SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF JOURNALISM AND MASS COMMUNICATION

BACHELOR OF ARTS IN MASS MEDIA AND COMMUNICATION (BMMC)

UNIT: TV Production
UNIT CODE: BJL3103

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 BJL3103: TELEVISION PRODUCTION

Contents
CHAPTER ONE CAMERA WORK AND CAMERA OPERATIONS ......................................... 4

1.0. Taking control of your camera ............................................................................................. 4

1.1.1. Parts of the camera and their functions ............................................................................. 5

1.2. Framing and shot composition ........................................................................................... 19

1.2.1. Types of shots .................................................................................................................. 20

1.2.2. Technical shots ............................................................................................................ 24

1.3. The Rule of Thirds ............................................................................................................. 29

1.4. Crossing the Line (Reverse Cut) ........................................................................................ 29

1.4.1. Sports & Multi-Camera Action ................................................................................... 32

1.5. Techniques in Framing of shots ......................................................................................... 33

1.6. Common Camera Moves .................................................................................................... 36

1.7. More tips on filming ........................................................................................................... 38

CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................... 40

VIDEO CAMERA TRIPODS ....................................................................................................... 40

2.0. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 40

2.1. Tripod and handheld filming .............................................................................................. 40

2.2. Parts a Tripod ..................................................................................................................... 41

2.3. Types of tripods .................................................................................................................. 44

2.4. Setting up a Camera Tripod................................................................................................ 45

2.3. How to Use a Tripod .......................................................................................................... 46

CHAPTER THREE ....................................................................................................................... 47

LIGHTING AND LIGHTING TECHNIQUES ............................................................................ 47

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 3.0. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 47

3.1.Common Lighting Terminology.......................................................................................... 47

3.2. Types of Lighting ............................................................................................................... 49

3.3. Lighting Equipment ............................................................................................................ 49

3.4. Colour Temperature Chart .................................................................................................. 51

3.5. The Standard 3-Point Lighting Technique ......................................................................... 52

3.6. Lighting for Video & Television ........................................................................................ 54

2.6.1. Light Sources ............................................................................................................... 54

3.6.2. Contrast Ratio .............................................................................................................. 55

3.6.3. Night-Mode Video Shooting ....................................................................................... 56

3.7. Lighting Interviews ............................................................................................................ 56

CHAPTER FOUR SOUND PRODUCTION ................................................................................ 62

4.0 Introduction to audio ........................................................................................................... 62

4.1. Audio Cables and Connectors ............................................................................................ 64

4.2 How Microphones Work ............................................................................................... 70

3.2.1.Types of Microphone ................................................................................................... 71

4.2.2. Mic Level & Line Level .............................................................................................. 72

4.3. Dynamic Microphones ....................................................................................................... 73

4.4. Condenser Microphones ..................................................................................................... 75

4.5. The Electret Condenser Microphone .................................................................................. 76

4.6. Directional Properties ......................................................................................................... 77

4.7. Omnidirectional .................................................................................................................. 77

CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................................. 100

5.1. Types of vision ................................................................................................................. 100

5.2. What makes a good television story ................................................................................. 106

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 5.3. Conducting the interview ................................................................................................. 114

5.3.1. Setting up the interview ............................................................................................. 114

5.3.2. Shooting Technique for Interviews ........................................................................... 117

5.4. Filming Events ................................................................................................................. 119

5.5. Common mistakes when shooting events......................................................................... 121

CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................................... 122

THE SCRIPT: WORDS AND PICTURES ................................................................................. 122

6.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 122

6.1. Different types of filming and audio ................................................................................ 122

6.2. Filming scripts and running orders ................................................................................... 123

6.3. Call Sheet ......................................................................................................................... 125

6.4. Cutting script .................................................................................................................... 135

Appendix 1 .................................................................................................................................. 137

Glossary ................................................................................................................................... 137

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Module I: The Production Process
a) Development

b) Pre-Production

c) Production

d) Post Production

e) Screening / Exhibition and Distribution

Development
It is important that you prepare well before filming so that you don't waste time and effort filming
scenes you don't need.

First you need to develop your film idea. Streamline your idea as much as possible to the essential
elements or story. What do you want your film to say? How can you tell your story in a fresh way?
You also need to think about your ideal audience. Who will want to see your film and where will they
watch it?

During the development stage, you will usually:

 Develop your ideas

 Write your script or, if you are planning a documentary, write a full treatment of your idea

 Plan the length of your film and the format you will use with screening (exhibition and
distribution) in mind

 Storyboard your film (Storyboarding means planning your shoot with drawings or photos of
each scene. It will help you focus on how your film will look.)

Pre-Production
You begin pre-production when you have a well-developed script and you are clear what the project
is about and who the audience is. The pre-production stage is all about planning how you will turn
your script into a great film. This is the time for detailed and specific planning - for pinning down the
schedule. This is a written plan of what will take place at each stage of your production - from
casting, rehearsals, the shooting schedule, to the post-production and delivery of your film.

During the pre-production period you will usually:

 Prepare an overall schedule

 Audition and cast actors

 Book crew (Decide who will do what and make sure they are available when you need them)
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  Prepare the shooting script (Pin down the locations and group your scenes together in the
order they will be filmed)

 Identify the locations you will use and get permission to film there (If you are planning to
film in public spaces you need to get local authority permission. Contact Northern Film &
Media's Location Service Manager on 0191 269 9209 for help and advice on finding
locations and gaining permission from local authorities and private owners).

 Prepare shooting schedule (Plan your shoot. Decide what will happen on what day - and
prepare contingency plans for bad weather)

 Book locations and transport

 Book catering provision

 Sort out insurance

 Sort out copyright clearance for any pre-recorded music you intend to use

 Rehearse - directors and actors

 Prepare locations / sets (i.e. do any art work and set dressing)

 Sort out costumes and props if necessary

 Produce call sheets - daily plans that let everyone know when they are expected and what
they are expected to do

Production
After all your careful planning you are now ready for your shoot. During the production phase you
will usually:

 shoot scenes

 plan ahead for next days shoot

 Reschedule if things go wrong NB: There will be a lot of hanging around during the shoot.
You may wish to think about what to do with your participants during "down time" so they
do not get bored and disillusioned.

Production stills

You should also be taking high quality stills photographs during the production or capturing artwork
which can be used to market the film once finished.

Release forms

You must make sure that you obtain a release form from anyone who appears in the film. This is a
form that people sign to say that they are happy for you to use their image in your film. If you do not
obtain this they can refuse to let you show your work.
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Post Production
This is the editing part - it falls into two sections - off-line and online. The key creative decisions are
made in the off-line edit, so you may wish to involve members of your group in this part of the
process.

Off-line edit

Lower cost, lower picture-quality edit. All editing decisions are made during this time (except for
special effects that will require sophisticated equipment).

On-line edit

High cost, high picture-quality edit. All the pictures in your film are replaced from the original tapes
at the highest resolution available. Special effects and captions are added, and pictures are colour
graded at this stage. If you are hoping that your programme will be broadcast, the on-line editor will
also make sure that signal levels recorded on your final master edit conform to the standards set for
broadcast video/audio.

Sound Dub

Additional sound effects and music are mixed with the recorded sound.

Screening / Exhibition and Distribution

You may want to screen your film at a cinema, or a non-theatrical venue. You will need to have
publicity and marketing ideas to promote the film and encourage an audience to come and see it.
Plan to take good quality stills pictures during the production, so you have a strong image to promote
your film.

Make sure you have sorted out the following issues early on the production process; otherwise you
may find you are unable to show your film:

 Music - have you got copyright clearance? (See pre-production and post production sections)

 Release forms (See production)

 You may need to specify a viewing age for your film if there is strong language or
violent/sexually explicit content.

 If you want to show your film to the general public, you will need to apply to your local
authority licensing department for permission. They will be happy to give you advice. You
will need to send them a copy of your film at least 28 days prior to the screening.

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Module II: Studio and Field Production
Studio Production

The director's job is to get the crew and talent to function as a team and in the process bring out
the best work in each person.

Any director worth the title can stay on top of things when the crew, talent, and equipment
perform exactly as expected.

A crew member or on-camera person may get sick, a key person may refuse to continue unless
some special accommodation is made, a studio camera may go out, or a mic may suddenly fail.

A director who vacillates, gives mixed signals or is not being able to make a decision at a crucial
time can result in production paralysis.

In large-scale productions everyone is typically working under pressure. Directors must be able to
control their own tension and anxiety while being sensitive to the differing abilities and
temperaments of talent and crew - not an easy task when they have responsibility for everything.

A heavy-handed approach with the wrong person can temporarily destroy that person's
effectiveness and turn a bad situation into a disaster. Conversely, a mealy-mouthed approach that
elicits no respect or leadership ability can be just as bad.

Put another way, a director's job is not to dictate but to clearly and effectively guide.

Requisitioning Equipment and Facilities

The director's first job in a medium to large production will be to fill out a Facilities Request
Form. Production facilities typically have
forms tailored to their own needs and
equipment.

Noted on this form will be the production

and rehearsal dates and times, studio space
needed, personnel required, and the number
of cameras, video recorders and mics
needed.

Not anticipating a need may mean there will

be last-minute delays in getting what you
want.

Worse still, you may even have to do

without something you need, especially if someone else has requisitioned the equipment for the
same time period.

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In addition to being used by the studio's Facilities Manager to plan on the necessary talent, crew,
facilities, and equipment, the Facilities Request Form is used to anticipate production costs.

Studio Sets

Although virtual sets are now being used in many studios, the traditional hardwall and softwall
sets are still the most widely used setting for studio productions.

The Directing Process

For every audio or video event that takes place during a production several behind-the-scenes
production steps are typically required.

Because production involves the activities of numerous crew members -- the number can range
from 6 to more than 60 -- the director's instructions must be clearly and succinctly phrased.

Even the word sequence is important.

If the director says, "Will you pan to the left and up a little when you 'lose [your tally] light' on
camera one," all camera operators must wait until the end of the sentence before they know who
the director is talking to; and then they must remember what the instructions were.

However, if the director says, "Camera one, when you lose light, pan left and up a little," the first
two words indicate who, the next four words tell when, and the last six words indicate what.

After the first two words, crew members know that only camera one's operator is being
addressed. This will get the attention of the camera one operator, and the rest of the crew
members can concentrate on their individual tasks.

The "when" in the sentence tells the camera one operator not to immediately pan and tilt, but to
prepare for a quick move once the camera tally ("on-air") light is off. This may involve loosening
the pan and tilt controls on the camera's pan head and being ready to make the adjustment --
possibly within the brief interval when the director switches to a reaction shot.

Even a two- or three-second delay can make the difference between a tight show and one where
the production changes lag behind the action.

Although the specifics of the jargon vary between production facilities, directors tend to use some
of the same basic terminology. To illustrate this, let's trace a director's PL line conversation for
the opening of a simple interview show.

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This production uses two cameras, one of which moves from position A
to position B. In position A the camera gets the establishing (wide) shot.
In position B it gets close-ups and over-the-shoulder shots.

Since the guests on this show are different each week and will require
different opening and closing announcements, only the show's theme
music is prerecorded. The opening and closing announcements are read
off-camera, live.

Before we get to the actual show, let's look at several things that the
audience will not see, but that are still important to the production.

Color Bars, Slate, Countdown Clock, and Trailer

In professional productions there are four elements typically recorded that are not seen by the
audience:

1. First on the tape are color bars for a minimum of 30 seconds accompanied by a
reference level audio tone (generally 0dB) on all audio tracks.

These are used to set proper color balance, and audio and video levels for the video playback. (As
we've previously noted, with some playback equipment this is adjusted automatically.)

The white level (note the white block) and the primary (red, green and blue) and secondary
(magenta, cyan and yellow) color bars should register correctly on a TV screen and on a
vectorscope.

2. After the color bars is the slate (shown on the right) which is either picked up on a camera or
electronically generated. At this point announcer reads the following program information.

 the title of the program

 the episode title and number

 the date (and possibly recording machine number)

 possibly the audio format (mono, Dolby 5.1, etc.)

 possibly the presence of closed captioning or extra data

This information will vary, depending on the facility and production.

The slate shown above shows the time code numbers that are being encoded on the video.
Network requirements typically specify a start code of 01:00:00:00 for the first program on a
recording.

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After these, there is typically an electronic countdown clock that starts at 10 seconds and goes to
2 seconds.

3. At this point there should be exactly two seconds of black and silence before the program
begins. This precise timing makes it possible to roll a videotape (if you are using videotape) on a
particular number and then "punch it up" at the exact moment it's needed.

Hard disk recorders and some videotape machines have an instant start capability. This means
you can stop and freeze the first second of video on the screen and expect the segment it to
instantly start when needed.

4. At the end of the production, network specifications require several minutes of black and
silence with continuing time code after the last scene (generally the closing credits) of a
production.

Now let's trace the director's dialogue for the first minute or so of a very basic interview show.
Here we're assuming an on-camera slate and that videotape is being used to record the show.

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Director's Comments
Standby on the set.
Standby to roll tape.
Roll tape.
Ready to take bars and tone.
Take bars and tone.
Standby camera ONE on slate; stand by Assuming the slate is not electronically
to announce slate.
Take ONE.
Read slate.
Standby black.
Go to black
Ready TWO with your close-up of Lee;
ready mic; ready cue.
Take TWO, mic, cue!
Stand by ONE on the guest.
DIRECTOR'S CUES
Explanation
This means "attention" and "quiet" on the set. The command
is given 15-30 seconds before rolling tape. (Assuming for
this example that videotape is being used.)
Get ready to start the videotape that will record the show.
The tape is rolled, and when it stabilizes the tape operator
calls "speed."
The electronic test pattern (ETP) and audio tone is recorded
at the reference level (generally, 0dB). This segment will be
used to set up playback equipment for
proper video and audio.
This may last at least 15 seconds,
but that will depend on the technical
requirements of the production
facility.
generated, camera one's first shot is the slate
identifying the show.
During this time the announcer reads the
basic program identifying information we
previously listed.
The technical director (TD) cuts to black.
The show opens "cold" (without an introduction of any
kind) with a close-up of Dr. Lee. This "tease" statement is
intended to grab attention and introduce the show's guest
and topic.
Cut to camera two with a close-up of Dr. Lee, turn her mic
on, and cue her to start.
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Take ONE! Dr. Lee introduces subject and makes a quick reference to
the guest. When Dr. Lee mentions the guest, the director
makes a two- to three-second cut to the close-up camera on
the guest (who is just listening) and then back to Dr. Lee on
camera two.

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Standby black and standby to roll
commercial on tape 4.
Roll tape 4. Go black. Take it.
Camera 1 truck left for your wide shot.
Fifteen seconds. Standby in studio.
Standby opening announce and theme.
Ready ONE on your wide shot; ready
TWO on a close-up of Lee.
Standby to key in title.
Take ONE; hit music; key title.
Fade [music] and read.
Ready TWO with a close-up on Lee.
Standby mics and cue.
Take TWO, mic, cue.
Camera 1, ready on your close-up on the
guest.
Take ONE.
The commercial is rolled and taken as soon as it comes up.
The audio person brings up the sound on the commercial
without being cued. (Everyone's script should list basic
information, such as machine playback numbers, etc. Some
things, such as cutting mics when they are not needed, are
done as needed without a director's command.)
During the commercial camera #1 will reposition for the
opening wide shot. (See drawing above.) This shot will be
used for keying the opening program titles.
When the commercial ends, a wide shot is taken on camera
one, the theme music is established, and the title of the show
is keyed over the screen.
The music is faded under and the opening announce for the
show is read by an announcer. This will probably include
the show's title, followed by the topic, and the name of the
show's host.
This is a close-up of the show's interviewer, Dr. Lee, who
now fully introduces the day's guest and asks the first
question.
During this time Camera 1 trucks back to the opening
position for the close-up of the guest. Dr. Lee covers the
interval for the camera move by fully introducing the show
and guest..
The guest answers first question.
Show continues alternating between close-ups of host and
guest. Occasionally cameras will zoom out to get over-the-
shoulder shots. Closing of show is similar in pattern to the
opening.
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Excluding the commercial all of the above takes less than a minute of production time.

