Heat Generation in Electron Beam Welding

Introduction:
Electron Beam Welding is a welding process utilizing heat generated by a beam of high-
energy electrons. The electrons strike the workpiece and their kinetic energy converts into
thermal energy heating the metal so that the edges of the workpiece are fused and joined
together forming a weld after Solidification.
Electron-beam welding was developed by the German physicist Karl-Heinz Steigerwald in
1949, who was at the time working on various electron-beam applications. Steigerwald
conceived and developed the first practical electron-beam welding machine, which began
operation in 1958. American inventor James T. Russell has also been credited with designing
and building the first electron-beam welder.

The process is carried out in a vacuum chamber at a pressure of about 2*10-7 to 2*10-6 psi
(0.00013 to 0.0013 Pa). Such a high vacuum is required to prevent the loss of the energy of
the electron in collisions with air molecules. The electrons are emitted by a cathode (electron
gun). Due to a high voltage (about 150 kV) applied between the cathode and the anode the
electrons are accelerated up to 30% - 60% of the speed of light. The kinetic energy of the
electrons becomes sufficient for melting the targeted weld. Some of the electron’s energy
transforms into X-ray irradiation.

Electrons accelerated by an electric field are then focused into a thin beam in the focusing
coil. The deflection coil moves the electron beam along the weld. Electron Beam is capable
of welding workpieces with thicknesses from 0.0004” (0.01 mm) up to 6” (150 mm)
of steel and up to 20” (500 mm) of aluminum. Electron Beam Welding may be used for
joining any metals including metals, which are hardly weldable by other welding methods:
refractory metals (tungsten, molybdenum, niobium) and chemically active metals (titanium,
zirconium, beryllium). Electron Beam Welding is also able to join dissimilar metals.

Characteristics of Electron Beam Welding:

The principle of Electron Beam Welding is very similar to that of Electron Beam Machining.
The Electron Beam Machine is made up of three major components that may have separate
vacuum chambers. They are as follows:
 Beam Generation
 Beam Manipulation
 Forming and Working Chamber
Beam Generation
In this procedure, the electrons are produced by passing current to the electron gun (Cathode)
and heating it to 2000℃ in a vacuum chamber. The electron gun operates at high voltages in
the order of 60kV to 150kV to accelerate the electrons. The electrodes geometry here within
the inter-electrode space defines the electron trajectory. In between the cathode and the anode
is a modulating electrode known as the Wehnelt cylinder, which regulates the electron flow.
As the electrons pass through the anode, the electron beam converges and continues to move
by inertia as it slowly diverges. In this manner, the anode forms the electron jet by
accelerating the electrons.
Beam Manipulation
The necessary power density is obtained by the electron beam for welding by passing it
through the adjacent alignment and focusing system. The alignment and focusing system
consist of a deflection coil and a stigmata coil. The deflection coil facilitates maintaining the
oscillating motion of the electron beam. The deflecting coils are then used to focus the
electron beam at the required spot. This unit directs a high-velocity electron beam to the weld
cavity where its kinetic energy converts into high energy due to collision. The stigmata coil
helps rectify any aberrations of the magnetic lenses. The electron beam is then directed
towards the magnetic lenses. These are a series of lenses that are used to absorb a series of
electrons and also do not allow a divergent electron to pass through it.
Forming and Working Chamber
Each accelerated electron in an electron beam stores kinetic energy. While the kinetic energy
stored in an individual electron is not very significant, in mass they can contribute to a very
large amount of kinetic energy. Since electrons transfer their energy into a very thin layer of
solid, the power density of the electron beam can be very high in the order of 104 to 107
W/mm2. When the electron beam strikes the workpiece, the huge amount of kinetic energy
developed within the accelerating electrons is converted into heat energy of the order of 105
to 107 W/mm2. It has been identified that the heat energy produced from the kinetic energy of
the fast-moving electrons is sufficient to melt the workpiece metals at the joint and fuse them
as shown below.

