Review of the Impact of Electric Vehicles
Participating in Frequency Regulation on Power Grid
Guoxuan Xiao, Canbing Li, Senior Member, IEEE, Zhicheng Yu, Yijia Cao, Senior Member, IEEE, Baling Fang
College of Electrical and Information Engineering
Hunan University
Changsha, China
Abstract—Electric vehicles (EVs) can act as distributed
storages and loads while they are connected to the grid.
Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) system can provide active power
support and frequency regulation services to mitigate the
intermittence of renewable energy sources (RES), and
balance the loads in the grid. Through V2G technologies,
EVs can provide power to the grid, which significantly
improves the performance of the stability, efficiency, and
reliability of power grid operation. Moreover, the
participation of sufficient EVs in power grid will help
diminish greenhouse gases. This paper reviewed the current
studies on the participation of EVs in frequency regulation
from different perspectives. The impact of V2G technologies
on different power systems, and control strategies,
management, incentive policy and challenges of both small-
scale EV and large-scale EV were simply reviewed. At last,
the future research prospect of frequency regulation with
EVs was discussed.
Keywords—electric vehicle (EV); vehicle-to-grid (V2G); power
grid; frequency regulation; renewable energy sources (RES)
I. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, the development of large-scale RES will
bring new challenges to power system secure operation
[1]-[3]. With high penetration of renewable energy
connected to grid, the proportion of traditional generating
units in expenditure drops constantly, and the frequency
fluctuation caused by intermittent power generation will
exceed the capacity of suppressing fluctuation of
traditional generators. Therefore, traditional frequency
regulation is hardly to meet the balance of supply and
demand in the grid integrated with RES.
In regarding to concerns about environment, climate
change, fossil energy reserve, energy cost, and energy
security, EVs are getting great attention of governments
and car companies in the world. Due to their ‘zero
emissions’ and potential application, the market size of
EVs will be enormous. Based on data from [4], the number
of EVs will reach 35%, 51%, and 62% of the total vehicles
in the US by the year 2020, 2030, and 2050, respectively.
In California, for example, the EVs will reach one million
by the year 2020 [5]. Reference [6] was the first time
proposed the concept of V2G, making full use of EVs in
power grid. It means that EVs can represent a huge source
This work is supported by the Open Project of State Key Laboratory
of Control and Simulation of Power Systems and Generation Equipment.
(SKLD11KZ07)
978-1-4799-0333-7/13/$31.00 © 2013 IEEE
of generation and storage capacity for the power system. In
addition, the detailed economic evaluation of V2G applied
to ancillary services was analyzed in [7]. Several
researches have proved the feasible services [8], and new
markets [9], [10]. Owing to extremely fast charging rate of
the battery, frequency regulation is regarded as one of the
most promising and practical services [7], [10], [11].
According to the driving force and energy consumption of
EVs, there are three different types of EVs: (1) hybrid
electric vehicle (HEV)—using fuel and a battery as driving
force, (2) battery electric vehicle (BEV)—using solely a
battery as energy source, and (3) fuel cell electric vehicle
(FCEV)—using fuel for producing electricity.
Considering the advantage of three types of EVs, on one
hand, HEVs have ability to generate power to provide
ancillary services [7]. On the other hand, BEVs need the
electric power as driving energy source, and also have
excellent battery internally. At the same time, the
frequency regulation services are high value when BEVs
participate in [9]. In addition, FCEVs have already being
commercialized for small stationary power sources and
could also act as a V2G power source, or serve as backup
of power grid. Different types of EVs have different
effects on power grid. Abbreviation of EV used in this
paper represents three types of vehicles.
EVs are regarded as controllable load, power producer,
and dispersed energy storages, which can be attributed to
the integration of RES. Several previous studies have
already been carried out the feasibility of delivering power
back to the grid when EVs are parked [5], [12]. This
distinctive feature allows for the provision of several
ancillary services [10]. To perform the frequency control,
we need a large deployment of EVs, as described in [13].
Meanwhile, in order to manage a large number of EVs, it
must have some extra equipment including [14]: (1) a
smart interface with the grid, (2) communication with the
grid operator, and (3) metering the exchange of
information power flows of the grid. These requirements
bring more challenges to power grid in the process of
frequency regulation, such as the coordination between the
RES and the EVs, battery charging strategies in different
system operation, the technical and economic challenge of
adaptive control algorithms in frequency regulation. In
order to accommodate these problems, evaluation of the
impact of charging/discharging strategies on power
systems, and active management solution, control
strategies during the batteries’ charging periods were
considered.