During the 30 seconds or so that the interviewer uses to wrap up the show camera one can truck
right to the mid-position and zoom back. This shot can be used (possibly with dimmed studio
lights) as a background for the closing credits and announce.

Even though this example is a bit of old-fashioned in its format, it illustrates all the things the
director is concerned with "behind the scenes" (and it represents a good starting assignment for
laboratory exercises).

"Standby"

Note the constant use of the terms "ready" and "standby" in the director's dialogue.

During a production, crew members are normally thinking about or doing several things at once,
including listening to two sources of audio: the PL line and the program audio. "Standbys" warn
them of upcoming actions.

They also protect the director.

If a "standby" is given in reasonable time, the director has every right to expect the crew member
involved to be prepared for the requested action - or to quickly tell the director about a problem.

But if the director simply blurts out, "Take one!" when the cameraperson is not ready, the
audience may see a picture being focused, complete with a quick zoom in and out. Since no
"standby" warning was given, the director can hardly blame the cameraperson.

Studio Hand Signals

Although the studio director can relay signals to the crew via a headset (PL line), getting
instructions to on-camera talent while the mics are on is generally done silently through the floor
director.

To do this the floor director uses agreed upon hand signals. In order for the talent to be able to
easily and quickly see these signals they should be given right next to the talent's camera lens.
The talent should never have to conspicuously look around for cues when they are on camera

Shooting Angles

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 In an interview the eyes and facial
expressions communicate a great
deal - often even more than the words
the person is saying.

Profile shots (equivalent to shooting

the close-ups from camera position A
in this case) often hide these
important clues. A close-up of the
guest from camera position B, as well
as a close-up of Dr. Lee from the
camera 2 position, provides much
stronger shots.

These angles also offer more possibilities for shots. You have a strong close-up of the person
talking, plus, if you zoom back slightly, an over-the-shoulder shot that can even be used to
momentarily cover comments by the person whose back is toward the camera.

The Need to Anticipate

An essential talent for a director is the ability to react quickly to changes in action.

But "react" implies delay.

In fact, the total reaction time is equal to the accumulated time involved in recognizing the need
for a specific action, communicating that action to crew members, having them respond -- or
telling the technical director what you want done and having them respond. That can represent a
delay of several seconds.

Although that may not seem long, when audiences are used to seeing production responses in
sync with on-camera action, it will clearly reveal that the director is lagging behind the action.

The solution is for the director to try to anticipate what's going to happen.

During an interview a director should be able to sense when the interviewer's question is about to
end or when an answer is winding up.

By saying "stand by" early and calling for a camera cut a moment before it's needed, a director
will be able to cut from one camera to the other almost on the concluding period or question mark
of the person's final sentence.

Also, by watching the off-air monitor in the control room, as opposed to the on-air shot of the
person talking, the director will often be able to see when the off-camera person is about to
interrupt or visually react to what is being said. Using these clues, a good director can almost
appear to have precognitive powers!

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This is easier to see when the cameras and video sources are grouped together on a single, large,
multi-view. flatscreen monitor. (We'll talk more about this in the next module.)

On-Camera Talent Issues

Makeup

Back in the days of low-resolution black-and-white TV, facial features had to be somewhat
exaggerated, just as they do now on the stage. However, in this day of color and high-resolution
video, this type of exaggeration would look a bit clownish.

Today, makeup is primarily used to cover or diminish facial defects, fill in deep facial chin clefts
and "five o'clock shadows" on men, and to take the shine off faces.

In the case of women, judiciously applied "street makeup" is generally adequate for limited on-
camera exposure.

However, when professional talent needs to appear at their best under different lighting
conditions and for long periods of time, things can get a bit more complicated.

Hair

For limited on-camera appearances, no special changes need to be made from normal hair styling.
Stray hairs have a way of calling attention to them when close-ups are illuminated by backlights,
so stray hair needs to be kept in place.

When applied to hair, oils and creams can impart an undesirable patent leather-like shine, which
will be exaggerated by backlighting. The absence of hair - i.e., bald heads - may need help from a
powder base carefully matched to skin tones.

Backlights and blond hair, especially platinum blond hair, will cause video levels to exceed an
acceptable brightness range, so backlight intensity will need to be dimmed or the beams barned
off.

When it comes to the effect of backlights and lighting in general, camera shots and lighting
should be carefully checked on a good video monitor before a production.

Jewelry

Jewelry can represent two problems.

First, if it's highly reflective, the results can range from a simple distraction to the creation of
annoying streaks in the video. The simplest solution is to either substitute non-reflective jewelry
or possibly remove it all together.

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The second problem with jewelry such as necklaces and beads is noise -- especially if it comes in
contact with a personal mic.

Wardrobe

In general, clothes (wardrobe) that are stylish and that flatter the individual are acceptable -- as
long as five caveats are kept in mind.

 Colors that exceed 80-percent reflectance, such as white and bright yellow, need to be
avoided. White shirts are often a problem, especially if not partially covered by a jacket
or a sports coat.

 Black clothes, especially against a dark background not only can result in a tonal merger,
but adjacent Caucasian skin tones can appear unnaturally light, even chalky.

 Closely spaced stripes in clothing can interact with camera scanning and result in a
distracting, moving ▲moiré pattern.

 Very bold patterns can take on a distracting, facetious appearance.

Sequined, metallic, and other shiny clothing which might otherwise look good, can become
quite distracting on television, especially under hard lighting.

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Outside broadcasting

Outside broadcasting is the production of television or radio programmes (typically to cover news
and sports events) from a mobile television studio. This mobile control room is known as an
"Outside Broadcasting Van", "OB Van", "Scanner" (a BBC term), "mobile unit", "remote truck",
"live truck", "live eye", or "production truck". Signals from cameras and microphones come into the
OB Van for processing and transmission. The term "OB" is almost unheard of in the United States
where the terms "mobile," "remote" or "location" are used for out of studio television production.

Interior

A typical OB Van is usually divided into 5 parts.

 The first and largest part is the production area where the director, technical director,
assistant director, character generator operator and producers usually sit in front of a wall of
monitors. This area is very similar to a Production control room. The technical director sits
in front of the video switcher. The monitors show all the video feeds from various sources,
including computer graphics, cameras, video tapes, video servers and slow motion replay
machines. The wall of monitors also contains a preview monitor showing what could be the
next source on air (does not have to be depending on how the video switcher is set up) and a
program monitor that shows the feed currently going to air or being recorded. The dirty feed
(feed with graphics) is what is actually transmitted back to the central studio that is
controlling the outside broadcast. A clean feed (without the graphics) could be being sent to
other trucks for use in their production. The video switcher is usually operated by 1 person
called the Technical Director or Vision Mixer in Europe. That person is responsible for
putting all the video sources to air as directed to. Behind the directors there is usually a desk
with monitors for the editors to operate. It is essential that the directors and editor are in
connection with each other during events, so that replays and slow-motion shots can be
selected and aired.

 The second part of a van is for the audio engineer; it has a sound mixer (being fed with all
the various audio feeds: reporters. commentary, on-field microphones, etc. The audio
engineer can control which channels are added to the output and will follow instructions
from the director. The audio engineer normally also has a dirty feed monitor to help with the
synchronization of sound and video.

 The 3rd part of the van is video tape. The tape area has a collection of video tape machines
(VTRs) and may also house additional power supplies or computer equipment.

 The 4th part is the video control area where the cameras are controlled by 1 or 2 people to
make sure that the iris is at the correct exposure and that all the cameras look the same.

 The 5th part is transmission where the signal is monitored by and engineered for quality
control purposes and is transmitted or sent to other trucks.

Electronic News Gathering (ENG)

ENG is a broadcasting industry acronym which stands for electronic news gathering. It can mean
anything from a lone reporter taking a single camcorder out to get a story, to an entire television crew
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taking a satellite truck on location to do a live report for a newscast. The term ENG was created as
television news departments moved from film based news gathering to recording electronically
generated images on tape. All film, of course, required a trip through a chemical bath (processing)
before it could be viewed and edited. This generally added at least an hour from the time the film
arrived back at the station until it was ready to be seen by the viewing public.

Film was also difficult to handle, subject to easy scratching and other damage. Film edits were done
by hand on what was known as "color reversal" film, meaning there was no negative. Edits could not
be changed without taking tiny slices out of the film itself. It was not that rare for film edits to break
on the air when the film was being sent through a projector for inclusion in newscasts. While a
wonderful medium for the creation of motion pictures and documentaries, film presented many
difficulties for use in local television news. The use of film in news gathering virtually disappeared by
the end of the 1980s.

It meant that the news gathering and reporting process became one continuous cycle, with little
pause between arriving at a news site and putting the story on the air. Coupled with live microwave
and/or satellite trucks, reporters were able to show live what was happening, bringing the audience
into dramatic news events. This also led to reporters being live at news scenes long after news events
had occurred, such as a reporter standing on an empty, darkened street five hours after a fire had
been extinguished. Reporters now find themselves standing in front of empty office buildings to add
"drama" and authority to a scene that occurred many hours previously.

It can be argued that news organizations like CNN and others could not have existed successfully
during the era of film technology. As it happened, CNN began its news transmissions in 1980, just as
ENG was starting to come into its own. The technology had not yet been fully perfected and
integrated with satellites and microwave, which accounted for some of the clumsiness of early CNN
transmissions. However, ENG proved to be a crucial development for all television news. With news
recorded on U-matic 3/4 tape cassettes, it was far easier to edit, duplicate and distribute and, over
time, control of the technical processes passed from highly trained engineers to producers and
writers. This made the process less complicated, quicker and easier. In the film era, news stories were
often transferred to bulky two inch video tape for distribution and playback, which made the content
cumbersome to access, something that an all news channels requires repeatedly.

While it brought many advantages to television news gathering and reporting, at first ENG involved
considerable compromise. Contrary to popular belief, ENG cameras and recorders were heavier and
bulkier than most film equipment. An ENG camera required a heavy 3/4 inch cassette tape recorder
to be carried along side it. It was virtually impossible for a camera operator to run carrying such
equipment, whether away from danger or toward a news event. Editing was done on expensive, dual
video tape arrangements with an edit controller in the middle. Each scene recorded on tape had to be
searched out on the master recording, which meant that news stories were often slapped together
with whatever could be managed by air time.

The development of Betacam and other compact half inch cassette formats allowed the integration
of the field recorder into a single, shoulder mounted arrangement which was a major advancement in
news gathering, while producing lifelong back injuries to many who carried the cameras on a daily
basis. With these professional "camcorders", there was no longer a need for an umbilical cord
between the camera and recorder. As a result, television crews could more safely venture into
dangerous situations, like war zones and hurricanes. The development of cameras and recorders that
could record in digital formats in the 1990s and early 2000s meant that various new forms of

20
recording devices could be used, including hard disc drives, solid state media and much smaller video
tape formats, such as DVCPro.

It seems likely the ENG will fade as a terminology for news gathering, since virtually all news is
gathered and processed electronically. At the start, producers and assignment editors would say, "I'm
sending the ENG crew", to distinguish from those still using film. The term was also used so that
those discussing electronic methods would clearly understand that they were not discussing film.

Electronic field production

Electronic field production (EFP) is a television industry term referring to television production
which takes place outside of a formal studio, in a practical location or special venue. Typical
applications of electronic field production include awards shows, concerts, major newsmaker
interviews, political conventions and sporting events.

Electronic field production (EFP) places the emphasis on high-quality, multi-camera photography,
advanced graphics and sound.

Sports

Sports broadcasts make up the majority of EFPs. Major broadcast networks once owned their own
production trailers for covering major events, but since then, with the explosion in networks on cable
and over-the-air, they and broadcast rental companies rent production trucks by the day or week for
more routine or remote productions.

A typical sports production truck includes:

 A large video switcher with an external digital video effects unit and several mix/effect
busses, to allow the director flexibility in calling for certain visual effects in the broadcast.

 Several tripod-mounted and handheld cameras.

 A variety of zoom lenses for the tripod-mounted "hard" cameras, typically at least 50x to
100x magnification, and a maximum focal length of at least 600 mm. The extreme amount of
magnification is necessary because the cameras can be located quite a distance from the
action.

 Several video recording and playback devices such as VCRs or hard disk recorders. Certain
cameras or video feeds can be "isolated" to specific decks, and when something happens
that the producer or director wants to see again, the deck can be rewound and shown on the
air as an instant replay. Hard disk recorders typically allow some limited editing capabilities,
allowing highlight reels to be edited together in the middle of a game.

 Several character generators allowing scores and statistics to be shown on screen. The
scoreboards used in most sports facilities can be linked to the truck to drive the television
production's graphics as well as the arena scoreboards.

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  An audio mixing booth and a variety of microphones to capture audio from the
sportscasters and from the field of play.

 Several miles of various types of cable.

CAMERA WORK AND CAMERA OPERATIONS

THE CAMERA

All TV cameras consist of three main parts. The first is the Lens - It draws the light into the
camera and focuses it on the film plane. It selects a certain field of view and produces a small
optical image of it.

The second most important part is the camera itself. It has an imaging device that converts the
optical image as delivered by the lens into electrical signals.

The third part is the viewfinder. This shows a small video image of what the lens is seeing. Some
cameras have a small foldout screen that enables you to forgo looking through the eyepiece to
see the camera picture.

The beam splitter

The beam splitter contains various prisms and filters. They separate the white light that passes
through the camera lens into the three light beams, that is, red, green, and blue usually referred
to RGB.

The three primary colors are then electrically mixed into the many colors normally seen on the
TV screen.

Because all of these prisms and filters are contained in a small box, the beam splitter is often
called the prism block.

Consumer camcorders use a filter rather than a prism block to split the white light into the three
RGB primaries. The filter located behind the lens and in front of the chip (CCD imaging device),
consists of many narrow stripes that separate the incoming white light into the three primary
colors or into only two colors, with the third one generated electronically in the camera.

The imaging device

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Once the white light that enters the lens has been divided into the three primary colors, each
light beam must be translated into electrical signals. The principal electronic component that
converts light into electricity is called the imaging device.

This imaging, or pickup, device consists of a small solid-state device, normally called a chip or, or
technically, a charge-coupled device (CCD). A CCD normally contains hundreds of thousands or,
for a high-quality CCD, millions of image-sensing elements, called pixels, which are arranged in
horizontal and vertical rows.

The more pixels the imaging chip contains, the higher the resolution of the video image. Each
pixel is a discrete image element that transforms its color and brightness information into a
specific electric charge.