Schematic Diagram of Electron Beam Welding

One of the most incisive characteristics of the Electron Beam Welding process is its operating
environment in a vacuum. There are majorly three reasons why the Electron Beam Welding
process must be conducted in a High-Vacuum environment. The First reason is rust. Many
metals will oxidize, rust, or even burn when heated to a higher temperature in a normal
atmosphere. The oxygen from the air reacts with the metal to form oxides. This weakens the
weld and possibly damages the base metal. In the case of other welding techniques such as
the TIG welding process or MIG welding process, an inert gas generally argon is used to
shield the weld until it cools to prevent this problem. The second reason is due to the
presence of atmospheric particles. The electron beam is made up of millions of fast-moving
electrons. Each electron weighs less than one ten-thousandth of what a Nitrogen or an
Oxygen atom weighs. If an electron were to strike any of these atoms, it would result in a
deviation from its path and thus a loss in energy due to the collision. Hence, the electron
beam will no longer be localized but rather scattered. The Third reason is lightning. The
electric gun works by accelerating electrons to obscenely fast speeds. It does this by pulling
the electrons using a strong electric charge measured in thousands of volts. This electric
potential is so high that it will create electrical arcs between the electron emitter and the
acceleration grid. These arcs can pose a high risk of safety to the welder or the operator. As a
result, the Electron Beam Welding process is conducted in High-Vacuum to prevent arcing.
There are majorly three vacuum levels in Electron Beam Welding. They are as follows.
a) High-Vacuum welding – Here welding occurs in the same vacuum chamber as Beam
Generation to produce the highest quality welds. These are extremely expensive mainly due
to operating and maintenance costs.
b) Medium-Vacuum welding – The idea of this welding is to reduce pump downtime by
welding in a separate chamber.
c) Non-Vacuum welding – Welding is conducted at near atmospheric pressures. Here, the
quality of the weld is the lowest. When about the Electron Beam Welding process, whenever
an electron beam is stopped by the workpiece, X-rays are generated. The power density of the
electron beam is inversely proportional to the beam diameter squared and directly
proportional to the Beam Voltage and Current. The X-rays are proportional to the power
density of the electron beam. Also, it has been determined that penetration is directly
proportional to the power density. However, the total energy converted by the electron beam
upon bombardment with the workpiece to X-rays is only a few percent of the total electron
beam energy.
D  VI/d2
Where, V = Beam Voltage
I = Beam Current
d = Beam Diameter
XD
Where, X = Depth of Penetration
 D = Power Density
According to reference, all the electrons in the electron beam have nearly the same amount of
energy and hence will produce a significant number of X-ray photons having energies equal
to the accelerating voltage. The energy of these X-rays is given as follows.
Em = hc/ = h
Where Em = Maximum photon energy
h = Planck’s constant
c = Speed of light
Em = eV
Where, e = Electron charge
V = Accelerating voltage
While the operators are generally protected from the minuscule amounts of radiation during
the Electron Beam Welding process due to the presence of a High-Vacuum chamber, the X-
rays offer a means of measuring the operating voltage of an electron beam by using an energy
dispersive spectrometer to measure the X-ray spectrum generated by an electron beam and
determining the voltage from the high energy cut-off.
The Electron Beam Welding process is a versatile technology wherein for each joint,
material, and geometry, there should be several standards developed. These parameters can
be classified in notably 3 categories. They are as follows.
 The parameters characteristic of the Electron Beam are Accelerating Voltage (Ua),
Beam Current (If), Focusing Current (F), Depth of Penetration (H), and Beam Focal
Diameter (df0).
 The parameters characteristic of the Welding Joint Features are Welding Speed (),
Welding Width (B), Focal Distance (dt), Vacuum Pressure (Ps), and Preheating
Temperature (Tpr)
 Other parameters involve Material Type, Thermo-physical and Chemical features of
the material, and Workpiece Thickness. These parameters do not constitute as being a
part of Process Parameters.
Accelerating Voltage (Ua) in this process refers to the potential difference that accelerates
charged particles, in this case, electrons from the electron gun. Maxwell’s equation states
that IV accelerates an electron by 1eV kinetic energy.

𝟐𝒆𝒗
= 𝒎

Where,  = Charge particle non-relativistic velocity

e = 1.6 x10-19C, Electron Charge
V = 1V, Voltage
m = 9.1 x 10-31kg, Electron Mass
It can be observed that with just 1V we can accelerate the speed of an electron by almost
600km/s. With an Accelerating Voltage (Ua) of 150kV, we can accelerate the electrons
present in the electron gun at approximately 76.6% of the speed of light. Accelerating the
charge particles is one of the most elementary requirements in producing a high-energy beam
to be used for welding material. For the majority of the welding operations, the Accelerating
Voltage (Ua) is kept constant, which depending on the high voltage generator and electron
beam gun is set at either 60kV or 150kV. The graph shown in Figure 4 depicts the relation of
the Accelerating Voltage (Ua) as a function of Beam Current (If) and Beam Focal Diameter
(df0). It can be observed here that as the Beam Current (If) increases, the rate of increase of
Beam Focal Diameter (df0) reduces with increasing Accelerating Voltage (Ua). Hence, we
interpret that for a more refined control on the Beam Focal Diameter (df0), we need to
increase the Accelerating Voltage (Ua) with minute adjustments made to the Beam Current
(If).

