing
 Allowed parallel program
execution
o Evolution of personal computers
o Evolution of high-speed
communication
 o Distributed processing and  High-speed network
networked systems introduced attachments
 1990s  Increased number and variety
o Demand for internet capability of storage devices
 Sparked proliferation of o Virtualization
networking capability  Single server supports
 Increased networking different operating systems
 Increased tighter security
Threads
demands to protect hardware
and software  Multiple actions executing simultaneously
o Multimedia applications o Heavyweight process (conventional
 Demanding additional power, process)
flexibility, and device  owns the resources
compatibility for most  passive element
operating systems o lightweight process (thread)
 uses CPU and scheduled for
execution
 active element
o Multithreaded applications programs
 Contain several threads
running at one time
 Same or different priorities
 Examples: web browsers and
time-sharing systems
Object-Oriented Design
 Driving force in system architecture
improvements
o Kernel (operating system nucleus)
o Kernel reorganization
 Memory resident: Process
scheduling and memory
(figure 1.10) illustration from the first page of the allocation
1989 proposal by tim Berners-Lee describing his  Modules: all other functions
revolutionary “linked information system.” Based o Advantages
on this research, he designed the first world wide  Modification and
web servers and browser, making it available to the customization without
general public in 1991. disrupting integrity of the
remainder of the system
 Software development
 2000s
o Primary design features support:
 Multimedia applications
 Internet and web access
 Client/server computing
o Computer systems requirements
 Increased CPU speed

(figure1.13.) early operating system (a) loaded in
their entirely into main memory. Modern object-
oriented system (b) load only the critical elements
into main memory and call other object as needed.
Operating System Fundamentals
The three Elements of an OS
 User Interface – The part of the OS that
you interface with.
 Kernel – The core of the OS. Interacts with
BIOS (at one end), and the UI (at the other
end).
 File management System – Organizes and
manages files.
Operating System Functions
 File management
 Application Management
 Built-in Utility Programs
 Control of Computer Hardware
Operating System Types
 Multiuser – Two or more users work with
the computer at the same time
 Multitasking – Two or more processes
running at the same time.
 Multithreading – Two or more parts of the
same process running at the same time.
PC Operating Systems
 Microsoft Windows
 Macintosh OS
 Linux
MS Windows Versions
 Home (Non-Professional) Versions
o Windows 95
o Windows 98
o Windows Me
 Professional (Business) versions
o Windows NT
o Windows 2000
 The Two Lines Came Together in
o Windows XP (2001)
Disk Operating System (DOS)
 The first PC Operating System (1981)
 Not a multitasking OS, only one program
could run at a time
 A command-line interface, no GUI.
 Early versions of Windows sat on top of
DOS and used it to communicate with the
BIOS.
 Windows XP communicates directly with
the BIOS, but allows commands to be
entered via a command prompt.
File System
 A file is a collection of bytes of information
treated as a single unit.
 It is given a name to make it easy to find and
use later.
 The file system keeps track of where a file is
actually resident on a disk.
 A disk (hard disk, floppy, optical disk) is
subdivided into directories or folders.
 The top level folder on a disk is known as
the root
 The root is generally subdivided into
subfolders.
 Any folder or subfolder can contain files and
other folders.
 The fully-qualified filename includes the
name of the file and the path to the folder in
which it resides:
Windows Registered File Types
  A particular file extension can be registered
and associated with a particular program.
o .docx files are associated with MS
Word
o .xlsx files are associated with MS
Excel
o .txt files are associated with notepad
o .html files are associated with IE
 This how windows know what to do when
you double click a file in My Computer.
File Attributes
 Each file has four attributes which can be
viewed or set.
o Read only – file may be viewed,
copied, executed (if appropriate), but
not changed. It can be deleted.
o Hidden – file will not be displayed in
normal list of files.
o System – file is identified to belong
to system, should not be messed
with.
o Archive – file is (or is not 0) a
candidate for backup.
DOS commands
 Two types – Internal and External
o Internal commands are resident in
the main kernel file: command.com
(or cmd.exe)
o External commands are separate
little programs.
 It’s important to learn DOS commands
because you can write scripts to execute a
set of commands automatically.
DOS wild characters
 The Character ? and * can be used to affect
multiple files with a single command.
o The ? means any single character.
 Copy c:\temp\notes??.doc d:\temp
 Means copy any word file that begins with
the word “notes” with exactly two other
characters, like “notes01.doc”,
“notesAB.doc”, etc.
 The “*” wild card replaces any number of
characters.
 Copy c:\temp\notes.* d:\temp (copy all files
with the name “notes” and any extension.)