In digital cameras each pixel has a unique computer address. The electric charges from all pixels
eventually become video signals for the three primary light colors. These RGB signals make up
the chrominance information. The black and white or luminance, information is provided by an
additional signal.

The camera lens & lens type

The lens determines what the camera can see. One type of lens can provide a wide view even
though you may be relatively close to the scene. Another type may provide a close view of an
object that is quite far away.

Different types of lenses also determine the basis of visual perspective; whether you see the
image as distorted or whether you perceive more or less distance between objects than there
really is.

They also contribute to a large extent to the quality of the picture and how much you can zoom
in or out on an object without moving the camera.

Studio and field lenses

Studio lenses are normally used with studio cameras. Field lenses include large lenses mounted
on high-quality cameras that are used for remote telecasts, such as sporting events, parades etc.
they also include lenses that are attached to Electronic News Gathering cameras.

The lenses of consumer camcorders usually come with the camera and cannot be exchanged.
Some high-end prosumer models, however, allow you to attach a variety of zoom lenses.

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Characteristics of lenses
Focal length

Technically, focal length refers to the distance from the optical center of the lens to the point
where the image the lens sees is in focus. This point is the camera's imaging device.

Operationally, the focal length determines how wide or narrow a field of view a particular
camera has and how much and in what ways objects appear magnified.

When you zoom all the way out, the focal length of the lens is short and at the maximum wide-
angle position. The camera will provide a wide field of view.

When you zoom all the way in, the focal length is long and at the maximum narrow-angle
position. The camera will provide a narrow vista or field of view. This will give a close-up of the
scene.

When you stop the zoom approximately halfway in between these extreme positions, the lens
has the normal focal length. This implies that you will get a normal field of view that
approximates you're actually looking at the scene.

Because the zoom lens can assume all focal lengths from its maximum wide-angle position to its
maximum narrow-angle position, it is called a variable focal length.

On TV a zoom-in appears as though the object is gradually coming towards you. A zoom-out
seems to take the object away from you.

Focus

A picture is in focus when the projected image is sharp and clear. The focus depends on the
distance from the lens to the film or from the lens to the camera's imaging device.

Adjusting the distance from the lens to the film or imaging device brings a picture into focus or
takes it out of focus.

In TV zoom lenses, this adjustment is accomplished not by moving the lens or the prism block
but by moving certain lens elements relative to each other through the zoom focus control.

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Focus controls come in various configurations. Portable cameras have a focus ring on the lens
that you turn. Studio cameras have a twist grip attached to the panning handle. Most consumer
camcorders have an automatic focus feature, called auto-focus.

If properly preset, a zoom lens keeps in focus during the entire zoom range, assuming that
neither the camera nor the object moves very much toward or away from the other.

Aperture

Like the pupil in the eye, all lenses have a mechanism that controls how much light is admitted
through them. This mechanism is called the iris or lens diaphragm.

The iris consists of a series of thin metal blades that form a fairly round hole referred to as the
aperture or lens opening.

If you open up the lens as wide as it will go, or if you set the lens to its maximum aperture, it
admits the maximum amount of light. If you close the lens somewhat, the metal blades of the
iris form a smaller hole and less light is allowed through the lens.

If you close the lens all the way, that is if you set it to the minimum aperture, very little light is
allowed in.

Depth of field

If you place objects at different distances from the camera, some will be in focus and others will
be out focus. The area in which the objects are in focus is called depth of field.

The depth of field can be shallow or great. However, it is always greater behind the object than
in front of it.

If you have a shallow depth of field and you focus on an object in the foreground, the middle
ground and background objects will be out of focus. If the depth of field is great, all objects will
be in focus.

With a great depth of field, there is a large sharp zone in which people or objects can move
toward or away from the camera without any need for adjusting the camera focus.

If they move in a shallow depth of field, however, they can quickly become blurred unless you
adjust the camera focus.

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Operationally the depth of field depends on the focal length of the lens, the aperture and the
distance between the camera and the object.

Types of Cameras
TV cameras can be classified by their electronic makeup and by how they are used. Cameras
grouped by electronic makeup are either analogue or digital. Those classified by function are
either for studio or ENG.

Analogue and Digital

Although most cameras are digital, there are nevertheless many analogue cameras still in use
mainly because of their remarkably good picture quality.

Regardless of the type, all cameras start out with an analogue video signal. This is because the
light that is transported through the lens to the beam splitter, and from there to the imaging
remains analogue throughout. Even after the translation of RGB light beams by the CCDs, the
resulting video signals are still analogue.

In the analogue camera, the video signal remains analogue throughout the processing inside the
camera and during the recording assuming that the VTR is also analogue.

In the digital camera however, the analogue RGB signals are digitized and processed right after
leaving the CCDs. Although digital signals are more robust, they are not automatically high-
definition.

Despite the differences between analogue and digital, standard or high-definition, high-end or
low-end, TV cameras fall into four groups;

 studio cameras

 ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders

 consumer camcorders

 prosumer camcorders

This classification is based on primary production function of the camera, but not on its
electronic makeup.

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Studio cameras
The term studio camera is generally used to describe high-quality cameras, including high
definition TV cameras. They are so heavy they cannot be maneuvered properly without the aid
of a pedestal or some other camera mount.

Studio cameras are used for various productions, such as news, interviews, and panel shows.
They are also used for daily serial dramas, situation comedies and instructional shows that
require high-quality video.

Such cameras are also used in field locations such as concert and convention halls football
stadiums, tennis courts, and medical facilities.

The difference between studio cameras and ENG/EFP and consumer cameras is that studio
cameras can function only as part of the camera chain; all other camera types can be self
contained, capable of delivering a video signal to a recording device, such as VTR, without any
other peripheral control equipment.

Because the picture quality of a studio camera is determined by the Video Operator (VO) who is
operating the Camera Control Unit (CCU), there are relatively fewer buttons on studio cameras
compared to the ENG/EFP.

The overriding criteria for the use of studio cameras are picture quality and control. Picture
quality is usually judged by the amount of sharp picture detail the camera and monitor can
generate.

The virtue of HDV and HDTV is that both systems can produce high-resolution pictures.
However, quality remains relative as a term. Besides the electronic system used in camera,
another major factor that affects picture quality is the lens.

The lens of a studio camera is as large as the camera itself. Sometimes, the lens will cost you
more than the camera itself. The HDTV cameras used for the creation of electronic cinema use
special, high quality lenses.

ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders

The cameras for electronic news gathering and electronic field production are portable, implying
that they are usually carried by a camera operator or put on a tripod. They are also self-
contained and hold the entire camera chain in the camera head.

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With their built-in control equipment, ENG/EFP cameras and camcorders are designed to
produce high-quality pictures (video signals) that can be recorded on a separate VTR, on a small
VTR or disk-recording device that is docked with the camera, or on a built-in VTR or disk
recorder. When docked with a recording device, the camera becomes a camcorder.

ENG/EFP camcorders operate on the same basic principle as the smaller consumer models
except that the CCDs, the video-recording device, and especially the lens are of much high
quality.

Consumer camcorders
Most consumer camcorders have a single-chip imaging device and a built-in VTR. All have
automated features, such as auto-focus, which focuses on what the camera presumes to be the
target object. There is also an auto-iris which regulates the incoming light.

In addition to the regular eyepiece viewfinder, most consumer camcorders have a foldout
screen on which you can see the picture you are taking without having to hold the camera close
to your eye.

The VTR of the consumer camcorder uses the digital video (DV) system which records
on a very compact minitape cassette.
The difference between the ENG/EFP camcorders and consumer camcorders is that
professional camcorders have three high-resolution CCDs, whereas most consumer
camcorders have only one.
Each of the three CCDs is assigned to a specific color (Red, Green or Blue) as provided
by the beam splitter.
Three CCD cameras produce truer colors than do cameras with a single CCD, especially
in low light level.
Professional camcorders have larger and sturdier recording devices that are VTRs or
disks. They use larger and better quality lenses.
Professional camcorders have better audio systems. The microphone inputs, pre-
amplifiers, and sound controls are less noisy and more flexible than simple camera
microphone of the consumer camcorder.
Professional camcorders have more operational controls that let you manually adjust the
camera to a variety of production conditions. The automatic controls of small camcorders
may seem like an advantage over the manual operation, but this true only in ideal
situations.
Professional camcorders can transport their signals to an RCU. This transmission can be
done through a thin cable or via a small transmitter attached to the back of the camera.

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Professional camcorders have larger batteries with smoother mechanisms for zooming in
and out. They also have better focus controls, and larger and high-resolution viewfinders.

Prosumer camcorders
These are smaller camcorders that incorporate features of professional camcorders. They
are high-end consumer models finding more acceptances in news and documentary
productions.
HDV camcorders are the prosumer model for high definition TV. They capture video
with three fairly high-quality imaging device.
This can be the standard high-quality CCDs, or resolution CMOS chips, which are
similar to CCDs but draw less power.

Electronic characteristics of cameras

There are certain electronic characteristics common to all television cameras. They
include:
 aspect ratio
 white balance
 resolution
 operating light level
 gain
 video noise and signal-to-noise ratio
 image blur and shutter
 smear and moirés
 contrast
 shading

Aspect ratio
This is the width-to-height proportions of the standard television screen and therefore of
all television pictures. There are two sets; 4 units wide by 3 units high and 16 wide by 9
units high.

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White balance
To guarantee that a white object looks white under slightly reddish light, you need to tell
the camera to compensate for the redish or bluish light and to pretend that it is dealing
with perfectly white light. This compensation by the camera is called white balance.
When a camera engages in white balancing, it adjusts the RGB channels in such a way
that the white object looks white on screen regardless of whether it is illuminated by
redish or bluish light.
In the studio the white balancing is usually done by the VO, who adjusts the RGB
channels at the CCU.
All ENG/EFP cameras have semi-automatic white balance controls, which means that
you need to point the camera at something white and press the white balance button.
Most consumer camcorders have fully automated white-balance controls that adjust
immediately to the general color temperature of the prevailing light environment. The
camcorder does so by looking at the colors of a scene and calculating the white reference.
Resolution
This refers to measuring detail in the picture. It is the major factor that distinguishes
standard television from HDTV pictures.
Resolution is measured by the number of pixels per screen area. The picture resolution a
camera can deliver depends on the quality of lens, the number of pixels, the number of
scanning lines and the scanning system and general signal processing.
Operating light level
The operating light level, also referred to baseline level is the amount of light needed by
the camera to produce acceptable pictures. "Acceptable" here means a video image that is
relatively free of color distortion and electronic noise which shows up as black-and-white
or colored dots in the dark picture areas.
Gain
This is a feature in video cameras that allows for production of pictures in extremely low
light levels through electrical signal boasting. In effect, the electronic gain is fooling the
camera into believing that it has adequate light.
In studio cameras, the gain is adjusted through the CCU. In ENG/EFP cameras gain is
manipulated by the gain control switch or one can change to automatic gain. When
operating an ENG/EFP camera, you can move the gain control switch to one of several
positions marked by units of dB such as +6, +12, +18 etc, to compensate foe low light
levels.
Video and signal-to-noise ratio
The term noise is borrowed from the audio field and applied to unwanted interference in
video. You can recognize 'noisy' pictures quite readily by the amount of 'snow' (these are
30
white or colored vibrating spots or color distorting artifacts) that appears throughout an
image, causing it less crisp.
Technically video noise works very much like audio noise. When playing regular
analogue audiotapes, you can hear the speakers hiss a little as soon as you turn on the
system. But as soon as the music starts, you are no longer aware of the hiss. So long as
the signal is stronger than the noise you will not perceive the noise.
The same is true of the video noise. If the picture signal is strong, mainly because the
imaging device receives adequate light, it will cover up the snow. This relationship
between signal and noise is called signal-to-noise ratio. It implies that picture information
is stronger than picture interference under normal operating conditions. A high number
such as 62 dB, is desirable.
Image blur and electronic shutter
One of the negative aspects of the three CCD imaging device is that it tends to produce
blur in pictures of fast objects. For example, if a yellow tennis ball moves from camera-
left to camera-right at high speed, the ball does not appear sharp and clear throughout its
travel across the screen. The image looks blurred and even leaves a trail.
To avoid this blur and get a sharp image of a fast moving object, CCD cameras are
equipped with an electronic shutter. This controls the amount of time that light is
received by the chip.
The slower the shutter speed the more the pixels of the CCD imaging surface are charged
with the light of the traveling ball and the more the ball will blur and vice versa.
But because the increased shutter speed reduces the light received by the CCD, the
yellow ball will look considerably darker than without the electronic shutter. As with a
regular still camera, the faster the shutter speed, the light the camera requires.
Contrast
The range of contrast between the brightest and darkest picture areas that the video
camera can accurately reproduce is limited. That limit called contrast range is expressed
as a ratio.
When you adjust the camera for an extremely bright sunlit areas, the shadow becomes
uniformly dark and dense. When you then adjust the lens that is open its iris, you will
promptly overexpose or blow out the bright areas.
It is best to limit the contrast and stay within a contrast ratio of about 50:1, implying that
for optimal pictures the brightest picture area can be only fifty time brighter than the
darkest area.
Shading
By watching a waveform monitor, which graphically displays the white and black levels
of a picture, the VO adjusts the picture to the optimal contrast range. This activity is
referred to as shading.

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To adjust a less than ideal picture, the VO tries to 'pull down' the excessively bright
values to make them match the established white level, which represents 100 per cent
video signal strength.

Camera handling and safety

Whether you are working with a small consumer camcorder, a large professional
ENG/EFP camcorder, or high-end EFP camera with a separate VTR, should know
something about how to check it before the shoot and what to do with it during and after
the production.
Many of the operational steps are similar or identical regardless of the type of camera,
only that during the EFP you normally have a few more people helping you.
When caught up in a large studio production or covering a hot news story, it is easy to
forget that the camera is an extremely complex piece of machinery. It needs careful
handling and a measure of respect.
You need to know about the dos and don't s of camera operation.

Basic camera don'ts

 Do not leave a camera unprotected in the rain, hot sun, or extreme cold. When
you must use a camcorder in the rain protect it with a raincoat or atleast a plastic
sheet. Some zoom lenses in extremely wet or cold weather. Test the lens before
using on location. Prevent the video cassettes or optical discs from getting wet,
and never use wet tapes.
 Do not point the lens for an extended period of time at the midday sun. although
the CCDs will not be damaged by the intensity of the sunlight, they may suffer
from heat generated by the focussed rays. Equally, don't leave the viewfinder
pointed at the sun for an extended period of time. This is because its magnifying
lens can collect the sun's rays, melting its housing and electronics.
 Do not leave the camcorder batteries in the sun or worse drop them. Batteries are
quite sensitive to heat and shock. Some batteries should not be charged in extreme
cold conditions.
 Do not the camcorder on its side this is because you may damage the viewfinder
or the clipped-on microphone on the other side. When you through with shooting,
cap the camera with the external lens cover and close the aperture to the cap
position.

