TRANSFORMERS

1. Introduction
A transformer is a device which uses the phenomenon of mutual induction to
change the values of alternating voltages and currents.
 One of the main advantages of a.c. transmission and distribution is the
ease with which an alternating voltage can be increased or decreased by
transformers.
 Losses in transformers are generally low and thus efficiency is high.
 Being static they have a long life and are very stable.
A transformer is represented in Figure 1(a) as consisting of two electrical
circuits linked by a common ferromagnetic core. One coil is termed the primary
winding which is connected to the supply of electricity, and the other the
secondary winding, which may be connected to a load. A circuit diagram
symbol for a transformer is shown in Figure 1(b).

Figure 1: Transformer.

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2. Transformer principle of operation
When the secondary is an open-circuit and an alternating voltage V1 is applied
to the primary winding, a small current—called the no-load current, I0—flows,
which sets up a magnetic flux in the core. This alternating flux links with both
primary and secondary coils and induces in them e.m.f.’s of E1 and E2,
respectively by mutual induction.
The induced e.m.f. E in a coil of N turns is given by:

Where; d𝜃/dt is the rate of change of flux.

In an ideal transformer, the rate of change of flux is the same for both primary
and secondary and thus E1/N1 = E2/N2, i.e. the induced e.m.f. per turn is
constant. Assuming no losses, E1 = V1 and E2 = V2 . Hence,

V1/V2 is called the voltage ratio and N1/N2 the turn’s ratio, or the transformation
ratio of the transformer. If N2 is less than N1 then V2 is less than V1 and the
device is termed a step-down transformer. If N2 is greater, then N1 then V2 is
greater than V1 and the device is termed a step-up transformer.

When a load is connected across the secondary winding, a current, I2 flows. In

an ideal transformer losses are neglected and a transformer is considered to be
100% efficient. Hence input power D output power, or V1I1 = V2I2, i.e., in an
ideal transformer, the primary and secondary volt-amperes are equal. Thus,

Hence,

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The rating of a transformer is stated in terms of the volt-amperes that it can
transform without overheating. The transformer rating is either V1I1 or V2I2,
where I2 is the full-load secondary current.

Example 1
An ideal transformer with a turns ratio of 2:7 is fed from a 240 V supply.
Determine its output voltage.
Solution
Turns ratio is

Example 2
An ideal transformer has a turns ratio of 8:1 and the primary current is 3 A
when it is supplied at 240 V. Calculate the secondary voltage and current.

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Solution

Example 3
A 5 kVA single-phase transformer has a turns ratio of 10:1 and is fed from a 2.5
kV supply. Neglecting losses, determine (a) the full-load secondary current, (b)
the minimum load resistance which can be connected across the secondary
winding to give full load kVA, (c) the primary current at full load kVA.
Solution

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3. Transformer no-load phasor diagram
The core flux is common to both primary and secondary windings in a
transformer and is thus taken as the reference phasor in a phasor diagram. On
no-load the primary winding takes a small no-load current I0 and since, with
losses neglected, the primary winding is a pure inductor, this current lags the
applied voltage V1 by 90°. In the phasor diagram assuming no losses, shown in
Figure 2(a), current, I0 produces the flux and is drawn in phase with the flux.

The primary induced e.m.f. E1 is in phase opposition to V1 (by Lenz’s law) and
is shown 180° out of phase with V1 and equal in magnitude. The secondary
induced e.m.f. is shown for a 2:1 turns ratio transformer.

Figure 2: Phasor diagrams.

(ii) A no-load phasor diagram for a practical transformer is shown in Figure

2(b). If current flows then losses will occur. When losses are considered then
the no-load current I0 is the phasor sum of two components-(i) IM , the
magnetizing component, in phase with the flux, and (ii) IC , the core loss

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component (supplying the hysteresis and eddy current losses). From Figure
2(b):

Example 4
A 2400 V/400 V single-phase transformer takes a no-load current of 0.5 A and
the core loss is 400 W. Determine the values of the magnetizing and core loss
components of the no-load current. Draw to scale the no-load phasor diagram
for the transformer.
Solution

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 Figure 3: no-load phasor diagram for the transformer.
Example 5
A transformer takes a current of 0.8 A when its primary is connected to a 240
volt, 50 Hz supply, the secondary being on open circuit. If the power absorbed
is 72 watts, determine (a) the iron loss current, (b) the power factor on no-load,
and (c) the magnetizing current.
Solution

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4. E.m.f. equation of a transformer
The magnetic flux 8 set up in the core of a transformer when an alternating
voltage is applied to its primary winding is also alternating and is sinusoidal.
Let 8m be the maximum value of the flux and f be the frequency of the supply.
The time for 1 cycle of the alternating flux is the periodic time T, where T = 1/f
seconds.
The flux rises sinusoidally from zero to its maximum value in ¼ cycle, and the
time for ¼ cycle is 1/4f seconds.
Hence, the average rate of change of flux:

Since 1 Wb/s = 1 volt, the average e.m.f. induced in each turn = 4ƒΦ𝑚 volts.
As the flux Φ varies sinusoidally, then a sinusoidal e.m.f. will be induced in
each turn of both primary and secondary windings.