Beam Current (If) versus Beam Focal Diameter (df0) characteristics.

Accelerating Voltage (Ua) also has an interesting relationship with the Focal Distance (dt).
Accelerating Voltages (Ua) of 60kV and 150kV are taken along with Focal Distances (dt) of
350mm and 1200mm. Figure 5 represents four experimental cases from a-d.

Depth of Penetration (H) and Welding Width (B) Analysis.

Keeping the Focal Distance (dt) constant and varying the Accelerating Voltage (Ua), it can be
observed that the greater the Accelerating Voltage (Ua), the greater the Depth of Penetration
(H) or Fusion Zone depth. This can be inferred by comparing experimental cases a & b and
cases c & d. However, if we were to keep the Accelerating Voltage (Ua) constant and vary the
Focal Distance (dt), we can observe that the greater the Focal Distance (dt), the wider the
weld seam. Hence, the Electron Beam becomes less focused which results in a wider weld
seam in the workpiece. This can be inferred by comparing experimental cases a & c and cases
b & d. By analyzing the surface tension of the molten metal at the weld pool, we observe that
there is no risk of discharge of metal to the Weld Root as long as the surface tension forces
are greater than the gravitational forces at the section of the weld where its width is
maximum. Otherwise, the liquid metal starts to move at a higher speed from top to bottom in
the vertical direction. Because the temperature and the width of the weld pool in each
successive section decrease with an increase in the distance from the heat source, then at a
specific moment the surface tension forces acting on the weld pool with a width of 2r become
equal to the gravitational force and the liquid metal stops flowing. At that specific moment, it
is assumed that the radius of curvature of the root in the longitudinal direction is infinitely
large. This means that the Weld Root will assume a nearly flat surface. This equilibrium
condition can be described by the below equation.
𝝈
𝝆𝒈𝒉 =
𝒓
Where,  = Density of the liquid metal at the melting point
g = Freefall Acceleration
h = Thickness of welded metal

 = Surface Tension coefficient

r = Radius of Curvature of Weld Root

Here, gℎ represents the Hydrostatic Pressure of the molten weld material. Hence, slower the
Welding Speed (), the rate of heat transfer to the bottom of the workpiece increases,
enabling the workpiece to melt at the Weld Joint ap to the root position. If the surface tension
becomes lesser than the force of gravity, the root of the Weld Joint will result in a depressed
convex surface which is undesirable as shown in Figure 6. At the same time, high-speed
welding can result in the formation of a concave depression surface in the Weld Root which
is again undesirable due to the surface tension being greater than the force of gravity. Hence
it is necessary to identify to suitable Welding Speed () range such that both melting and
solidification rates are desirable as well as the surface tension forces are equal to the force of
gravity at the root of the Weld Joint to produce a nearly flat surface.
 Hydrostatic Pressure acting on the Weld Root pool

In an experiment to identify the effect of Welding Speed () on the Electron Beam Welding
process, three Welding Speeds ()were chosen to identify the effect it had on the nature of the
weld pool and the Weld Root of a 32mm Titanium Plate. They are 30m/s, 60m/s and 90m/s
respectively.

The external appearance of the Weld Joint and Weld pool for Welding Speed ()
of 30 m/s, 60 m/s, and 90 m/s

Weld Joint Analysis

It can be seen from the above figure that when the Electron Beam Welding process was
conducted at a Welding Speed () of 30m/s a large depression is observed at the tip of the
weld pool and Weld Joint. To achieve a near-flat surface, one would have to make a second
pass with a filler wire. This is however unacceptable. At a Welding Speed () of 60m/s
however, it is observed that Weld Joint at the tip suffers from undercutting, a variation of the
large depression seen when the Electron Beam Welding process is conducted at a Welding
Speed () of 30m/s. This can be removed by a defocused beam using a cosmetic pass. The
need for a second pass makes this Welding Speed () not economical and hence undesirable,
although it results in the desired Weld Joint. At a Welding Speed () of 90m/s, it is observed
that we obtain a Weld Joint without any defect and as a result a guaranteed convexity at the
tip of the weld. Hence, here the formation of the Weld Joint is satisfactory and can therefore
be chosen as a suitable Welding Speed () for the material.