Before shootings
 Count all the pieces of equipment and mark them on your checklist. If you need
auxiliary equipment such as external microphone and camera light, make sure you
have the right connecting cables.
 Unless you are running after hot news, first set up the tripod and check whether
the camera plate fits the receptacle on the fluid head and balances the camera
32
 when locked in place. Do some panning and tilting to determine the optimal pan
and tilt drag. Check the pan and tilt locks. Insert the battery or connect the camera
to its alternate power supply and do a brief test recording before taking the
camcorder into the field. Ensure that the camcorder records both audio and video.
 If you are engaged in more elaborate field productions using high quality EFP
cameras and separate VTRs, check the connecting cables and the various power
supplies. You may need a video feed from the camera or VTR to a battery-
powered field monitor for the director. Be especially aware of connector. In EFP a
loose connector can mean a lost production day. As with the camcorder, hook up
all the equipment you will use in the field and do a test recording before going on
location. Never assume that things will work merely because it worked in the
past.
 Check that the external microphone and the camera microphone are working
properly. Most microphones need to be switched on before they become
operational. Ensure there is enough cable for the external microphone so that the
reporter can work far enough away from the camera. If you are doing primarily
news that requires an external microphone for the field reporter, you may want to
keep the external microphone plugged in to save time and minimize costly
mistakes. You can coil the microphone cable and bow-tie it with a string or
shoelace.
 Ensure that the portable camera light works. Turn the lamp to verify that it works.
When using a separate battery for the light, make sure that the battery is fully
charged. If you have additional lights, ensure that they are all operational. Carry
enough AC extension cords to the additional lights.
 When using separate VTR for EFP, do a test recording to ensure that the VTR is
in good working order.
 Open the videocassette box to verify that it contains the cassette that fits the VTR
or camcorder and that it matches the tape length indicated on the box. Check that
the tape's supply reel has enough tape to justify the indicated playing time.
 Always take along a few more cassettes or other storage media than you think you
will need.

Handheld camcorder operating techniques

 To avoid jittery pictures, keep the camera as steady as possible. Support the small
camcorder in the palm of your hand and use the other hand to support the camera
arm or the camcorder. Whenever possible, press your elbows against your body,
inhale, and hold your breath during the shot. Bend your knees slightly when
shooting or lean against a sturdy support to increase stability of the camera.
 Whenever possible, use the viewfinder rather than the foldout screen to compose
your shots. The viewfinder makes focusing more accurate and is better guide to
33
 proper exposure than the flat screen. When shooting outdoors, will find that the
foldout screen is often rendered useless by the sun shining on it, obliterating the
image. Use the foldout screen only when your camera is in the automatic mode
and you need only a rough guide for framing a shot.
 To pan the camera, move it with your whole body rather than just your arms.
First, point your knees in the direction of the end of the pan. Then twist your body
with the camera aimed at the beginning of the pan. During the pan you are like a
spring that is uncoiling from the start of the action to the finish. Always bend your
knees slightly when shooting. Don't panic if you loose the subject temporarily in
the viewfinder. Keep the camera steady, look up to see where the subject is, and
aim the camera smoothly in the new direction.
 When moving with people who are walking, get in front of them with the camera
and walk backward at the same speed. This way you can see their faces rather
than their backs.
ENG/EFP camcorder operating techniques
 First, put the camera on a tripod whenever possible. You will have more control
over framing and steadying the shot. You will also get less tired during a long
shoot.
 All large ENG/EFP camcorders are designed to be carried on the operator's
shoulder. Assuming that you are right-handed, carry the camera on your right
shoulder and slip your right hand through the support strap on the zoom lens. This
helps you steady the camera while allowing you to operate the zoom and auto
focus control. Your left hand is free to operate the manual focus ring.
 Unless the camera has fully automated white balance, you must white-balance it
before starting to shoot. If you don't have a white card, focus the camera on
anything white, such as somebody's white shirt or the back of a script.
 Under normal conditions put the camera in the auto iris mode. Normal conditions
here means that you don't have to reveal picture detail in a dense shadow area or
struggle with extreme contrast problems, such as trying to get a decent exposure
of somebody standing in the bright sun or in front of a brightly lit wall.

Camera movements
Before learning to operate a camera, you should become familiar with the most common
camera movements.
Left and right always refer to the camera's point of view. The major camera movements
are pan, tilt, pedestal, tongue, crane or boom, dolly, truck or track, crab, arc, cant, and
zoom.

Pan

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To pan is to turn the camera horizontally, from left to right or from right to left. When
panning, the camera sweeps across the scene along a horizontal plane. The camera is
normally moved along its mount.

Tilt
This involves moving the camera up and down along a vertical plane on the camera's
mount. The camera sweeps the scene from top to bottom.

Pedestal
This means elevate or lower the camera on a studio pedestal. This movement can yield
the same results as tilting up and down.

Tongue
This involves movement of the whole camera from left to right or from right to left with
the boom of a camera crane. When you tongue left or right, the camera u points in the
same general direction, with only the boom moving left or right.

Crane or boom
This means moving the whole camera up or down on a camera crane or jib arm. The
effect is somewhat similar to an up or down pedestal except that the camera swoops over
a much greater vertical distance.

Dolly
This means moving the camera away or toward the scene in more or less straight line by
means of mobile camera mount. When you dolly in you move the camera closer to the
scene. When you dolly out, you move the camera away from the scene.

Truck or track
Tracking means moving the camera laterally by means of a mobile camera mount. To
truck left means to move the camera mount to the left with the camera pointing at a right
angle to the direction of travel and vice versa.

Crab
This means any sideways motion of the crane dolly. A crab is similar to a truck except
that the camera mount does not have to stay in a lateral position to the action the whole
time; it can move towards or away from the action as well. Crabbing is used more in film
than in television.

Arc
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This means moving the camera in slightly curved dolly or truck movement with a mobile
camera mount. To arc left means to dolly in or out in a camera left curve or to truck left
in a curve around the object. To arc right means the reverse.

Cant
This means tilting the shoulder mounted or hand held camera sideways. The result
usually referred to as a canting effect, is a slanted horizon line, which puts the scene on a
tilt. Through the skewed horizon you can achieve a highly dynamic scene.

Zoom
This means to change the focal length of the lens through the use of a zoom control while
the camera remains stationery. To zoom in means to change the lens gradually to a
narrow-angle position, thereby making the scene appear to move closer to the viewer. To
zoom out means to change the lens gradually to a wide-angle position, thereby making
the scene appear to move further away from the viewer.

Types of Shots
There is a convention in the video, film and television industries which assigns names
and guidelines to common types of shots, framing and picture composition. The list
below briefly describes the most common shot types. Note that the exact terminology
may vary between production environments but the basic principles are the same.

Television is made up of hundreds and thousands of pictures, called shots, each of which must
be carefully planned. To make television programs more interesting, various types of shots are
used.

Camera distance

There are three main shots describing how near or far the camera is from the subject. A close-
up shows only one part of the subject, usually in great detail. Close-ups would include shots of a
person's face, or the paws of a dog walking down a path, of a hand on a doorbell, or of a tree
branch. A picture showing half of the subject, such as a character from the waist up or the back
end of a car, is a medium shot, while a long shot shows the whole subject: a person from head
to foot or the entire car. Any of these shots can show one subject or more at the same time.
36
These three shots are used for specific reasons. An establishing shot at the beginning of a scene
tells viewers where they are; for example, a long shot of a car driving up to a hotel or a close-up
of a restaurant sign.

To show the effect of one person's words or actions on the other people in the scene, a reaction
shot is used.

In general, television is a close-up medium: things look better in close-up because the screen is
small. However, mixing the shots provides variety and gives information needed to keep the
story moving.

Shot descriptions

EWS (Extreme Wide Shot) or ELS (Extreme Long Shot)

The view is so far from the subject that she isn't even visible. This is often used as an
establishing shot.

VWS (Very Wide Shot) or VLS (Very Long Shot)

The subject is visible (barely), but the emphasis is still on placing her in her environment.

37
WS (Wide Shot) or LS (Long Shot)
The subject takes up the full frame, or at least as much as possible.

MS (Mid Shot) or Medium Shot

shows some part of the subject in more detail whilst still giving an impression of the whole
subject.

MCU (Medium Close Up)

Half way between a MS and a CU.

CU (Close Up)
A certain feature or part of the subject takes up the whole frame.

38
ECU (Extreme Close Up)

The ECU gets right in and shows extreme detail.

CA (Cutaway)
A shot of something other than the current action.

Cut-In
Shows some part of the subject in detail.

Two-Shot
A comfortable shot of two people, framed similarly to a mid shot.

39
(OSS) Over-the-Shoulder Shot
Looking from behind a person at the subject.

Noddy Shot
Usually refers to a shot of the interviewer listening and reacting to the subject, although noddies
can be used in drama and other situations.

Point-of-View Shot (POV)

Shows a view from the subject's perspective.

40
Weather Shot
The subject is the weather, usually the sky. Can be used for other purposes.

Camera Angles
The term camera angle means slightly different things to different people but it always
referrs to the way a shot is composed. Some people use it to include all camera shot
types, others use it to specifically mean the angle between the camera and the subject.

The angle from which a shot is taken is another way to give variety as well as information. A
high-angle shot positions the camera above eye-level, looking down on the subject, which
consequently appears insignificant, weak, helpless, or small according to how extreme the angle
is.

At eye-level, the impression is neutral. A low-angle shot has the camera looking up at the
subject, which then appears important, powerful, or domineering, again depending on how
exaggerated the angle is. Usually the camera looks at the subject, but occasionally the camera
shows what the subject is seeing. This is a reverse-angle shot.

Eye-Level

This is the most common view, being the real-world angle that we are all used to. It
shows subjects as we would expect to see them in real life. It is a fairly neutral shot.

High Angle

A high angle shows the subject from above, i.e. the camera is angled down towards the
subject. This has the effect of diminishing the subject, making them appear less powerful,
less significant or even submissive.

Low Angle

41
This shows the subject from below, giving them the impression of being more powerful
or dominant.

Bird's Eye

The scene is shown from directly above. This is a completely different and somewhat
unnatural point of view which can be used for dramatic effect or for showing a different
spatial perspective.

In drama it can be used to show the positions and motions of different characters and
objects, enabling the viewer to see things the characters can't.

The bird's-eye view is also very useful in sports, documentaries, etc.

Slanted

Also known as a dutch tilt, this is where the camera is purposely tilted to one side so the
horizon is on an angle. This creates an interesting and dramatic effect.

42
 CHAPTER THREE

LIGHTING AND LIGHTING TECHNIQUES

3.0. Introduction

Lighting is the raw material for creating visual images in any production be
it in motion film, video, television, sill photography or even computer
generated images. Light forms the basis of every visual you see on your
screen. As either film or television producers, it's important to think of
lighting not as something extra which is added in some situation, but a
fundamental part of all your video.

3.1.Common Lighting Terminology

Ambient Light The light already present in a scene, before any additional
lighting is added.

Back Light A light placed at the rear of a subject to light from behind.

Colour A standard of measuring the characteristics of light,

Temperature measured in Kelvin's.

Contrast Ratio The difference in brightness between the brightest white and
the darkest black within an image.

43
Fill Light A light placed to the side of the subject to fill out shadows
and balance the key light.

Flood A broad beam of light, less directional and intense than a

spot.

Fresnel A light which has a lens with raised circular ridges on its
outer surface. The Fresnel lens is used to focus the light
beam.

Halogen Type of lamp in which a tungsten filament is sealed in a

clear capsule filled with a halogen gas.

Hard Light Light directly from a source such as the sun, traveling
undisturbed onto the subject being lit.

Incandescent Incandescent lamps produce heat by heating a wire filament

until it glows. The glow is caused by the filament's resistance
to the current and is called incandescence.

Incident Light Light seen directly from a light source (lamp, sun, etc).

Key Light The main light on the subject, providing most of the
illumination and contrast.

Reflected Light Light seen after having bounced off a surface.

44
Soft Light Light which appears to "wrap around" the subject to some
degree. Produces less shadows or softer shadows.

Spot A controlled, narrowly-focused beam of light.

Tungsten Light from an ordinary light bulb containing a thin coiled

tungsten wire that becomes incandescent (emits light) when
an electric current is passed along it. Tungsten colour
temperature is around 2800K to 3400K. Also known as
incandescent light.

3.2. Types of Lights used in film and video

These are some common types of light used in film, video and photography.
It is worthy to note that some of these explanations are not always rigid and
lighting crew may interpret them a little differently.

Blonde 1000-2000w, used as a key flood light for large areas.

Redhead 650-1000w, used as a key flood light for large areas.

HMI A high-quality type of light which uses an arc lamp instead of

filament bulb.

Halogen Work150-500w, used as a key flood light for lighting large areas.
Lamp This is a low-budget lighting solution.

45
Fresnel A light which has a lens with raised circular ridges on its
outer surface which are used to focus the light beam.

Other Lights Domestic light bulbs can be used at a pinch, ideally as a

secondary light such as fill or backlight.
Many video cameras have built-in lights or the ability to
mount a light-these are useful in emergencies but provide
poor quality lighting.

3.3. Lighting Equipment

Some common types of equipment used in video and photography lighting.

18% Gray Card This is a gray-coloured card which reflects 18% of

the light which falls upon it. it is usually used as a
reference to calibrate light meters and set exposure.

Ballast A device used to control the electrical current in a

light.

Consoles Hardware and software systems which control

lighting. Operated by the lighting technician,
consoles coordinate lighting displays on stages,
studios, etc.

Light Meter A tool used to measure light and indicate the ideal
exposure setting. Also known as an exposure meter.

46
Reflector Board A specially-designed reflective surface used to act as
a secondary light source, it is lightweight and

flexible.

Gels Materials which are placed in front of a light source

to alter it's characteristics, e.g. colour temperature or
dispersion and light colour.

Stands & Metallic systems used to support lights and hold

Clamps them in the correct position.

3.4. Colour Temperature Chart

In lighting, Colour temperature is described as a standard method of telling

colours for use in a range of situations and with different equipment. Colour
temperatures are normally expressed in units called kelvins (K).

47
3.4.1. Colour Temperature in Video

In most instances in video productions, the relevant temperatures range from

around 2,000K to 8,000K. For lighting technicians, this usually means
selecting lights, gels and filters which are most appropriate to the prevailing
light or to create a particular colour effect or mood. An example could be a
lighting technician will select a "5600K filter" to use outside in the middle of
a sunny day.

48
3.4.2. Terminology

Degrees kelvin

According to the International System of Units (SI) , colour temperatures

are stated in kelvins, not in degrees Kelvin. The "degrees" part of the name
was made obsolete in 1967. However, the "degrees" reference has remained
in common use in media industries.

Contrast Ratio

In lighting, Contrast Ratio is a measurement of the difference in brightness

between the whitest white and the darkest black within an image. A ratio of
300:1 means the brightest point in the image is 300 times as bright as the
darkest point. A higher contrast ratio therefore means a larger difference in
brightness. Contrast ratio is of interest in two situations:

a) Cameras: When recording an image (video, film, photography)

b) TVs, Monitors, etc. When choosing or setting up a playback device

(TV, computer monitor, etc)

3.5. The Standard 3-Point Lighting Technique

The Three Point Lighting Technique is a standard method used in

visual media such as video, film, still photography and computer-
generated imagery also known as CGI. It is a simple but versatile
system which forms the basis of most lighting. Once you understand
three point lighting you are well on the way to understanding all
lighting techniques. The technique uses three lights namely: the key

49
 light, fill light and back light. Naturally you will need three lights to
utilize the technique fully, but the principles are still important even if
you only use one or two lights.

3.5.1. Key Light

Provide light set up for all the three.

This is the main light. It is usually the strongest and has the most influence
on the look of the scene. It is placed to one side of the camera/subject so
that this side is well lit and the other side has some shadow.