 Copy *. Doc c:\temp
 (copy all files with a “doc” extension in the
current directory.)
At the Command Prompt
 A drive letter and a “:” (e.g. “f:”) makes that
your current drive.
 CD (Change Directory)
o cd (with no parameters) reminds you
what the current directory is.
o Cd .. moves you to the parent of the
current directory (up one level).
o Cd \ moves you to the root of the
current drive.
o Cd <some directory> makes that
your current directory.
DOS commands
 MD – Make Directory
 RD – Remove a directory or an entire
directory tree.
 DIR – Display the contents of a directory.
 DEL (or ERASE) – Deletes one or more
files.
  COPY – Places a copy of file(s) in a
different folder.
 XCOPY – Flexible copy commands used
for copying large groups of files, commonly
used for file backup.
 DATE and TIME – display & set the
current date & time in the PC.
 TYPE – Displays the contents of a text file.
IT Infrastructure: Hardware and Software
Computer Hardware
Infrastructure Components
 IT infrastructure: provides platform for
supporting all information systems in the
business
o Computer hardware
o Computer software
o Data management Technology
 Organize, Manage, and
processes business data
concerned with inventory,
customer and vendors
o Network and Telecommunications
technology
o Technology services
Figure 4.1: A firm’s IT infrastructure is composed
of hardware, software, data management
technology, networking technology, and technology
services.
Moore’s Law
 Moore’s Law predicts the number of
transistors fitting on a computer chip will
double every one and half to two years.
 This prediction about density also captures
advances in processing speed, storage
capabilities, cost, and other components
features.
 Processing power and speed and storage
capabilities have increased exponentially as
the cost of computing devices has decreased.
Types of computers
 Computers come in different sizes with
varying capabilities for processing
information.
o FLOPS (floating point operation per
seconds)
 Smartphones, netbooks, e-book readers
o Today’s smartphones are far more
powerful than the early PCs of the
1980s
 PCs
 Workstations
o More powerful mathematical and
graphics-processing capabilities than
a PC
o Used primarily for advanced design
or engineering work requiring
powerful graphics or computational
capabilities
 Servers
o Type of midrange computer
o Support computer network, sharing
files and resources.
o Provide hardware platform for e-
commerce.
 Mainframes:
o Large-capacity, high-performance
computer that can process large
amounts of data very rapidly
 o E.g., by airlines for thousands of
reservations per seconds
o Mainframes are still a major revenue
and profit source for IBM, one of the
last large-scale commercial
manufacturers of mainframe
computers.
 Supercomputer:
o More sophisticated computer used
for tasks requiring extremely rapid
and complex calculations with
thousands of variables, millions of
measurements
o Used in engineering, scientific
simulations, military/weapons
research, weather forecasting
 Grid Computing
o power of geographically remote
computers connected into single
network to act as “virtual
supercomputer”
 Client/server computer
o Form of distributed computing
o Splits processing between “clients”
and “servers”
o Clients: user point of entry
 The user generally interacts
directly only with the client
portion of the application,
often to input data or retrieve
data for further analysis
o Servers: Store and process shared
data and perform network
management activities
Client/Server Computing
Figure 4.2: in client/server computing, computer
processing is split between client machines and
server machines linked by a network Users
interface with the client machines.
Storage, Input, and Output Technology
 Primary secondary storage technologies
o Magnetic disk:
 Hard drives, USB flash
drives
 RAID: can package hundreds
of drives for massive storage
requirements
o Optical Disks
 CD-ROM, CD-RW, DVD
o Magnetic tape
o Storage networking:SANS
 Connect multiple storage
devices on separate high-
speed network dedicated to
storage
 Input devices:
o Gather data and convert them into
electronic form.
 Keyboard, computer mouse,
touch screen, optical
character recognition,
magnetic ink character
recognition, pen-based input,
digital scanner, audio input,
sensors.
 Output devices:
o Display data after they have been
processed.
o Monitor
o Printer
o Audio output
 Information systems collect and process
information in one of two ways.
o Batch processing: transaction stored
for predefined amount of time, then
processed as group
o Online processing: Transaction
processed immediately
Contemporary Hardware Trends
 The emerging mobile digital platform
 o Based on new handheld hardware  Accessible via standard web browser with
like cellphones, netbooks, and tablet behind-the-scene software updates
computers. A new “platform.”  Better scalability, eliminate cost and
o Wireless communication through 3G complexity of managing multiple layers of
cell networks and WI-Fi. hardware and software
o New software apps.