Hence,

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Example 6
A 100 kVA, 4000 V/200 V, 50 Hz single-phase transformer has 100 secondary
turns. Determine (a) the primary and secondary current, (b) the number of
primary turns, and (c) the maximum value of the flux.
Solution

Example 7
A single-phase, 50 Hz transformer has 25 primary turns and 300 secondary
turns. The cross-sectional area of the core is 300 cm2. When the primary
winding is connected to a 250 V supply, determine (a) the maximum value of

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the flux density in the core, and (b) the voltage induced in the secondary
winding.
Solution

5. Transformer construction
i. There are broadly two types of single-phase double-wound transformer
constructions as shown in Figure 4.
 The core type and
 The shell type.
The low and high voltage windings are wound as shown to reduce
leakage flux.

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 Figure 4: Transformer types.
ii. For power transformers (rated at several MVA and operating at a frequency
of 50 Hz) the core material used is usually laminated silicon steel or stalloy
to reduce eddy currents and the silicon steel keeping hysteresis loss to a
minimum.
 Large power transformers are used in the main distribution system and in
industrial supply circuits.
 Small power transformers have many applications, e.g. welding and
rectifier supplies, domestic bell circuits, imported washing machines.
iii. For audio frequency (a.f.) transformers, rated from a few mVA to no more
than 20 VA, and operating at frequencies up to about 15 kHz, the small
core is also made of laminated silicon steel. A typical application of a.f.
transformers is in an audio amplifier system.
iv. Radio frequency (r.f.) transformers, operating in the MHz frequency region
have either an air core, a ferrite core or a dust core. Ferrite is a ceramic
material having magnetic properties similar to silicon steel, but having a
high resistivity. Dust cores consist of fine particles of carbonyl iron or
permalloy (i.e. nickel and iron), each particle of which is insulated from its
neighbour.

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 Applications of r.f. transformers are found in radio and television
receivers.
v. Transformer windings are usually of enamel-insulated copper or
aluminium.
vi. Cooling is achieved by air in small transformers and oil in large
transformers.

6. Equivalent circuit of a transformer

Figure 5 shows an equivalent circuit of a transformer. R1 and R2 represent the
resistances of the primary and secondary windings and X1 and X2 represent the
reactances of the primary and secondary windings, due to leakage flux.

Figure 5: Equivalent circuit of a transformer.

The core losses due to hysteresis and eddy currents are allowed for by
resistance R which takes a current Ic, the core loss component of the primary
current. Reactance X takes the magnetizing component IM.

In a simplified equivalent circuit shown in Figure 6, R and X are omitted since

the no-load current I0 is normally only about 3–5% of the full load primary
current. It is often convenient to assume that all of the resistance and reactance
as being on one side of the transformer.
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 Figure 6: Simplified equivalent circuit.

7. Regulation of a transformer
When the secondary of a transformer is loaded, the secondary terminal voltage,
V2, falls. As the power factor decreases, this voltage drop increases. This is
called the regulation of the transformer and it is usually expressed as a
percentage of the secondary no-load voltage, E2.
For full-load conditions:

The fall in voltage, (E2 - V2), is caused by the resistance and reactance of the
windings.
Typical values of voltage regulation are about 3% in small transformers and
about 1% in large transformers.

Example 8
A 5 kVA, 200 V/400 V, single-phase transformer has a secondary terminal
voltage of 387.6 volts when loaded. Determine the regulation of the
transformer.

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Solution

8. Transformer losses and efficiency

There are broadly two sources of losses in transformers on load, these being
copper losses and iron losses.
(a) Copper losses are variable and result in a heating of the conductors, due to
the fact that they possess resistance. If R1 and R2 are the primary and
secondary winding resistances, then the total copper loss is

(b) (b) Iron losses are constant for a given value of frequency and flux density
and are of two types—hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.
i. Hysteresis loss is the heating of the core as a result of the internal
molecular structure reversals which occur as the magnetic flux alternates.
The loss is proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop and thus low
loss nickel iron alloys are used for the core since their hysteresis loops
have small areas.
ii. Eddy current loss is the heating of the core due to e.m.f.s being induced
not only in the transformer windings but also in the core. These induced
e.m.f.s set up circulating currents -the eddy currents. Owing to the low
resistance of the core, eddy currents can be quite considerable and can
cause a large power loss and excessive heating of the core.
Eddy current losses can be reduced by:
 Increasing the resistivity of the core material or,

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  Laminating the core. This increases the resistance of the eddy
current path, and reduces the value of the eddy current.

Efficiency is usually expressed as a percentage. It is not uncommon for power

transformers to have efficiencies of between 95% and 98%.
Output power = V2I2 cos 𝜙2,
Total losses = copper loss + iron losses,
And input power = output power + losses.