3.5.2. Fill Light

This is the secondary light and is placed on the opposite side of the key
light. It is used to fill the shadows created by the key. The fill will usually
be softer and less bright than the key. To achieve this, you could move the
light further away or use some spun. You might also want to set the fill light
to more of a flood than the key.

50
 3.5.3. Back Light

The back light is placed behind the subject and lights it from the rear.
Rather than providing direct lighting (like the key and fill), its purpose is to
provide definition and subtle highlights around the subject's outlines. This
helps separate the subject from the background and provide a three-
dimensional look.

Note: Place the camera in such a way that you do not film against the source
of lights as illustrated in the diagramme below.

3.6. Lighting for Video

Video lighting is based on the same principles as lighting for any

other visual media.

Light Sources

All video uses some sort of lighting, whether it be natural light (from
the sun) or artificial lights. The aim of video lighting is to choose the
best source(s) to achieve your desired lighting. The first thing you
need is sufficient light and in addition, you must ensure that your
camera is able to record usable shots in these conditions. Although
with modern digital cameras this is hardly ever a problem except in
very low light or strong contrast.

51
 Assuming you have enough light, you must then consider the quality
of the light and how the various light sources combine to record the
desired the image. If you have clashing light sources (e.g. while
filming indoors with artificial interior lights and natural sunlight
coming through the windows), you may find the colours in your
image appear unnatural. At this point, it's best to control the light
sources yourself if possible (e.g. turn off the lights or draw the
curtains or close the windows).

At times you may decide to move filming locations and when you do
so, think about what light source you are using. For example, if you
move from an outside setting to an inside one with artificial lights, the
amount of light may seem the same but the colour temperature will
definitely change according to the type of lights. You will be
compelled to perform white balancing to achieve the right room
colour.

3.6.2. Contrast Ratio

Contrast ratio refers to the variation in brightness between the

brightest and darkest parts of the picture. It is unfortunate that video,
film and as well as the human eye do not cope well with extreme
contrast in lights. The result of over-contrast is that some parts of the
picture will be too bright or too dark to see any detail. For this reason
you need to ensure that there is not too much contrast in your shots by
adjusting the camera exposure setting or moving the camera to a
different direction if you are filming against the source of light.

52
 Camera-Mounted Lights

Provide a shot of a camera with mounted lights

This is an easy, versatile solution only designed to light up the scene

enough to allow normal camera operations. It serves the lighting
purpose in situation when you have no alternative to any other source
of light. The camera battery serves as the source of power to this type
of lights, although a separate power source supply can be used. You
need to be cautious that lights which draw power from the camera
battery will significantly shorten the battery's charge time. Although
this type of lighting does not create pleasing effects, it is a simple,
practical lighting solution for your camera in low light conditions.

3.6.3. Night-Mode Video Shooting

Some modern digital video cameras offer a special "night mode

vision" option which allows you to shoot with virtually no light. The
night mode uses what is known as infrared light instead of normal
visible light. Infrared light is useful in extreme circumstances when
you have no other option. Unfortunately the results tend to be poor-
quality colourless green. However, you can use this mode for a special
effect if it suits the content and the scene you are shooting then.
Although it is a simple, practical solution, it does not produce
particularly good lighting and should only really be used when better
lighting is not possible.

53
3.7. Lighting Interviews

When setting up lights for interviews, the normal rules of lighting

used in other lighting media apply to interviews. The director of
photography and the producer need to make a quick decision whether
or not lights are actually necessary fro the interview. Although
conventional wisdom says you should control interview lighting
yourself if possible, but if you are shooting outdoors on a sunny day,
in many situations the existing light will be fine and more practical.

Outdoor filming

In most cases, the weather conditions (especially when cloudy or

sunny) will obviously influence your lighting decision. If the natural
light is sufficient, there may be no need to add artificial light. If you
use your own lights or reflectors or you may need to add the
appropriate gels to match your lights to the daytime colour
temperature. But what if the sun is too much? The option is to
improvise some filters to cut down the sun light to achieve your
desired lighting and image but you need to be careful not to make the
guest squint. Strong sunlight creates strong shadows which can be
balanced with a reflector.

Indoor filming

The most appropriate thing is to find the best location that is, a room
with sufficient space and the ability to control existing light. Unless
you have a good reason to use existing light sources, try to eliminate

54
them all by drawing curtains. It is only after doing this that you can
play with different lights and set up your own lights.

What if you have no lighting?

You will find that in many video filming situations you are limited to
the available light; that is, artificial or natural light. In this
circumstance, the reflector board becomes your lifesaver. Most
reflectors are easy to carry and use, it can create useful lighting effects
and compensate for unfavourable conditions. The most common types
of reflectors are gold, grey and white and your lighting technician will
guide you on when to use each. When the sun rays fall on the
reflector, they are bounced from the board and directed to where the
action is taking place or where the subject is seated. Using reflectors
is a simplest way of solving your lighting problem but reflectors can
only work in outdoor situations. Creative lighting people can bounce
lights from outdoors through open doors or windows into an interior
set although they may be limited.

Lighting with Background Windows

Shooting pictures indoors with external windows open thus letting in

excessive amounts of light poses a challenge for video makers. The
large difference in light levels between the room and the outside view
make finding the correct exposure a challenge. There is a high
possibility of obtaining over exposed shots and video is particularly
susceptible to this problem due to it's relatively low contrast ratio.

55
At times, you can't avoid having the window in shot (e.g. in fixed
press conferences settings, church functions, office set ups etc.), in
most cases the only thing you can do is use the manual iris to set your
exposure correctly for the subjects in the room. This means that the
window will be over-exposed but that's a necessary compromise. If
you wish to show the outside view, expose the iris for the window
(which will make the room dark). If you have time and resources
available, there are two things you can do to help even out the lighting
so it's possible to capture both areas effectively. The first is to add
more light to the room which you can light on the subject. This will
decrease the contrast ratio between them and the light from the
window. In some cases switching on the standard room lighting can
help, although this often introduces new problems such as clashing
colour temperatures and harsh downward shadows which will compel
you to white balance and most likely setting up a three pointer lighting
technique with key light, fill light and back light. The trouble is if you
do not have these lights.

The second possible action you could take is to reduce the amount of
light coming through the window by placing some sort of filter over
it. You can achieve this by using a black scrim (a fine mesh material)
and tape it to the window. If properly done, the background will be
much more manageable through the scrim. If the entire window needs
to be framed in the shot you'll need to be careful and discreet with the
scrim/filter. It can be difficult getting exactly the right fit. If only part
of the window is in shot it's a lot easier. Filters can cause unwanted

56
 side effects such as ripple and the moiré effect. Moving further away
from the window helps.

3.8. Lighting Effects

Cold/Warm. The desired feeling of coldness or warmth can be

achieved by using additional filters or doubling up on gels. Very blue
means very cold, as it is associated with water bodies and very
red/orange means very hot.

Moonlight (or any night-time mode)

Although many video producers feel this lighting technique has

become something of a cliché, it still serves its purpose. With this
technique, one can make daytime seem like night simply by lowering
the exposure slightly and adding a blue filter to the camera. However
a convincing illusion may require more effort than this- for example,
you don't want any daytime giveaways such as birds flying through
your shots. Secondly, you also need to think about any other lighting
which should appear in shot, such as house or street lights.

Firelight

To light a person's face as if they were looking at a fierce fire, you can
try this: Point a redhead with orange gel away from the subject at a
large reflector which reflects the light back at the subject. Shake the
reflector to simulate firelight. You can also add some fire cracking
sound effects for the effect to be more authentic and believable.

57
 Watching TV

Sometimes you may need to produce an effect of someone watching

television. To achieve this, shine a blue light at the scene or subject
and wave a piece of cloth or paper in front of the light to simulate
flickering.

3.9. Lighting safety precautions

In video or film production, you need to put in place a number of

measures when dealing with lights and lighting equipment. You need
to exercise a lot of care and keep onlookers away from lights because
they are notorious for knocking them over. Lights produce immense
heat and can burn. Be extremely careful as the barn doors can burn
your fingers. Wait until lights cool down before touching or moving
them or always hold them with a dump cloth or some heavy material
that cannot burn easily.

Only use material for gels which is specifically designed for lighting.
Don't use polythene paper, tracing paper, baking paper, plastic, or any
other material or attach anything to a light which isn't designed for the
application. They will burn and produce undesirable effects during
your shoot and you will be compelled to call for a cut thus delaying
your schedule. Make sure the C-Stands are stable to support the light
weights and loose cables are gaffer taped to the ground to avoid the
other crew trample over. Lights are power-hungry and it is advisable
no to overload sockets. Never plug more than 2Kw of lighting into a

58
domestic power point. Alternatively, you can have a silenced
generator to improvise for your power supply.

Make sure all lights have adequate ventilation and never cover them.
If you are using power dimmers, use smaller fans to provide
ventilation to avoid over heating. Harsh light is not flattering; soft
light creates a warmer feel. To maximize light use, avoid strong nose
shadows or any strong contrast on the face, place the key light on the
same side as the camera and fill the shadows. It is also good to avoid
reflections from glasses and to get this right, adjust the position of the
subject and/or lights. Bald heads clean shaven heads can at times
reflect a lot of light and appear over-exposed. Tell you lighting
technician to weaken or soften the light with a diffusion gel. In
addition, soft light and diffusion helps reduce the appearance of
wrinkles.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

SOUND PRODUCTION
4.0 Introduction to audio

Audio work involves the production, recording, manipulation and

reproduction of sound waves. To understand audio you must have a grasp
of two things: Sound Waves: What they are, how they are produced and
how we hear them and Sound Equipment: What the different components
are, what they do, how to choose the correct equipment and use it
properly. We will look more in to the second element in this chapter.

Although pictures come first in film/video or television production, the

quality of sound recorded is crucial; without good quality sound,
wonderful and creative pictures are useless. This chapter will look at
productions where sound and video is recorded on video tape, that is,
sound is not recorded separately. In this kind of production set up, the
camera operator must learn to listen to sound and to cut according to
sound and not pictures. This basic production set up will consist of a
unidirectional gun mike that will be boomed or sometimes hand-held by
the soundman with an XLR professional sound cable going straight into
the video camera. At times, one may use a transmitter and receiver. If the
camera operator for example switches off the camera or mutes the sound
recording levels, then there will be no sound recorded on the video tape.
Instead, you will have silent pictures which will distract the attention of
the viewers and of course with no message delivered. It is important that
the camera operator and the soundman learn to move together; although

60
 the camera operator dictates the movement she or he must the sound man
is attached because of the cable wobble.

4.1. Sound set up

The producers' first job description as a sound man is to learn to listen to

different sounds in a shoot location. These sounds may be music from a
radio, planes flying over, mobile public address system, television sets,
refrigerators, electric fans, air conditioners (ACs) or any other sound
produced from within the shoot location. It could also be from the dog
barking, chatting of the birds or from a cockerel. The trick is to switch of
all things that produce sound, close the windows, tell people to be quiet
for a while, or stop moving things that produce unnecessary sound. If
completely unsure about the noise levels, move the mic closer to the
subject or turn a round 180° or move to a different location if possible.
The surrounding sound may appear undisruptive with the human ear but
when recorded it will be destructive.

Using the headphones is the best solution in detecting unwanted noise

while filming. With the headphones on, you will be able to listen and
hear how the sound levels are picked and what sound you are actually
recording. Most broadcast cameras have two sound inputs, that is,
channel 1 and channel 2. As a sound person you need to know that for
quality sound recording always set Track 2 as an onboard mic while
channel 1 or Track 1 as your external mic. In this set up, channel 2 will
pick up background sound while channel 1 which has an external XLR
cable with a mic, will be your main mic to record desired sound bytes.
Channel 2 will record background (ambient) noise level more or less
61
 consistent in a lower level. This adds smoothness to the flow of the
production.

There are two reasons why you might want to have an external mic on
channel 1. First you may have a mic which is more suited to the type of
work you are doing than the camera's built-in mic. Often, the better mic
will simply be mounted on top of the camera. Secondly, you might need
to have the mic in a different position to the camera. For example, when
covering a news conference, speech, or a function with many people, the
camera could be at the back of the room with an XLR cable running to
the stage or dais, where you have a mic mounted on a stand.

Set the sound levels accordingly; however, it is recommended that your

sound levels should not be distorted. Sound distortion comes as a failure
by either the camera operator or the sound recordist to reduce the
recording levels appropriately. Optimum sound levels should bounce
from 12-20 dbs to avoid over picking.

4.2. Audio Cables and Connectors

For any audio recording or production can take place, you must have
quality sound cables. The most common types of audio cables and
connectors available in the market include XLR, RCA and 1/4" jacks.

Audio Cables

In sound production, there are two main types of audio cable used
namely: Single core (which gives unbalanced sound) and One pair /
shielded (which produces balanced sound). In a single core / shielded

62
cable, the single core is used for the +ve, or 'hot', and the shield is
used for the -ve, or 'cold'. This type of cable is used for unbalanced
audio signals. A one pair / shielded cable has one core as the +ve, and
the other core is -ve. The shield is earthed. This type of cable is used
for balanced audio signals.

One pair / shielded cable

Audio Cables and Connections

Audio Cables XLR to 1/4" monoXLR to RCA Stereo jack to

jack 2 x RCA

Audio Connectors XLR to stereo jack XLR to 2 x

RCA

Audio Connectors

There are a variety of different audio connectors available in the

market. The most common types are 3-pin XLR, RCA, and 6.5mm
jacks (also known as ¼" jacks).

The 3-pin XLR

63
 3-pin XLR connectors are mainly used for balanced audio signals.
Using a balanced signal reduces the risk of inference.

 Pin 1 is the earth (or shield)

 Pin 2 is the +ve (or 'hot')

 Pin 3 is the -ve (or 'cold).

There are a number of different XLR's - 3-pin, 4-pin, 5-pin etc

3-pin
XLR Male

3-pin
XLR
Female

¼" Jack (6.5mm Jack)

There are two types of 6.5mm Jacks: Mono and stereo. The mono jack has a
tip and a sleeve, the stereo jack has ring, a tip and a sleeve.

 On the mono jack the tip is the +ve, and the sleeve is the -ve or shield.

 On a stereo jack being used for a balanced signal, the tip is the +ve,
the ring is the -ve, and the sleeve is the shield.

64
  On a stereo jack being used for a stereo signal (left and right), the tip
is the left, the ring is the right, and the sleeve is the shield.

Jacks also come in various sizes - 6.5mm (¼"), 3.5mm, 2.5mm. The wiring
for all of them is the same.

1/4" Mono
Jack

1/4"
Stereo
Jack

RCA

RCAs are commonly used a lot for our home stereos, videos, DVD players
etc. The RCA cables carry either audio or video. It is wired the same way as
a mono jack. The center pin is the +ve and the outer ring is the -ve or shield.

RCA Male

XLR to 1/4" Mono Jack

65
The most common way to wire a 3-pin XLR to a 1/4 inch mono jack (or
6.5mm jack), is to join the -ve and shield together. This can be done by
either soldering the shield and -ve wires to the sleeve of the jack or by
soldering a jumper on the XLR.

Either way gives you the same result: An unbalanced audio cable.