75
By adopting adequate communications, control strategies
of different regulation mode (primary/second/tertiary
frequency regulation), several benefits for the stability of
frequency may be achieved. However, frequency
regulation with EVs is still in its infancy, a series of
adaptive control strategies, the effective smart
management, the coordination between grid and EV
owners, and the incentive policy to be in a win-win
situation was needed. This paper introduced the concept of
both small-scale and large-scale EV. Based on this
classification, we briefly described the communication in
the process of frequency regulation with EVs. Besides, this
paper focused on the effects of three different frequency
control, management strategies, benefits, and challenges
for regulation with EVs of power system. In this review,
the existing problems and future research direction were
also pointed out.
II. EV CHARGING LOAD
A. Classification
EVs can be used as mobile storage devices, which are
capable of providing regulation services [9]. According to
the dimension, EVs were divided into two types as
following:
• Small-scale EV—the charging points located on
private areas with public access and private areas
with private access, such as domestic charging
loads and charging posts. These charging points
allow for slower charging.
• Large-scale EV—the charging points located on
public areas with public access, such as, charging
stations, battery exchanging/swapping stations,
and fast charging station. Large-scale EV
dedicates to EV fleets and allows for fast charging.
1) Small-scale EV participated in frequency
regulation
Small-scale EV for instance domestic EV has got a
very great development in recent year. Early studies have
paid attention to predict the effect of small-scale EV on
isolated grid [15], [16]. Brooks analyzed the feasibility of
single EV respond to regulation signal both in economy
[7], and technology [12]. The domestic vehicles have the
capability of responding to frequency deviation [17]. This
means that the small-scale EV has a huge potential of
frequency regulation. For the battery charging strategies,
the smart charging that refers to V2G control was used in
frequency control [18], [19]. For frequency response of EV,
we usually adopt droop frequency control based on the
battery charging/discharging characteristics of individual
EV [20]-[22]. In order to define the charging rates, a local
control based on the metering of EV terminal voltage and
frequency was developed in [23], [24]. Due to the limited
power capacity of small-scale EV, a distributed control
scheme is needed to support its market participation [25].
These control strategies for small-scale EV are the
guarantee of realization of the frequency control.
76
2) Large-scale EV participated in frequency
regulation
EV fleets more easily accommodate the existing
electric market rules [8], [26]. In power markets, the
demand response and management are needed to achieve
the active management target. An integration scheme into
power system can be modeled by energy hubs and demand
management [27], [28]. The battery aggregation can be
regarded as both demand and supply side resources to
improve the fast response capabilities, making EV fleets
good candidates for the provision of frequency regulation
services [29]. To support large-scale RES and stabilize the
grid, some authors studied that V2G uses EVs to provide
storage for large-scale renewable energy generation [9],
[10], [30], [31]. The storage capacity can attenuate the
intermittence of RES, and it still provides an asymmetrical
regulation, such as “regulation up” or “regulation down”
[32]. Considering EVs as virtual power plants, the lumped
or aggregated EV models have been used to frequency
regulation [33]-[37]. These lumped EVs are concentrated
on charging station models [37]-[41]. However, battery
exchange mode as a new interactive method has been
described in [42]. It also has become a hot issue recently.
B. Communication
Adequate communications are the backbone to ensure
active management and control strategies for EV in
frequency regulation. However, local control based on the
electric measuring for small-scale EV has no requirement
for communication [23]. In order to ensure the
performance of frequency regulation, the efficient
interfaces automatically respond to detected deviation for
individual EV with no communication [18], [19], [24]. As
the development of domestic EV, small-scale EV has
significant influence on system frequency stability.
Therefore, the method of automated response to frequency
deviation for distributed EVs is very important in
frequency regulation.
In aspect of integration framework for the V2G, the
conceptual framework moves from a “fit-and-forget”
policy [29] to the active EV management and control [43].
It could solve the technical issues of grid operation, with
market operation [43]. The frameworks need to an
advanced infrastructure to connect all the participants.
For the active management layer, the separate
management modules can coordinate various types of
resources [35], as well as realize the battery state of charge
(SOC) synchronization [31]. So, the ID, constraints,
parking status of the EV, the storage capacity, and EV
battery SOC should be handled by GPRS [29]. To measure
dispatch commands, the enough devices should be
required, including bi-directional paging and cellular
packet data protocol connect to the infrastructure point,
and infrared, Bluetooth and Z-wave plug to the EV side
[44]-[46]. Communications would add complexity to
infrastructure side and require special charging stations for
V2G functionality. Therefore, EV side should retain
adequate communications capabilities [7].
 For the market layer, to do business with EV, the
aggregators are the key for V2G implementation [13]. In
view of the study on optimal control strategy, Sekyun Han
et al. first developed an aggregator to make use of EVs for
V2G frequency regulation [30]. In various directions,
some researchers designed optimal method along with
different constrains [47]-[49]. However, the issue of
optimal method of aggregator also needs further study.