Example 9
A 200 kVA rated transformer has a full-load copper loss of 1.5 kW and an iron
loss of 1 kW. Determine the transformer efficiency at full load and 0.85 power
factor.
Solution

Example 10
Determine the efficiency of the transformer in Problem 16 at half full-load and
0.85 power factor.

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Solution

Example 11
A 400 kVA transformer has a primary winding resistance of 0.5 Ω and a
secondary winding resistance of 0.001 Ω. The iron loss is 2.5 kW and the
primary and secondary voltages are 5 kV and 320 V respectively. If the power
factor of the load is 0.85, determine the efficiency of the transformer (a) on full
load, and (b) on half load.

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Solution

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9. Auto transformers
An auto transformer is a transformer which has part of its winding common to
the primary and secondary circuits. Figure 7 shows a circuit for an auto
transformer. The secondary winding is actually part of the primary winding and
the current in the secondary is given by (I2 - I1). Since the current is less in this
section, the cross-sectional area of the winding can be reduced, which reduces
the amount of material necessary.

Figure 7: Auto-transformer.

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9.1 Saving of copper in an auto transformer
For the same output and voltage ratio, the auto transformer requires less copper
than an ordinary double-wound transformer.

Example 12
A single-phase auto transformer has a voltage ratio 320 V:250 V and supplies a
load of 20 kVA at 250 V. Assuming an ideal transformer, determine the current
in each section of the winding.
Solution

9.2 Advantages of auto transformers

The advantages of auto transformers over double-wound transformers include:
(i) Saving in cost since less copper is needed.
(ii) Less volume, hence less weight.
(iii) Higher efficiency, resulting from lower i2r losses.

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 (iv) Continuously variable output voltage is achievable if a sliding contact
is used.
(v) Smaller percentage voltage regulation.

9.3 Disadvantages of auto transformers

The primary and secondary windings are not electrically separate; hence if an
open-circuit occurs in the secondary winding the full primary voltage appears
across the secondary.
9.4 Uses of auto transformers
Auto transformers are used for:
(i) Reducing the voltage when starting induction motors, and
(ii) Interconnecting systems that are operating at approximately the same
voltage.

10. Isolating transformers

Transformers not only enable current or voltage to be transformed to some
different magnitude, but provide a means of isolating electrically one part of a
circuit from another when there is no electrical connection between primary and
secondary windings.
An isolating transformer is a 1:1 ratio transformer with several important
applications, e.g. bathroom shaver-sockets, portable electric tools, model
railways.

11. Three-phase transformers

Three-phase double-wound transformers are mainly used in power transmission
and are usually of the core type. They basically consist of three pairs of single-
phase windings mounted on one core, as shown in Figure 8, which gives a
considerable saving in the amount of iron used. The primary and secondary
windings in Figure 8 are wound on top of each other in the form of concentric

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cylinders, similar to that shown in Figure 7. The windings may be with the
primary delta-connected and the secondary star-connected, or star-delta, star-
star or delta-delta, depending on its use. A delta-connection is shown in Figure
9(a) and a star-connection in Figure 9(b).

Figure 8: Three-phase transformers.

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 Figure 9: Delta and star connections of three phase transformers.

12. Current transformers

For measuring currents in excess of about 100A, a current transformer is
normally used. With a d.c. moving-coil ammeter the current required to give
full scale deflection is very small—typically a few milliamperes. When larger
currents are to be measured a shunt resistor is added to the circuit. However,
even with shunt resistors added it is not possible to measure very large currents.
When a.c. is being measured a shunt cannot be used since the proportion of the
current which flows in the meter will depend on its impedance, which varies
with frequency.
In a double-wound transformer

from which

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In current transformers the primary usually consists of one or two turns whilst
the secondary can have several hundred turns. A typical arrangement is shown
in Figure 10. If, for example, the primary has 2 turns and the secondary 200
turns, then if the primary current is 500 A, secondary current is given as:

Figure 10: Current transformer.

Current transformers isolate the ammeter from the main circuit and allow the
use of a standard range of ammeters giving full-scale deflections of 1 A, 2 A or
5 A.
For very large currents the transformer core can be mounted around the
conductor or bus-bar. Thus, the primary then has just one turn.

It is very important to short-circuit the secondary winding before removing the

ammeter. This is because if current is flowing in the primary, dangerously high
voltages could be induced in the secondary should it be open circuited.

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Example 13
A current transformer has a single turn on the primary winding and a secondary
winding of 60 turns. The secondary winding is connected to an ammeter with a
resistance of 0.15 Ω. The resistance of the secondary winding is 0.25 Ω. If the
current in the primary winding is 300 A, determine (a) the reading on the
ammeter, (b) the potential difference across the ammeter and (c) the total load
(in VA) on the secondary.
Solution

13. Voltage Transformers

For measuring voltages in excess of about 500 V it is often safer to use a
voltage transformer. These are normal double-wound transformers with a large
number of turns on the primary, which is connected to a high voltage supply,
and a small number of turns on the secondary. A typical arrangement is shown
in Figure 11.

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 Figure 11: Voltage transformer.

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