Cloud Disadvantages
 Nanotechnology:
o Uses individual atoms and molecules  May not be attractive to larger companies
to create computer chips and other for their application needs
devices that are thousands of times  Responsibility of data storage and control is
smaller than current technologies in the hands of the provider
permit.  Security risks may increase and open
 Cloud Computing vulnerabilities to data maintenance
o A model of computing in which  System reliability issues
firms and individuals obtain  Users dependency on the cloud computing
computing resources over the provider
internet
o Cloud Infrastructure as a service
 Customer use processing,
storage, networking, and
other computing resources
from cloud service providers
to run their information
systems.
o Cloud platform as a service
 Customers use infrastructure
and programming tools
hosted by the service
provider to develop their own
applications.
o Cloud software as a service
 Customer use software hosted
by the vendor.
Figure 4.6: in cloud computing, hardware and software
Cloud Advantages capabilities are provided as services over the internet.
Businesses and employees have access to application
 Eliminates needs for large up-front capital and IT Infrastructure anywhere at any time using an
investment in systems internet-connected device.
 Eliminates lengthy implementations on
Virtualization
corporate computers
 Low cost subscriptions; no expensive  Autonomous computing
licensing and maintenance fees o Development of systems that can
 No hardware for subscribers to purchase, configure themselves, heal the
scale, and maintain themselves; e.g., self-updating antivirus
software
 No operating systems, database servers or
 Process of presenting a set of computing
applications servers to install
resources so they can be accessed in ways that
 No consultants and staff are unrestricted by physical configuration or
geographical location
  Server virtualization: running more than one
operating system at the same time on single
machine.
Multicore processors
 Integrated circuit with two or more processors
 Enchanced performance, reduced power
consumption, and more efficient simultaneous
processing of multiple tasks
Operating System Software
 The software that manages and controls the
computer’s activities
 PC operating systems and graphical user
interfaces
o GUIs
o Windows XP, Windows vistal, and
Window Servers 2003
o UNIX
o LINUX
 Open-source software
The major types of software
Software for the web: Java, AJAX and HTML
 Java
o Operating system-independent,
processor-independent, object-
oriented programming language
 AJAX
o Allows a client and server to
exchange data behind the scenes to
avoid reloading a web page after
each change
 HTML
o Page description language for
specifying how elements are placed
on a web page and for creating how
elements are placed on a web page
and for creating links to other pages
and objects
WEB 2.0
 Web services:
o Software components that exchange
information with one another using
universal web communication
standards and languages
 XML (extensible markup language)
o SOAP (simple object access
protocol)
o WSDL (web services description
language)
o UDDI (universal description,
discovery, and integration)
 Service Oriented architecture (SOA)
o In a service-oriented architecture,
various application provide
“services” (data) on request to other
applications needing data.
How dollar rent-a-car uses web services
Software trends
 Open Source Software
 o Linux, Apache
 Cloud Computing
o Google apps, office web apps
 Mashups
o Are web application that combine
content or data from multiple
 Software as a service (SaaS)
o Salesforce.com
Managing Hardware and Software Technology
 Capacity planning
o Process of predicting when hardware
system becomes saturated
o Ensuring firm has enough computing
power for current and future needs
o Factor include:
 Maximum number of users
 Impact of current, future
software
 Performance measures
 Minimum response
time for processing
business transactions.
 Scalability: ability of system to expand to
serve large number of users without
breaking down
Strategies for creating and deploying software
 Commercial off-the-shelf software
solutions are ready-made and available for
licensing or sale to the general public
o Off-the-shelf software systems that
cannot be modified to meet the
specific needs of a particular
organization are sometimes called
turn-key systems or software
 Custom software development describes
how an organization develops and builds
software tailored specifically to its needs.
 Using technology service providers
o Outsourcing
 Using external provider to:
 Run network
 Host, manage web sites.
 Develop software (offshore
software outsourcing)
 Manage IT infrastructure
o Requires service level agreements
(SLAs)
 A formal contracts between
customer and service
providers that define the
specific responsibilities of the
service provider and the level
of service expected by the
customer.
Advantages of outsourcing
 Allows a business to concentrate on its core
competencies rather than focusing on
technology issues.
 Instead of purchasing all the necessary
hardware and software for hosting a web
site, a business can use a web hosting
service that maintains a large web server
Using cloud services
 Small businesses “rent” infrastructure from
another firm to avoid expenses of
maintaining hardware and software on their
own.
 Amazon markets
Managing mobile platforms
 Balancing gains in productivity from using
mobile devices with expenses of equipping
employees with these devices
o TCO for wireless devices ranges
from $1000 to $3000
Managing software localization for global
business
 Local language interfaces
o English not typically standard at
middle, lower levels
o Interfaces are complex: menu bars,
error messages, online forms, search
results, and so on
o Differences in local culture
o Differences in monetary structure
o Differences in business processes