XLR to 1/4" TRS Connector (wired for balanced mono)

The usual way to connect a 3-pin XLR to a 1/4" TRS (AKA stereo jack
plug) is to use the following pin allocation:

 XLR pin 1 to jack sleeve

 XLR pin 2 to jack tip

 XLR pin 3 to jack ring

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4.2 Microphones and how they work

Microphones convert acoustical energy (sound waves) into electrical

energy (the audio signal). Different types of microphone have
different ways of converting energy but they all share one thing in
common: The diaphragm. This is a thin piece of material (such as
plastic or aluminum) which vibrates when it is struck by sound waves.
In a typical hand-held mic, the diaphragm is located in the head of the
microphone.

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 Location of Microphone Diaphragm

When the diaphragm vibrates, it causes other components in the

microphone to vibrate. These vibrations are converted into an
electrical current which becomes the audio signal that the ear hears.
At the other end of the audio chain, the loudspeaker in our TV set or
Radio or cell phone is also a transducer as it converts the electrical
energy back into acoustical energy.

3.2.1. Types of Microphone

There are a number of different types of microphone in common use.

The differences can be divided into two areas:

(a) The type of conversion technology they use

This refers to the technical method the mic uses to convert sound into
electricity. The most common technologies are dynamic, condenser,
ribbon and crystal. Each has advantages and disadvantages, and each
is generally more suited to certain types of application. The following
pages will provide details.

(b) The type of application they are designed for

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 Some mics are designed for general use and can be used effectively in
many different situations. Others are very specialized and are only
really useful for their intended purpose. Characteristics to look for
include directional properties, frequency response and impedance
(more on these later).

4.2.2. Mic Level & Line Level

The electrical current generated by a microphone is very small.

Referred to as mic level, this signal is typically measured in milli-
volts. Before it can be used for anything serious the signal needs to be
amplified, usually to line level (typically 0.5 -2V). Being a stronger
and more robust signal, line level is the standard signal strength used
by audio processing equipment and common domestic equipment
such as CD players, tape machines, VCRs, etc.

This amplification is achieved in one or more of the following ways:

 Some microphones have tiny built-in amplifiers which boost the

signal to a high mic level or line level.

 The mic can be fed through a small boosting amplifier, often called a
line amp.

 Sound mixers have small amplifiers in each channel. Attenuators can

accommodate mics of varying levels and adjust them all to an even
line level.

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  The audio signal is fed to a power amplifier - a specialised amp which
boosts the signal enough to be fed to loudspeakers.

4.3. Dynamic Microphones

Dynamic microphones are versatile and ideal for general-purpose use. They
use a simple design with few moving parts. They are relatively sturdy and
resilient to rough handling. They are also better suited to handling high
volume levels, such as from certain musical instruments or amplifiers. They
have no internal amplifier and do not require batteries or external power.

How Dynamic Microphones Work

As you may recall from your school science, when a magnet is moved near a
coil of wire an electrical current is generated in the wire. Using this
electromagnet principle, the dynamic microphone uses a wire coil and
magnet to create the audio signal.

The diaphragm is attached to the coil. When the diaphragm vibrates in

response to incoming sound waves, the coil moves backwards and forwards
past the magnet. This creates a current in the coil which is channeled from
the microphone along wires. A common configuration is shown below.

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Earlier we mentioned that loudspeakers perform the opposite function of
microphones by converting electrical energy into sound waves. This is
demonstrated perfectly in the dynamic microphone which is basically a
loudspeaker in reverse. When you see a cross-section of a speaker you'll see
the similarity with the diagram above. If fact, some intercom systems use the
speaker as a microphone. You can also demonstrate this effect by plugging a
microphone into the headphone output of your stereo, although we don't
recommend it!

Technical Notes:

Dynamics do not usually have the same flat frequency response as

condensers. Instead they tend to have tailored frequency responses for
particular applications.

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Neodymium magnets are more powerful than conventional magnets,
meaning that neodymium microphones can be made smaller, with more
linear frequency response and higher output level.

4.4. Condenser Microphones

Condenser means capacitor, an electronic component which stores energy in

the form of an electrostatic field. The term condenser is actually obsolete but
has stuck as the name for this type of microphone, which uses a capacitor to
convert acoustical energy into electrical energy. Condenser microphones
require power from a battery or external source. The resulting audio signal is
stronger signal than that from a dynamic. Condensers also tend to be more
sensitive and responsive than dynamics, making them well-suited to
capturing subtle nuances in a sound. They are not ideal for high-volume
work, as their sensitivity makes them prone to distort.

How Condenser Microphones Work

A capacitor has two plates with a voltage between them. In the condenser
mic, one of these plates is made of very light material and acts as the
diaphragm. The diaphragm vibrates when struck by sound waves, changing
the distance between the two plates and therefore changing the capacitance.
Specifically, when the plates are closer together, capacitance increases and a
charge current occurs. When the plates are further apart, capacitance
decreases and a discharge current occurs. A voltage is required across the
capacitor for this to work. This voltage is supplied either by a battery in the
mic or by external phantom power.

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Cross-Section of a Typical Condenser Microphone

4.5. The Electret Condenser Microphone

The Electret condenser mic uses a special type of capacitor which has a
permanent voltage built in during manufacture. This is somewhat like a
permanent magnet, in that it doesn't require any external power for
operation. However good Electret condenser mics usually include a pre-
amplifier which does still require power. Other than this difference, you can
think of an Electret condenser microphone as being the same as a normal
condenser.

Technical Notes:

 Condenser microphones have a flatter frequency response than

dynamics.

 A condenser mic works in much the same way as an electrostatic

tweeter (although obviously in reverse).
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4.6. Directional Properties

Every microphone has a property known as directionality. This describes the

microphone's sensitivity to sound from various directions. Some
microphones pick up sound equally from all directions, others pick up sound
only from one direction or a particular combination of directions. The types
of directionality are divided into three main categories:

Omnidirectional
Picks up sound evenly from all directions (Omni means "all" or "every").

1. Unidirectional
Picks up sound predominantly from one direction. This includes
cardioid and hypercardioid microphones (see below).

2. Bidirectional
Picks up sound from two opposite directions.

To help understand a the directional properties of a particular microphone,

user manuals and promotional material often include a graphical
representation of the microphone's directionality. This graph is called a
polar pattern. Some typical examples are shown below.

4.7. Omnidirectional

Captures sound equally from all directions.

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Uses: Capturing ambient noise; Situations where sound is coming from
many directions; Situations where the mic position must remain fixed while
the sound source is moving.

Notes:

 Although omnidirectional mics are very useful in the right situation,

picking up sound from every direction is not usually what you need.
Omni sound is very general and unfocused - if you are trying to
capture sound from a particular subject or area it is likely to be
overwhelmed by other noise.

Cardioid

Cardioid means "heart-shaped", which is the type of pick-up

pattern these mics use. Sound is picked up mostly from the front, but to a
lesser extent the sides as well.

Uses: Emphasizing sound from the direction the mic is pointed whilst
leaving some latitude for mic movement and ambient noise.

Notes:

 The cardioid is a very versatile microphone, ideal for general use.

Handheld mics are usually cardioid.

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  There are many variations of the cardioid pattern (such as the
hypercardioid below).

Hypercardioid

This is exaggerated version of the cardioid pattern. It is very

directional and eliminates most sound from the sides and rear. Due to the
long thin design of hypercardioids, they are often referred to as shotgun
microphones.

Uses: Isolating the sound from a subject or direction when there is a lot of
ambient noise; Picking up sound from a subject at a distance.

Notes:

 By removing all the ambient noise, unidirectional sound can

sometimes be a little unnatural. It may help to add a discreet audio bed
from another mic (i.e. constant background noise at a low level).

 You need to be careful to keep the sound consistent. If the mic doesn't
stay pointed at the subject you will lose the audio.

 Shotguns can have an area of increased sensitivity directly to the rear.

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Bidirectional

Uses a figure-of-eight pattern and picks up sound equally

from two opposite directions.

Uses: As you can imagine, there aren't a lot of situations which require this
polar pattern. One possibility would be an interview with two people facing
each other (with the mic between them).

Variable Directionality

Some microphones allow you to vary the directional characteristics by

selecting omni, cardioid or shotgun patterns. This feature is sometimes
found on video camera microphones, with the idea that you can adjust the
directionality to suit the angle of zoom, e.g. have a shotgun mic for long
zooms. Some models can even automatically follow the lens zoom angle so
the directionality changes from cardioid to shotgun as you zoom in.

Although this seems like a good idea (and can sometimes be handy),
variable zoom microphones don't perform particularly well and they often
make a noise while zooming. Using different mics will usually produce
better results.

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Microphone Impedance

When dealing with microphones, one consideration which is often

misunderstood or overlooked is the microphone's impedance rating. Perhaps
this is because impedance isn't a "critical" factor; that is, microphones will
still continue to operate whether or not the best impedance rating is used.
However, in order to ensure the best quality and most reliable audio,
attention should be paid to getting this factor right.

Microphone Frequency Response

Frequency response refers to the way a microphone responds to different

frequencies. It is a characteristic of all microphones that some frequencies
are exaggerated and others are attenuated (reduced). For example, a
frequency response which favours high frequencies means that the resulting
audio output will sound more trebly than the original sound.

Frequency Response Charts

A microphone's frequency response pattern is shown using a chart like the

one below and referred to as a frequency response curve. The x axis shows
frequency in Hertz, the y axis shows response in decibels. A higher value
means that frequency will be exaggerated, a lower value means the
frequency is attenuated. In this example, frequencies around 5 - kHz are
boosted while frequencies above 10kHz and below 100Hz are attenuated.
This is a typical response curve for a vocal microphone.

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Which Response Curve is Best?

An ideal "flat" frequency response means that the microphone is equally

sensitive to all frequencies. In this case, no frequencies would be
exaggerated or reduced (the chart above would show a flat line), resulting in
a more accurate representation of the original sound. We therefore say that a
flat frequency response produces the purest audio. In the real world a
perfectly flat response is not possible and even the best "flat response"
microphones have some deviation.

More importantly, it should be noted that a flat frequency response is not

always the most desirable option. In many cases a tailored frequency
response is more useful. For example, a response pattern designed to
emphasise the frequencies in a human voice would be well suited to picking
up speech in an environment with lots of low-frequency background noise.

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The main thing is to avoid response patterns which emphasise the wrong
frequencies. For example, a vocal mic is a poor choice for picking up the
low frequencies of a bass drum.

Frequency Response Ranges

You will often see frequency response quoted as a range between two
figures. This is a simple (or perhaps "simplistic") way to see which
frequencies a microphone is capable of capturing effectively. For example, a
microphone which is said to have a frequency response of 20 Hz to 20 kHz
can reproduce all frequencies within this range. Frequencies outside this
range will be reproduced to a much lesser extent or not at all. This
specification makes no mention of the response curve, or how successfully
the various frequencies will be reproduced. Like many specifications, it
should be taken as a guide only.

Condenser vs Dynamic

Condenser microphones generally have flatter frequency responses than

dynamic. All other things being equal, this would usually mean that a
condenser is more desirable if accurate sound is a prime consideration.

How to Use Microphones

This tutorial aims to provide you with the skills to choose the correct
microphone and use it properly to obtain the best possible sound. It is
suitable for people interested in any type of audio or video work. Before you
begin you should have a basic understanding of the most common types of

80
microphone and how they work. If you don't, read how microphones work
first.

Choosing the Right Microphone

As we discussed in the previous tutorial, there are many different types of

microphone in common use. The differences are usually described in two
ways: The technology they use (e.g. dynamic, condenser, etc) and their
directionality (e.g. omnidirectional, cardioid, etc). In addition, microphones
have a number of other characteristics which need to be taken into account.

When choosing a microphone, the first thing you will need to know is what
characteristics you need. After that, you can worry about things like size,
brand, cost, etc.

Things to Consider

Work through each of these characteristics and determine your needs.

Directionality

Decide which type of directional pattern best fits your needs. Remember that
it's usually better to use a less directional mic in a position close to the sound
source, than to be further away using a hypercardioid. For more information
see microphone directional characteristics.

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Frequency Response

Make sure the mic's frequency response is appropriate for the intended use.
As a rule of thumb flat response patterns are best, but in many cases a
tailored response will be even better. For more information see microphone
frequency response.

Handling Noise

Remember that the diaphragm works by converting vibrations from sound

waves into an electrical signal. Unless the microphone has some sort of
protection system, the diaphragm can't tell the difference between a
desirable sound wave vibration and any other sort of vibration (such as a
person tapping the microphone casing). Any sort of vibration at all will
become part of the generated audio signal.

If your mic is likely to be subjected to any sort of handling noise or

vibration, you will need a mic which will help prevent this noise from being
picked up. High quality hand-held mics usually attempt to isolate the
diaphragm from vibrations using foam padding, suspension, or some other
method. Low quality mics tend to transfer vibrations from the casing right
into the diaphragm, resulting in a terrible noise. Note that lavalier mics don't
usually have protection from handling noise, simply because they are too
small to incorporate any padding. It is therefore important to make sure they
won't be moved or bumped.

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Purchasing a Microphone

If you can afford it, it makes sense to buy a range of microphones and use
the most appropriate one for each job. If your budget is more limited, think
about all the different things you need to use the mic for and try to find
something which will do a reasonable job of as many of them as possible.

 For vocalists a simple cardioid dynamic mic (such as the Sure SM58)
is a good starting point.

 For video makers, a useful option is a condenser mic with selectable

directionality, so you can change between cardioid and hypercardioid.
If you can afford three mics, consider a hand-held dynamic, a shotgun
condenser, and a lapel mic.

Comparisons

In the end, sound is quite subjective. You really want a mic which will
provide the sound you like. A good idea is to set up a contolled test. Record
the same sounds using different mics, keeping all other factors constant.

Make sure you are comparing apples with apples; for example, don't
compare a hand-held cardioid and a shotgun in the same position. If you do
want to compare these mics, make sure each is placed in its optimum
position.

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How to Position a Microphone

Distance

The golden rule of microphone placement is get the distance right. In

general, place the microphone as close as practical to the sound source
without getting so close that you introduce unwanted effects (see below).

The aim is to achieve a good balance between the subject sound and the
ambient noise. In most cases you want the subject sound to be the clear
focus, filled out with a moderate or low level of ambient noise. The desired
balance will vary depending on the situation and the required effect. For
example, interviews usually work best with very low ambient noise.
However if you want to point out to your audience that the surroundings are
very noisy you could hold the mic slightly further away from the subject.

It is possible to get too close. Some examples:

 If a vocal mic is to close to the speaker's mouth, the audio may be

unnaturally bassy (boomy, excessive low frequencies). You are also
likely to experience popping and other unpleasant noises.

 A microphone too close to a very loud sound source is likely to cause

distortion.

 Placing a mic too close to moving parts or other obstacles may be

dangerous. For example, be careful when micing drums that the
drummer isn't going to hit the mic.

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Phase Problems

When using more than one microphone you need to be wary of phasing, or
cancellation. Due to the way sound waves interfere with each other,
problems can occur when the same sound source is picked up from different
mics placed at slightly different distances. A common example is an
interview situation in which two people each have a hand-held mic - when
one person talks they are picked up by both mics and the resulting
interference creates a phasing effect.

Think Laterally

You don't always have to conform to standard ways of doing things. As long
as you're not placing a microphone in danger there's no reason not to use
them in unusual positions. For example, lavalier mics can be very versatile
due to their small size - they can be placed in positions which would be
unrealistic for larger mics.