Weld Root Analysis

At a speed of 30m/s, the Electron Beam Welding process produces a Weld Root of the width
of 2.8mm. This is mainly due to persisting electron beam energy present within one section
of the workpiece for a longer duration of time. This results in a higher amount of heat transfer
from the top to the bottom of the workpiece than the Electron Beam Welding process when
conducted at 60m/s and 90m/s respectively. The faster rate of heat transfer results in the
elongation of the Weld Root at its molten phase due to the force of gravity being greater than
the surface tension forces of the molten material. As a result, it can be observed that the Weld
Root width of the Electron Beam Welding process when conducted at Welding Speeds () of
60m/s and 90m/s are 2mm and 1.7mm respectively. While the excessive elongation of the
Weld Root can be removed by further machining process, it is generally undesirable as it
results in increased costs in the machining process of the workpiece.
The presence of a vacuum environment in the Electron Beam Welding process helps prevent
the accelerated and focused electron beam particles from colliding with the atmospheric
particles. As we know, the weight of an electron particle is determined to be less than one
ten-thousandth of a Nitrogen or Oxygen atom. As a result, when a fast-moving electron
collides with an atmospheric atom it can result in the dispersion of its kinetic energy. Due to
the presence of a large number of atmospheric atoms colliding with fast-moving electrons,
results in the spread of the electron beam, and hence in the presence of atmospheric pressure,
the electron beam scatters and is no longer focused. The above figure shows the effect of
Vacuum Pressure (Ps) on the Electron Beam. 5 experimental cases were considered, where
the Vacuum Pressure (Ps) is varied. The five different pressures analyzed are 760torr, 500torr,
250torr, 50torr, and 5torr respectively. The common trend that can be observed from the
figure is that with decreasing Vacuum Pressure (Ps), the tendency of the electron beam to
scatter reduces. This is of course in line with the need for a vacuum chamber in an Electron
Beam machinery.

Effect of vacuum on Electron Beam Welding

This nature of the Electron Beam is very useful in also understanding the effect that the
Vacuum Pressure (Ps) has on the Depth of Penetration (H) of the weld material. From Figure
9 it can be understood that the general trend observed is that at HighVacuum Pressure (Ps),
the Depth of Penetration (H) of the electron beam in the weld material is quite high at around
90% in most cases. Whereas at MediumVacuum Pressure (Ps), the Depth of Penetration (H)is
relatively lower than that achieved at HighVacuum Pressure (Ps), ranging from 50% to 80%
in most cases. Finally, at LowVacuum Pressure (Ps), the Depth of Penetration (H)is the
lowest and the most undesirable, as not only does its range vary from 0% to 60% but the
quality of the weld penetration is poor. The Depth of Penetration (H)of the electron beam can
also be affected by another parameter, which is the Beam Focal Diameter (df0).

Depth of Penetration (H) as a function of Vaccum Pressure (Ps)

The greater the Beam Focal Diameter (df0), the lesser focused is the kinetic energy of the
beam on the surface area of contact and therefore, resulting in reduced Depth of Penetration
(H). However, this does not mean that the Depth of Penetration (H) is solely dependent on the
Vacuum Pressure (Ps). Quite the contrary. The Vacuum Pressure (Ps) can be said to be a
disturbing factor rather than a more precise controlling factor of the Depth of Penetration (H).
The Depth of Penetration (H)is an important factor that is critical for determining the quality
of the Weld Joint. It can be given by the mathematical model as follows.
H = −144.143 + 0.137If − 26.346 + 0.218F
Similarly, for the Welding Width (B), the mathematical model is as follows.
B = −57.17 + 0.0135If − 6.731 + 0.092F
It can be observed very clearly that both the Depth of Penetration (H)and the Welding Width
(B)is a function of Beam Current (If), Focusing Current (F,), and Welding Speed ().
Some materials, before welding, such as low-alloy steels are generally required to be
preheated to a specific temperature known as the Preheating Temperature (Tpr). For any
particular steel that has to be welded by any fusion welding process, the Preheating
Temperature (Tpr) has been determined to be about 50℉ above the Martensite Start
Temperature (Ms). However, most low-alloy steels have fairly high Martensite Start
Temperature (Ms), making welding uncomfortable and thus can potentially compromise the
weld quality. For this specific reason, industries generally preheat such material in the order
of 200-600℉ below the Martensite Start Temperature (Ms). Most low-alloy steels that are
susceptible to Hydrogen-induced cracking, transform from Austenite when cooling through
the 1470- 930℉ temperature range. The amount of time, 8/5 (seconds), steel spends in this
temperature range during cooling, will determine its microstructure and hence, its
susceptibility to cold cracking. A microstructure that is free of untampered Martensite is
desired to maximize cracking resistance. The Austenite, therefore, is transformed to ferrite +
carbide so that no Austenite would be available to transform to Martensite upon reaching the
Martensite Start Temperature (Ms).
A relationship has been formulated to establish the Critical Time, 8/5, for a Martensite-free
HAZ in low-carbon alloy steel. This relationship is termed the Carbon Equivalent, CE* and it
is defined as follows.