III. EVS PARTICIPATED IN FREQUENCY CONTROL
In frequency control, there are three layers of control:
primary, secondary, and tertiary control. EVs can simulate
the generator droop characteristic to perform primary
frequency regulation, and achieve secondary frequency
control based on area control error (ACE). Tertiary
frequency modulation can be achieved based on economic
dispatch [50].
A. Primary Frequency Control
In micro grids (MG), a power disturbance would result
in a significant oscillation of frequency due to lack of
enough generation resources and spinning reserves. EVs
connected to the grid can inject power into the grid, which
not only benefits to the frequency stability, but also
increases robustness of operation, especially in isolation
system. EVs can be considered as new resources in
primary frequency control owing to their fast response to
disturbances [51]. These studies make the V2G more
noticeable than ever in primary frequency control. In
primary frequency control, there are two loops [50]:
• The droop control that reduces the traditional
generators, which can cut the fossils consumption;
• The inertial control that simulates the behavior of
conventional generator.
Those control schemes autonomously respond to
frequency deviation. To alleviate the intermittence of RES,
a series of V2G control approaches were adopted in some
researches [18], [52]-[54]. Compared the EV as a regular
and controllable load in primary control, the effects of EVs
as controllable load in primary frequency control and
battery SOC were described in [54]. In order to satisfy the
expected battery SOC, the automotive distributed control
was discussed in [18], [52], [53]. In [18], authors estimated
the scheduled charging power based on the historic data of
frequency deviation. The deviation of system frequency is
dominated by normal distribution, as described in [52]. In
[53], half-maximum V2G power was distributed
beforehand. But these studies ignored disparity between
the actual and scheduled plug-in duration. Considering the
actual charging demand of EV, the decentralized V2G
control was developed for the participation of EVs in
frequency control, meanwhile, by adopting battery SOC
holder control strategy to maintain the residual battery
SOC [19]. The control scheme that considers the battery
wear should be future study.
77
B. Secondary Frequency Control
AS a centerpiece of secondary frequency control, AGC
is an important control technology for keeping frequency
stability. If EVs participate in dispatching load, AGC
would respond to frequency deviation both on generation
side and load side simultaneously, to offset response
characteristic insufficiency of traditional generating unit.
The feasible and potential AGC operation with EVs was
analyzed in [7], [11]. A methodology to make EV
participate in AGC in bulk power system was designed
[54]. These studies make EVs have the ability to assist
AGC. Additionally, some scholars have discussed
centralized V2G control method to participate in the load
frequency control (LFC). In [50], a method for tracking
LFC signal was designed. But these researches have not
considered how to send LFC signal to EVs.
At present, the studies of AGC with EV are still in
initial stages, and mainly focus on EV energy storage to
reduce the cost of battery energy storage system [54]-[57].
Some scholars studied simulation of AGC with EV energy
storage [13], [35], [50], [57]. As a distributed controllable
load, EV was also discussed in [54]-[56]. Coordination
control method was applied to integrate large scale wind
power and photovoltaic power into a large power system
[35]. These results showed that EVs can effectively reduce
the ACE and tie-line flow deviation [50] and lower the
frequency modulation capacity [50], [54].
C. Tertiary Control
EVs participate in tertiary control based on economic
dispatch. The economic dispatch is an essential issue in
smart grid operation and management [50]. In [58], it used
stochastic dynamic programming method to optimize EV
charging and frequency regulation decision. And the
economic dispatch model was established in [39]. The
results indicated that the EVs plug-in grid can reduce the
gap between demand and supply in different periods of
time with optimal dispatch schedule. The uncertainty of
EV and wind power was taken into considered [58]. The
optimization algorithm of management [48], reserve bid
[59], and dispatch [60] have discussed in some researches.
Nevertheless, the economic dispatch with EVs does not
include several constraints such as: reduction of green
house gas emissions, loss reduction in power grid.
Therefore, the economic dispatch models containing many
uncertain factors, using various mathematical
programming and intelligent optimization, and calculating
the objective function of the volatility of constraints get
less attention recently.
IV. RESPONSE AND INCENTIVE
A. The Methods of Response to the Frequency Deviation
For primary control, EV loads respond to the frequency
signal that consumed power of EV various linearly with
the frequency change. When frequency goes downwards,
EVs can be easily disconnected from the grid to act as a
load shedding in low frequency, or EVs act as power
producer to prevent frequency drop [61], [62]. In [61], it
proved the feasibly of EVs as controllable load to provide
effective system primary frequency response. Compared
two methods of frequency regulation with EVs, the
simulation results showed that the controllable load
scheme is better than load shedding scheme in frequency
regulation [62]. Regarding to management, the aggregator
can alter EVs’ mode with the rate of frequency changes
[55].
For the participation of EV in AGC operation, EV
loads respond to the upstream active power set points. The
intermediary agency will distribute these set points among
the EVs connected the grid [54]. In [23], the set points
were sent to each EV or group of EV from a central
control device. This study also presented the power set
points of the frequency and voltage droop control. While,
EVs that simultaneously respond to frequency and voltage
signal are rarely paid attention on. How to deal with the
conflict between the frequency and voltage droop has
become a hot issue.