Microphone Stands, Mounts & Clamps

An important consideration is the way the microphone is held or mounted. A

poorly mounted mic can lead to all sorts of problems, whereas a well-
mounted mic can lift the audio quality significantly. Things to consider
when mounting a mic include:

 The mic obviously needs to be correctly positioned, facing the

required direction. You should be able to reposition the mic if
necessary.

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  The mic must be safe, i.e. won't fall over, get knocked, get wet, etc.

 The mic must be shielded from unwanted noise such as handling

noise, vibrations, wind, etc.

 Cables must be secure and safe. In particular, make sure no one can
trip over them.

There are many ways to mount microphones. Let's look at

the most common methods.

Microphone Stands

The most obvious mount is the microphone stand. There

are three main variations: The straight vertical stand, the
boom stand and the small table-top stand.

Boom stands are very useful and versatile. If you are Boom Stand
considering buying a general-purpose stand, a boom stand
is the logical choice.

Some things to watch out for when setting up a

microphone stand:

 Always position the boom to extend directly above

Tabletop Stand
one of the stand legs. This prevents the stand from
tipping over.

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  Don't wrap the lead a hundred times around the stand. This serves no
purpose except make your life difficult and possibly increase twisting
pressure on the lead. One turn around the vertical part of the stand and
another turn around the boom is all you need.

 Never stand on the legs. You will wreck them.

 Never over-tighten clamps. Do them up until until they are firm - no

more. Don't try to adjust clamps while they are tightened - undo them
first.

Note: Boom arms controlled by sound operators will be covered on the next
page.

Clamps

Instead of using a dedicated mic stand, you can use a specialised clamp to
piggyback on another stand (or any other object).

Advantages:

 Less floor space is used, more mics can be squeezed into the same
area.

 Less equipment to carry (clamps are smaller and lighter than stands).

 Can sometimes be useful reaching difficult positions.

Disadvantages:
87
  Can sometimes be tricky to set up and more difficult to get exactly the
right positioning. Also more difficult to move or adjust once set up.

 More likelihood of unwanted vibration noise creeping into the mix.

Clamps are often used in musical situations where there are many stands and
many microphones. The classic example is the drum kit which is surrounded
by cymbal stands - clamps are well suited to this application.

Clothing Clip

Lavalier (lapel or lap)

mics are usually attached
to the subject's clothing
using a specialised clip.
Obviously the preferred
position is on the lapel or
thereabouts. This provides consistent close-range sound pickup and is ideal
for interview situations in which each participant has their own mic. It also
means the subject doesn't have to worry about mic technique.

If you have time, discreetly hide the cable in the clothing. If there is nowhere
to place the mic on the subject's chest, try the collar.

Headset

A headset with its own mic works well in situations such as:

 When the person talking needs to listen as well as speak.

88
  When the person talking must be able to move around with their
hands free.

 When there is a lot of background noise, likely to be distracting the

the subject.

Headsets are ideal for stage performers, as well as sports commentators,

radio announcers, etc. Like lav mics, they provide very consistent audio.

Shock Absorption

In order to minimise unwanted noise caused by vibration of the stand or

mount, a shock absorption system may be used. This isolates the mic from
the vibrations, usually with foam padding or elastic suspension.

Boom Microphone

The boom microphone is very popular in film

and television production. A directional mic
is mounted on a boom arm and positioned just
out of camera frame, as shown on the right.
The cable is wrapped once or twice around
the boom arm.

Booms have the advantage of freeing up

subjects from having to worry about microphones. They can move freely
without disturbing the sound, and concerns about microphone technique are
eliminated.

89
You can make a simple boom from just about anything which is the right
shape. A microphone stand with its legs removed is a good option, or even a
broomstick or fishing pole.

A good boom will have some sort of isolating mechanism for the
microphone to prevent vibrations being transferred to the mic. This may
involve elastic suspensions, foam padding, etc.

The distance between the microphone and

subject must be carefully controlled. The mic
must be as close as possible without any
chance of getting in frame (you might want to
allow a safety margin in case the framing
changes unexpectedly). It must also maintain
a reasonably consistent distance to avoid
fluctuating audio levels.

Make sure the boom doesn't cast a show on the scene.

In the example on the right, the sound operator is also acting as a guide for
the camera operator as they walk backwards, keeping a constant distance
from the walking subjects.

Hand-held Microphones

The term "hand-mic" generally means any

microphone held in the hand and used to pick up
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human speech. Hand-mics are used in a huge variety of settings, from
musical performances to television interviews. When you say "microphone",
most people picture a hand-mic. Everyone knows what they are and what
they do, and everyone thinks they know how to use them. Sadly, this is not
the case.

Although there is a knack to using the hand-mic properly, it's really not
difficult to learn. Perhaps that's why it's so frustrating to see people get it
wrong - because it's so easy to get it right.

Listed below are some general rules of microphone technique. We've used
the example of a television presenter conducting an interview, but these
rules can be applied to most situations.

 Be aware of what type of mic you're using. In particular, you should

know about it's directional characteristics.

 Make sure you do a sound check yourself, well before the interview.
Position yourself and the microphone, and speak exactly as you intent
to during the interview.

 If the mic has an on/off switch, keep an eye on it. If the mic is battery-
powered, make sure you turn it off when you've finished.

 Hold the microphone firmly. Remember that the mic will pick up any
handling noise so be careful not to move your hand around on the mic
casing, or bump the mic into anything.

 If you're exposed to the wind, try and give the mic some shelter.
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  Hold the mic at a constant distance and angle from your mouth (or
your subject's mouth). Around 15-20cm from the mouth should be
fine.
Any more than this, and not only will the voice become weak, but
other noises will become more prominent.
Any closer than this, and you'll get various unpleasant sound effects
(such as "popping").
(Note that musicians have a special set of rules for mic distance. Most
vocalists hold their mics fairly close to their mouths.)

 Always direct the mic towards the person who's talking. You can also
use mic-pointing to direct your subjects. When you point it at
yourself, you're talking. When you point it at the subject, you're
saying "Now it's your turn to talk". If you have more than one subject,
you can use the mic to point toward the person you want to speak.

 Never give the mic away during an interview. It's not uncommon for a
subject to want to hold the mic, but don't let them. It creates all sort of
problems and it's just not worth it.

If you want to see some good examples of microphone technique, watch

television talk-show hosts moving around their audiences. These people
know how to use their microphones - not just as technical instruments, but as
a means of maintaining control.

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 Vocalists tend to eat
their mics. Whilst
this works well for
singers who know
what they are doing,
it is not appropriate
for speaking and
general mic work.

Looking After Your Microphones

Obey the normal common-sense rules of electronic equipment care, e.g.

avoid very high temperatures, dust, dampness, high humidity, physical
shocks, etc. Many performers think it's cool to swing the mic by its lead and
generally throw it around the place. Unless you own the mic and you can
afford to replace it regularly, don't do this.

Don't blow into the mic. The diaphragm is designed to respond to sound
waves, not wind.

Don't tap the head of the microphone. This can damage the mic and/or
speakers.

If applicable, turn mics off when not in use. Remove and replace batteries
regularly. The action of removing and inserting batteries can help keep the
contacts clean.
93
Don't subject microphones to volume levels greater than their design
capabilities.

Always be careful with phantom power. Although it will not generally harm
your microphone, it's prudent to play it safe.

Keep all leads safely secured. If someone trips over a lead there may be all
sorts of problems from damaged mics to lawsuits.

If the performance of a mic deteriorates over time, it may be possible to have

the diaphragm cleaned. You will need to talk to the supplier or manufacturer
for details.

Sound Recording Techniques for Dialogue Scenes

 Record for the voice only already

 Aim for clear crisp vocals with a good level

 Close technique is required to isolate performers

 Isolate the voice and leave out all other sounds for the best possible
result

Reduce the background sound level to a minimum by:

 The choice of a suitable location in terms of background sound level

 The choice of the time of day used for shooting

94
  Deadening a set, or location through the use of boards, baffles,
blankets, etc.

 If the background sound level varies significantly in comparison to the

voice from shot to shot during recording, then at the editing stage it
will be very difficult to keep sound continuity and retain audible
vocals

Testing Locations

To test the aural quality of any location close your eyes and the volume and
range of the ambient sound will become apparent. Record a wild track of
very location running at least twice the time of the scene being shot

Do not record sound FX during dialogue

Since specific sound FX will not occur at exactly the same point on any two
takes, continuity problems will occur if Sound FX are recorded during the
shooting of a dialogue scene. For example, a door will close at different
moments in different takes and this will create a mismatch for sound
continuity and makes editing problematic. Without the sound on the shot the
Sound FX can be inserted in post-production at any moment the scene
requires, or omitted as unnecessary.

In dialogue scenes render silent all Sound FX, door slams, footsteps,
telephones, etc., because sound balance may be hard or impossible to
achieve between voice level and Sound FX level. Be sure however to record
the sound FX to be used in track layering at the location to ensure a suitable
95
sound quality. It is more often than not easier to record the specific Sound
FX at the time rather than find it later.

Plan set ups with full consideration of sound recording

 Ensure in advance the best place for the microphone to cover the
action and dialogue

 Ensure enough time is available to get a good sound recording. If the

sound is not right in a dialogue scene it is not worth shooting.

 When all else fails ask the performers to alter the voice levels to
provide a satisfactory recording.

Key elements for successful dialogue recording:

 Record for voice only

 Close record

 Plan for sound recording in advance

 Allow time to when setting up shots to get the sound right. Putting in
the microphone at the last moment, without proper rehearsals is a sure
way to get poor sound.

Sound Recording Techniques for Action Scenes

 Record for Sound FX as if these were spoken dialogue:

 Isolate the sound FX from the background sound level

96
 If the specific sound FX are clear these can be used in editing and the
atmosphere added as wild tracks

 If the framing of the shot will not allow for close recording be sure to
record the sound as an FX

 Record wild tracks so that a single atmosphere track can be laid for
the entire length of the scene. This will assist sound continuity
between shots.

CHAPTER FIVE

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5.1. Types of vision

a) Actuality sequence. This is the key to good, interesting and dynamic

television production. It's what the audience like and want as much of
it as possible. Actuality filming means filming while something is
happening in the background or when your subject is actually doing
something. It means what your subject is actually doing right now as
you do the recording. As a producer, your first question when
considering filming a story must always be what is my character
going to be doing? If you can't find answers, then probably you
shouldn't be doing the story. For example, when your story is about a
wedding, you need to film the couple actually getting married, or
actually getting the wedding dress, or actually having the stag night or
the bride meeting the girl's family for the first time. Another example
is the high cost of education in the country. Your character could be a
parent with no money to pay for his child's education. You need to
film him withdrawing the child from school, or actually going to the
bank manager to borrow money, or actually having his property sold
to raise the money for fees.

What is a sequence? This is a progression of shots that cover a story

from the beginning to the end. Here, the crucial words are the
beginning and to the end. If we take the wedding story, if you
consider filming a bride "actually getting the wedding gown", what
shots are you going to get? For you to build a usable sequence, don't

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 just get shots of the bride holding the gown and asking how much it
costs. Instead, get the bride getting into the shop, talking to the shop
attendant, her trying different gowns, not being able to afford the one
she really likes, friends getting bored, finally choosing, handing over
the money, gown being packed and handed cover to her and
eventually her getting out of the shop. Depending on your story and
the length of it, you could even film more discussion the night before
with the groom, getting up that morning, talking how excited she is
and leaving for the shop.

The key to shooting a sequence is to find out what are the key events
in the occasion. The more sequence you have in your story, the more
interesting you story will be. Quite often one has to set up an actuality
but you need to be careful to determine what is truth and fakery. As a
producer, you need to understand these people aren't actors so won't
be able to do any real acting but can quite often ask them to do things
that they normally do, just at a different time, or in a slightly
differently way.

b) Actually Interview. This is the kind of filming we strive for a mix of

actuality and interview where you let the actuality happen then you
throw in a couple of questions while it is still going on. This is an
actuality interview. An example is when the house is on fire then you
conduct and interview with the owner of the house- how did the fire
start? Or what is the cause of the fire, what is the value of property
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 that has been destroyed by fire? Remember that you need to film the
house on fire in the background. Actuality interviews can also mean
that your character is doing some activity such as feeding the baby,
cleaning the house or washing then you film and at the same time
asking her the questions.

c) Sync Interview. This is at times called one-on-one interview or master

interview. This is a kind of interview where you obtain all background
information and all the points you need to make clear. This could be
educational, social life, political, religious beliefs, cultural among
other information. Many of these questions you will then re-ask in
your actuality interviews but basically you have covered all the points
in your master interview which you can then either use in sync or
Voice Over.

Vox Pops. The phrase Vox Pop is derived from a Latin word vox
populi meaning the peoples' opinion. The practice was common
during the rule of the Roman Empire where the emperor and other
governors used it to collect views on what people thought about
governance issues from political, economical and other social issues
affecting day to day lives of people. The meaning was adapted into
television production to gauge what people think about a particular
issue affecting them, framed in form of a question, directed or asked
many people and obtaining the best responses.

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Vox Pops may seem the easiest type of filming to carry out but in
most cases it proves to be the most difficult to achieve. Obtaining
good usable shots and answers while maintain gender balance in a vox
pop requires patience. Vox popping needs pre-planning like any other
television production for it to be professional. Vox Pops should be
representative that is, you need to get views from both male and
female respondents and should be frame using the left-right principle.

Framing vox pops

Proper vox pops are framed from mid-chest to head shot, maintaining
good looking room, headroom and an eye level. Since people are
giving their views on a particular issue, vox pops should be frame in
Left-Right (L-R) side of the screen. For example, if your question is
on corruption, it looks interesting if people are framed in L-R side of
the screen give different and opposing views on the same issue in
question. The key to framing vox pops is getting people in their
natural environment like on the streets walking, and then stopping
them to give their views on the spot. At times, this may not work as
people will always want to know the topic, prepare themselves before
you film them. The trick is to let the camera rolling as people tend to
give good answers off camera and may not be able to do the same.
The camera operator needs to be quick and must be skilled in terms of
fast shot composition and framing. The producer on the other hand
needs to smart and have the ability to convince people to participate.

Vox Pop questioning

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Vox pop is different from interviewing. A vox pop should not run for
more than 20 seconds on screen after editing and if more than one
question is asked that becomes an interview and not a vox pop. In
conduction vox pop questioning, one question is framed and the same
question is asked to many people. The producer should brief the
participants to give him or her very precise and answers. In vox pop
questioning, the audience does need to hear the question asked and the
producer should strive to obtain long but precise answers. There are a
couple of tricks to understand while conduct vox pops. The first one is
do not ask leading questions or questions that will give you "yes" and
"no" type of answers. Questions frame starting with "are" and " have"
are bad as they will definitely give you "yes" and "no" type of
answers. Example, Are you superstitious? This will give you-YES or
NO answers. To avoid these brief answers, you need to frame your
questions starting with "what", "which", "why". Example, what are
you superstitious about? This will give you- I am superstitious
about….Another way to make sure you don't end up with yes/no type
of answers is frame your question with "Tell me". Example, tell me
what exactly happened?