CE* = %C* + %Mn/3.6 + %Ni/9 + %Cu/20 + %Cr/5 + %Mo/4

Where, %C* = %C for C <= 0.3% and %C* = %C/6 + 0.25 for %C > 0.3%
The Critical Time 8/5, is computed from the equation as follows.
𝟖
log 𝟓
= 𝟐. 𝟔𝟗CE ∗ + 0.321

Electron-Beam Welding Equipment

Since the publication of the first practical electron-beam welding equipment by Steigerwald
in 1958, electron-beam welding has spread rapidly in all branches of engineering where
welding can be applied. To cover the various requirements, countless welder types have been
designed, differing in construction, working space volume, workpiece manipulators, and
beam power. Electron-beam generators (electron guns) designed for welding applications can
supply beams with power ranging from a few watts up to about one hundred kilowatts.
"Micro-welds" of tiny components can be realized, as well as deep welds up to 300 mm (or
even more if needed). Vacuum working chambers of various designs may have a volume of
only a few liters, but vacuum chambers with a volume of several hundred cubic meters have
also been built.
Specifically, the equipment comprises:
1. Electron gun, generating the electron beam,
2. Working chamber, mostly evacuated to "low" or "high" vacuum,
3. Workpiece manipulator (positioning mechanism),
4. Power supply and control and monitoring electronics.

 Electron gun
In the electron gun, the free electrons are gained by thermo-emission from a hot metal strap
(or wire). They are then accelerated and formed into a narrow convergent beam by an electric
field produced by three electrodes: the electron-emitting strap, the cathode connected to the
negative pole of the high (accelerating) voltage power supply (30 - 200 kV), and the positive
high voltage electrode, the anode. There is a third electrode charged negatively concerning
the cathode, called the Wehnelt or control electrode. Its negative potential controls the
portion of emitted electrons entering the accelerating field, i.e., the electron-beam current.
After passing the anode opening, the electrons move with constant speed in a slightly
divergent cone. For technological applications, the divergent beam has to be focused, which
is realized by the magnetic field of a coil, the magnetic focusing lens.
For the proper functioning of the electron gun, the beam must be perfectly adjusted
concerning the optical axes of the accelerating electrical lens and the magnetic focusing lens.
This can be done by applying a magnetic field of some specific radial direction and strength
perpendicular to the optical axis before the focusing lens. This is usually realized by a simple
correction system consisting of two pairs of coils. By adjusting the currents in these coils any
required correcting field can be produced.
After passing the focusing lens, the beam can be applied for welding, either directly or after
being deflected by a deflection system. This consists of two pairs of coils, one for each X and
Y direction. These can be used for "static" or "dynamic" deflection. Static deflection is useful
for the exact positioning of the beam by welding. Dynamic deflection is realized by
supplying the deflection coils with currents that can be controlled by the computer. This
opens new possibilities for electron-beam applications, like surface hardening or annealing,
exact beam positioning, etc.
The fast deflection system can also be applied (if provided with appropriate electronics) for
imaging and engraving. In this case, the equipment is operated as a scanning electron
microscope, with a resolution of about 0,1 mm (limited by the beam diameter). In a similar
mode, the fine computer-controlled beam can "write" or "draw" a picture on the metal surface
by melting a thin surface layer.
 Working chamber
Since the appearance of the first electron-beam welding machines at the end of the 1950s, the
application of electron-beam welding spread rapidly into industry and research in all highly
developed countries. Up to now, uncountable numbers of various types of electron-beam
equipment have been designed and realized. In most of them, the welding takes place in a
working vacuum chamber in a high or low vacuum environment.
The vacuum working chamber may have any desired volume, from a few liters up to
hundreds of cubic meters. They can be provided with electron guns supplying an electron
beam with any required power up to 100 kW, or even more if needed. In micro-electron beam
devices, components are with dimensions in tenths of a millimeter can be precisely welded.
In welders with electron beams of high enough power, welds up to 300 mm deep can be
realized.
There are also welding machines in which the electron beam is brought out of the vacuum
into the atmosphere. With such equipment, very large objects can be welded without huge
working chambers.
 Workpiece manipulators
Electron-beam welding can never be "hand-manipulated", even if not realized in a vacuum, as
there is always strong X-radiation. The relative motion of the beam and the workpiece is most
often achieved by rotation or linear travel of the workpiece. In some cases, the welding is
realized by moving the beam with the help of a computer-controlled deflection system.
Workpiece manipulators are mostly designed individually to meet the specific requirements
of the welding equipment.
Power supply and control and monitoring electronics
Electron-beam equipment must be provided with an appropriate power supply for the beam
generator. The accelerating voltage may be chosen between 30 and 200 kV. Usually, it is
about 60 or 150 kV, depending on various conditions. With rising voltage, the technical
problems and the price of the equipment rapidly increase, hence, whenever it is possible a
lower voltage of about 60 kV is to be chosen. The maximum power of the high voltage
supply depends on the maximum depth of weld required.
The high-voltage equipment must also supply the low voltage, above 5 V, for the cathode
heating, and negative voltage up to about 1000 V for the control electrode.
The electron gun also needs low-voltage supplies for the correction system, the focusing lens,
and the deflection system. The last-mentioned may be very complex if it is to provide
computer-controlled imaging, engraving, or similar beam applications. Complex electronics
may also be needed to control the workpiece manipulator.