B. Incentive Policy
In order to reconcile EVs and grid operator, the
incentives policy must be required.
On one hand, some utilities in management interacted
with individual EVs that as V2G suppliers, then, the
adjustment to contracts and tariffs would be needed to
implement V2G on grid side. Three business models were
built for the implementation of V2G based on the different
strategies [10]. The profit function was also discussed in
[63]. Some scholars described the concept and frameworks
of contracts [64], [65]. The effects of different types of
contract on different markets were analyzed in [13]. These
are adopted business model of aggregator. In [29], it
proposed an incentive program to attract driver and
developed a business models of “package-deal” for the
potential of EV participants. Incentive for long term
contract is higher than short term commitments. The
estimated capacities are good for regulation contract
between grid operator and aggregator, to build a new
business model for V2G [66].
On the other hand, some scholars have discussed the
price control mechanism to encourage EVs’ participation
in frequency regulation [28], [30], [49]. In [28], it adopted
nonlinear pricing to model and managed recharging
behavior of large number of EVs. Considering the
available power capacity, some studies built pricing
mechanism to attract the vehicle join in the V2G
voluntarily [30]. Smart price policy and mechanism can be
able to optimize frequency regulation performance [49].
The combined bidding can attract EV participate in power
market [65]-[67].
By designing incentive program to coordinate the
benefits between grid side and consumer side, the
aggregator benefit from the sale of contracted capacity,
and assign the benefits to each EV that participates in
frequency regulation.
78
V. THE SHORTCOMINGS AND FUTURE WORK
Except for the described in the above chapters, other
issues need be taken into account.
With a large amount of EVs and the distributed feature,
the distributed market operation mechanism has become a
mainstream trend. However, many studies concentrated on
the aggregated model that ignored the distributed feature
of vehicle, which had many drawbacks and limitations.
Moreover, the battery exchange mode has a great
development potential in frequency regulation due to their
great advantages in centralized management. But battery
exchange stations have not been given enough attention in
the current literatures. So, incentive policies that put
battery exchange stations into an orderly sequence will be
very important to power markets.
In response to frequency deviation, much attention was
focus on the low frequency scene. When the frequency
increases, the recharging control scheme should be
designed. In any case, according to different battery SOC
of each EV, we need to choose the suitable EV to
participate in frequency regulation. EVs that connect to
grid have not completely been used in frequency
regulation. Therefore, how to optimize the amount of EVs
to maintain the balance between supply and demand is
important to frequency control. At the same time, there
were few studies that considered the battery wear in
charging schedule. Therefore, it is essential to consider the
battery wear for management, incentive policy, frequency
control, charging or discharging strategies of EVs.
Additionally, the coordinated control focused on the EVs
and RES generation units. The current studies were lack of
further research on coordinated control laws, for example,
dealing with the conflict between frequency and voltage
drops at the same time. These issues are worth of attention
in future studies.
VI. CONLUSION
As EVs develop fast in the near future, EVs are
expected to be a good candidate in frequency regulation of
power grid where the electricity demand and RES are
increased. Considering the different scales of EV, this
paper addressed the control, management, and
communication strategies of both small-scale and large-
scale EV. The two classifications of EV can serve as
controllable load, power producer, and stored energy
resources to provide frequency modulation services when
they have sufficient control strategies, communication
between power operators. For small-scale EV, the
autonomous response to frequency deviation will be more
applied as the development of smart grid. To perform the
frequency regulation of power grid, the active management
of EV charging must be further discussed. Moreover,
battery exchange station as a kind of large-scale EV
connected the grid has an advantage in central control,
which must be worth application in frequency regulation.
In respect of frequency control, recent studies of three
layers of frequency control were reviewed. EVs that take
part in frequency regulation have significant influence on
power grid. Firstly, it can reduce the fossils energy
consumption by replacing the traditional reserves of power
grid. Secondly, the usages of EV can perform fast control
action in supply/demand balancing. The system frequency
oscillation controlled by EV is much lower than the other
generation units. Lastly, it is very efficient to alleviate the
intermittence of RES. Meanwhile, an adaptive control is
needed in different layers of frequency regulation. The
implement of frequency regulation with EV also has
substantial public benefits, including zero-pollution and
low-pollution. Concerning response to frequency deviation,
the methods of frequency regulation and incentive policy
are discussed. Meanwhile, designing policy, managing EV,
charging/recharging/discharging control in frequency
regulation of power grid must be evaluated considering the
battery wear for short-time and long-time.
This paper is expected to make some contribution to
the future studies of the participation of EV in frequency
regulation, to achieve a stable, environmentally friendly,
and energy-saving power system.
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