Advantages of Electron Beam Welding (EBW):

Some of the major advantages of EBW are as follows-
 Tight continuous weld;
 Low distortion;
 Narrow weld and narrow zone;
 Filler metal is not required.

The electron beam welding process is a very precise technique and is highly repeatable due to
the required automation. This welding technology also creates strong and pure joins that can
be used across several high-end applications for a wide range of industries. Electron beam
welding also offers precise weld penetration control from a depth as small as 0.0001 inches.
The EB process also provides a small heat-affected zone due to the high depth-to-width ratio,
which minimizes distortion and material shrinkage while allowing welds to be performed
near heat-sensitive components.
Electron beam welding also shows high strength properties, maintaining up to 95% of the
strength of the base materials.
As the technique is performed in a vacuum environment, no impurities are left by the process.
Oxides and nitrides are eliminated while impurities in the materials themselves are vaporized.
EB welding is also highly automated and thereby controllable, while also being excellent for
joining materials, such as refractory or dissimilar metals, that are not weldable with
conventional processes.
Disadvantages of Electron Beam Welding (EBW):
The main disadvantage of this process is that the electron beam welder technology is expensive
and requires frequent maintenance to ensure the equipment is functioning correctly. As a result,
the support required to maintain this high-energy vacuum welding technology can be
demanding.
 Expensive equipment;
 High production expenses;
 X-ray irradiation.

Conclusion:
1. For a specific material the peak cavity temperature is not dependent on weld penetration.
This means that for various electron beam power settings or welding speeds there is no
measurable change in the peak cavity temperature for a specific material.
2. Comparison of temperature recordings with weld root sections indicated no correlation
between spiking conditions and measured temperature level.
3. The strong variation of temperature from cavity top to bottom suggests that the vapor
pressure will be greatest at the cavity bottom, and negligible near or at the cavity cop.
4. Temperature measurements of the cavity after repeated weld passes indicate that when very
small amounts of highly volatile elements are evaporated there is a substantial increase in
temperature. This explains why the number of volatile elements in an alloy can have a dramatic
effect on the behavior of the cavity during welding.
5. Utilizing the cavity temperature measurements in the analysis of the forces acting in the
cavity indicated that a force imbalance occurs between the vapor pressure and surface energy
forces along the cavity wall. It was postulated that at the imbalance location a liquid material
projection is driven towards the cavity bottom. This action partially fills the cavity and is
followed by the beam boring a hole in this molten liquid. These oscillations explain the
alternate partial filling and reforming of the cavity. Calculated oscillation frequencies agree
favorably with experimentally determined frequencies.
6. Cavity oscillations also appear at the cavity top but are not necessarily related to the
oscillations at the cavity bottom. The oscillations at the top result in the freezing patterns on
the weld bead surface. Calculated top oscillation frequencies agree well with those determined
experimentally.
7. The measured temperature distributions were observed to exhibit a characteristic behavior
as a function of weld depth. An expression is proposed for representing the temperature in the
cavity as a function of the weld penetration depth. This dimensionless expression is also
material dependent.
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