If "what" is appropriate in vox popping, then how come, ‘what is your

name is bad?' This is because; this will give you-Otieno Kamau,
which is too shot and will be unusable in the edit. The second trick in
vox pop questioning is to ask interviewee to put the question into the
answer. For example, using the above question, the appropriate
answer is- my name is Kamau Otieno. You will find that some people
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 can, while others can't put the question into the answer while
answering the question asked. But it is worth trying and see how they
get along with it.

d) Safety doings. These are also called non significant actuality or cut a
ways. It is safe and useful to obtain cut a ways because this is a type
of filming that should provide picture for Voice Over and
commentary, they also help illustrate the general point of the story.
Safety doings are filmed when there is no significant talk going on
over them as they are laid over the picture. As a general rule,
depending on the length of your story, you need to get two or three of
these. At times these can be as simple as someone boiling the kettle or
hanging out clothes on the wire line. The main function of cut a ways
is to bind scenes together, give suspense and feeling of unity. This
makes it harder for the audience to switch off.

e) Presentation. Some producers call it Piece to Camera or commonly

known as PTC. Most producers do not like doing it but it is good
when considering how to do a story in an original way, to consider
this option. The story /series you develop will entirely depend whether
you need to adopt the PTC style. An example could be a presenter
gets involved in a story and says on camera what is happening such
doing an investigative piece and knocking at people's and confronting
them.

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 There are different types of presentations. A presenter can conduct
and an interview on camera, where both the presenter and the
interviewee are on camera. In this type, the presenter can say a few
lines looking into the lens of the camera. PTC can also be recorded
from location of the shoot. This can be done in the beginning, middle
or end of a story. The presenter can also be casual on camera, spoof
playing with it.

f) Archives. Sometimes your production may need some footage of

events that happened sometime back. As a producer, you will be
forced to dig into your archives and find relevant video footage that
will advance your story line. If for example, you're doing a story about
Kenya's Independence Day, you will probably footage taken during
the first independence celebration in 1963. Makers of a Nation by
Hillary Ngwe'no serves as a good example.

g) Still photographs. At times, you may not access archival footage and
the only images available for that event is still photographs. This will
form a basis for your video footage. You will be compelled to record
the still photos and turn them into video and use them.

5.2. What makes a good television story

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 When audiences make comments on our local productions, most
of them claim that our television is dominated by foreign content.
And the local content aired does not meet the international
production standards. Today's audiences are well informed and
can tell a good story from a bad one. Documentary television
producers need to take time in planning their production and
incorporating a number of documentary elements into their
stories.

a) The point

The point is the one message you need to deliver to your audience
in your story. If you can not say what your story is in one
sentence, then you propably should not be doing it. The message
in your story needs to come out in the first minute otherwise the
audiences will switch of and tune to another channel. It is
pointless to do a story and leave the audience asking so what?
Your documentary may have all the elements that make a good a
story but it has no message in it. Even travel and nature stories
carry at least one message in them for example, the need for the
people to go visit national parks or the need for them to visit
interesting sites. As a producer, you need to ask yourself: what
one message do I need the audience to remain with at the end of
the story?

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b) The Now factor

The question any television producer needs to ask is why are you
filming this story now as opposed to last month or last year? This
must either be answered by its relevant now factor or its
happening now factor. The it's relevant now factor indicates the
topicality of the story and with the promulgation of the
Constitution in Kenya, a piece on the birth of new Kenya is more
interesting and relevant now than three years ago. The it's
happening now factor means never before and never again. An
access story can fall into its happening now and never done
before. Some of the examples could be doing a documentary piece
about the president's life in state house, doing a story about a
small Italian rocket space station in the Coastal town of Lamu. It's
happening now.

c) Narrative

Think of narratives in television stories as will it? Won't it

happen? Will he get the job or wont he? Will the corrupt traffic
officer get caught or won't he? Will the incumbent will the
elections or won't he? Will he be HIV positive or won't he?
Narratives can be very minor for example, will the child make it
to school or time or won't she? This becomes a big issues if the
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 point is that the child has to look after all her younger brothers and
sisters, get them out of bed, prepare breakfast for them, wash
them, dress them, clean the house and set to school.

Take the example of the proposed wedding the parents disapprove

of. In this case, if you have its happening now factor, you
automatically have a ready made narrative that is, will the parents
manage to dissuade them? Will the parents boycott the wedding?
Will the bride get cold feet and do what her father says? Or will
true love prevail?

For a narrative to work, the producer needs to build progression in

the story as the situation changes from the beginning of your story
to the end. The example of the kid going to school, film her
getting up from bed before dawn, she tells you how worried she is
missing school, you follow her doing everything she has to do and
then end with her arriving at school just at the nick of time.

d) Character

In television production, a character can either make or break your

story. If the characters aren't good enough they won't tell the story
for you and the audience won't care. The question most producers
grapple with is how do I tell a good character? This question is
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 very difficult. It's a mixture of experience and instinct. As a
general rule, if you find someone interesting, easily
understandable, informative and enjoy talking to her or her, the
probably he or she is a good character for your story. Try asking
yourself if you like the person, sometimes it works but obviously
not in a piece about rapist.

Some individuals have the X-factor in them. This is someone who

holds your attention; someone you like looking at (doesn't
necessarily mean good-looking) who describes a situation really
well, who you want to keep listening to, who you believe, whose
opinion you respect, who talks naturally. Other qualities include:
ability to talk clearly without you having to ask a lot of questions,
confidence, animated, ability to re-do an answer, ability to act
naturally before a camera.

e) What to film

Putting a television documentary together is like preparing a

delicious meal. Some people would argue that a meal is a meal as
long as it goes down the throat. The simplest way of cooking
Sukuma Wiki is by boiling it and adding salt. Cook B will add salt,
cooking oil, tomatoes and onions. Cook C will use salt; cooking
oil, tomatoes, onions, Royco, hoho and the list may be endless. All
these are edible but one is more appetizing than the rest. Meal C
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 can be compared to a documentary that has all the filming
ingredients including actuality sequence, actuality interview,
synch interview, Vox Pops, Safety doings, PTCs, archival footage,
Astons, still photographs and graphics.

f) Research

The first stage of any factual programme making is research. The

subject and topic must be clarified, to create a clear structure and
identify what material is required. The fault that most
inexperienced producers or programme makers commit is in being
vague in what they require, shooting a lot of raw footage and then
ending up with a heap of material and no clear way of organizing
it. If research is done well it will produce a range of results as it
will identify the specific aims of the programme. For example,
militants in Africa, could be an idea for a programme, but offers
no structure on the illegal militia groups across the continent.

When specific aims and knowledge have been established this

immediately clarifies what access is required to various armed
groups. It will tell you who needs to be interviewed and what
needs to be accessed. When the aim is clear the interview
questions and the footage that should be shot is clarified and the
programme can develop a schedule and plan of what to shoot and
how to shoot it. With this research and clarity resolved in pre-
production the director will be able to make the right choices at
the time of shooting. Without this nothing is clear.
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So you are looking for a great story with the now factor, narrative
and great characters. How do you go about finding them? Some
producers do not value the importance of research while doing
television stories. Don't ever underestimate the value of research.
Without research, there's no filming and no editing. It is common
sense that if a contributor does not turn up for filming, it's
basically because the research hasn't been done well enough.
Before you start filming a story, you should know absolutely
everything about it; every question you ask, you already know the
answer, you know every person involved, have considered every
possible way the story could unfold. However, if something
unforeseen happens, listen to it and follow it if necessary. If you
haven't done your research properly, you won't know what to do
and will probably get lost and if you have done your research
properly, you will know exactly what it means and what you
should do with it.

The simplest way to discipline your self while looking for a story
is to get organized and you can only do this with a note book. You
need to make notes of every conversation you have as you go
along including name of the person, date, exacts words where
contentious, any new details that inspires you (that can refer back
when story develops), always have to do list as things will get
complicated when you are dealing with many people, make follow

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up and make an effort to call. It's your job to call people and not
theirs to call you; even if they say they will (if they are going to
call you, always offer to call them back, to save their phone bills.)

You have to chase and put dates in your note book with dates
when you will call them back if they haven't called you. Keep a
note book with you all the time, any time you have an idea, even
in the middle of the night, write it down because even the power
of a faint pencil is greater than any human memory. If you get a
phone call, you should always know immediately who that person
is, what the sate of play was, what story they belong to. Basic
professionalism will make your story contributor trust you which
is crucial to access the story. Truth is the basic principle while
doing your story for your contributor to trust in you and you in
them. They must know that you won't misrepresent them; you
need to know they will turn up for that very impotant interview
appointment. Be honest and treat your story contributors the way
you would like to be treated.

Logistics of research

When selecting a story you need to consider the following:

a. How detailed is your research?

b. How long is it to complete/ find characters? Will it need a

recce trip or can be done blind?
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 c. How many days do you require to film?

d. How far the location is, can you do several stories in one
trip?

e. How reliable are your characters? What are you going to do

if they don't show up?

f. List everything that could possibly go wrong and have a

back up plan for each one of them.

5.3. Conducting the interview

For you to get information from your contributor, you need to

conduct the interview. Never underestimate the value of a
cracking interview. You and the interviewee have the same aim;
to make him or her sound as best as he / she can and give the best
answers. The best interviewer is the one who listens to the
answers given by the interviewee, lets their next question follow
on from the previous answer, thereby creating the feeling of a
conversation. This makes the contributor relaxed and not
interrogated. As an interviewer, you need to keep track of the
answers you want and let the conversation get irreverent.
Conducting an interview is well very hard, to do it the best you
can, you must be very well prepared by doing good background
research and having all question prepared.

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5.3.1. Setting up the interview

In some interviews the intention is to harass and antagonize the

interviewee, in most interviews the opposite is true, and the
intention is to get the best out of the interviewee. So, that they can
tell their story, or present their knowledge and expertise is a clear
and accessible way. To achieve this: Pre-interview your
interviewee, or if time is short explain what it is your looking for.
This will clarify what you want and clarify what is required. If you
wish to cut the interview material together without commentary to
explain things you will need to make sure that the interviewee
mentions names and places, rather than simply using pronouns.
Ask open questions, which get you the answer you want. The
question; .Did you suffer very much when you were ship
wrecked? Can be answered by a yes… Whereas, Can you tell me
what kind of suffering and hardship you went through when you
were shipwrecked? elicits a detailed answer.

If an interviewee's response is potentially confusing, and will not

edit easily, without commentary, because they omit necessary
information, such as names, or places, then politely explain what
was missing and ask the question again. If you treat interviews
with respect and courtesy they will do the best job they can and
support the aims of your programme. This applies not only to the
director, but to all the production team

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You have the character and you have done enough background
research. It is time to crack the real thing; conduct the interview.
However, just before you start off, there are a few things you need
to ensure that they are in order. First, check and counter check all
the equipment to ensure they are functioning well. Check that
your camera, tripod, lights, microphone, headphone are
functioning, develop a rapport with the interviewee to make the
interviewee relaxed, brief the interviewee how the equipment
works (especially when you are using the lav mic, tell the
contributor how sensitive it is), and most importantly, make sure
your have your set of questions and a note book.

It is recommended that you start the interview with simple and

easy questions like asking the interviewee to tell you a little bit
about his or her self or letting the interviewee introduce them on
tape and end up with the million dollar question. Most
interviewers at times respond to the answers given by the
interviewees unconsciously and this makes it difficult for the
editor. Unless you're conducting a live interview, do not respond
to answers. It is very annoying for editors when they fail get a
usable or clear sound bite in an interview. As the interviewer try
as much as possible not to interrupt the interviewee and leave a
pause at the end of each answer (unless it is a conversation piece).
In this way, you will often illicit more information that way.
Conducting an interview is a skill and comes with experience
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 While conducting the interview, you need to double check all the
facts and always, make an effort to see things from the
contributors' point of view. How would you feel if I came
knocking on your door saying I am a television journalist…guilt,
excitement, worry opportunism? As a professional journalist, you
should know and you can always ask, why are they doing it, what
is in it for them, just to see how honest their answer is. Ask open
ended questions so as not to let the interviewee know what sort of
answers you are interested in.

5.3.2. Shooting Technique for Interviews

The key to any interview is the framing of shots. It is upon the

producer and the camera operator to ensure the basic like looking
room, eye level and head room are in proportion. Shorter interviews
may be kept in a single frame as sudden jumps in editing from MSs to
CUs can appear disruptive and arbitrary. However, for longer
interviews, the camera person needs to pre-plan with the Director of
Photography for the framing of each anticipated section, so that each
sequence will be consistent. This at times is hard to achieve but highly
experienced production team can arrange for a director to relay signals
to an operator to move during an interview, because the timing of any
camera movements can be crucial if they are to edit satisfactorily. For
every interview you need the set ups on the interview and also: Inserts
on the interviewee Cutaways, reaction shots, noddies on the
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interviewee and the interviewer's questions if required. Also bear in
mind what kind of background you place your subject, the source of
light, depth of field and check the edges of your frame

General Tips for Shooting Interviews

The KISS Principle

When you're starting out shooting IVs it's probably best to keep it
simple. It's better to have a boring static shot for 60 seconds than an
empty or soft shot. Remember, the important stuff is what the guest is
saying, not how creative your framing is.

Dealing with Newbie Guests

Guests who have never been interviewed before can be a challenge,

especially if they are very nervous. It's important to reassure them and
make them feel comfortable. Here are a few things you might find
yourself saying to the nervous newbie:

"Just treat it as a normal conversation. There's no reason for you to

worry about anything else that's happening. The best thing you can do
to look good for the cameras is to ignore them."

"Don't worry if you make a mistake or muddle up your words - just

carry on. It actually happens all the time in interviews, but because it's
something the audience is used to seeing in everyday conversations
they won't even notice."

"You look fine!"

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 Note: If the interview is to be edited, you can point out that any
serious mistakes can be cut out.

Pace Yourself (and Everyone Else)

Fatigue is the enemy. Interviewees and guests who are tired do not
perform well, so be careful not to exhaust them. When preparing the
set, use stand-ins to take their place while you set up the shots. Do not
ask for multiple takes unless necessary.

Clothing

Beware of clothing which is un-camera-friendly. This includes shirts

and jackets with fine patterns which produce the moire effect. These
include shirts and dresses with shouting colours. The worst is white.
Dark glasses or caps which obscure/shade the eyes are not good.

Be Prepared

Think about everything that could happen during the interview.

Especially if you're shooting off-the-shoulder and there's a chance that
your subjects could move around, you need to know how you're going
to move. Try to ensure that unwanted bystanders aren't going to
interrupt the IV.

Summary

 Interview technique is a required skill for any serious camera

operator.

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  Know what the goal of the interview is and stay focused on that goal.

 Know the editing requirements.

 Double-check everything, and then do it again.

 Be prepared for anything.

5.4. Filming Events

The recording of any function like corporate events, weddings,

birthday parties, graduation ceremonies, cocktail parties or speeches
requires skill that a director needs to develop for successful nonfiction
direction. As with interviews, research and planning is the key to
success. Very few events are so spontaneous that a director cannot
anticipate and plan to achieve what they want. For example, if you
want to film someone preparing a meal, you might have to wait for
her to start preparing the ingredients, but you will be able to set up
and place the camera and decide on the framing in advance. But
filming events is a little bit different and the most appropriate
approach to shooting an event is usually as follows:

a. When using a single camera, one set up will cover the action you want
to record,

b. Cutaways will be shot before, or after,

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 c. Reaction shots of other participants in a scene are often the most
effective way to shoot cutaways,

d. Inserts are only likely to be usable if the event is repetitive.

There is usually plenty of time to shoot all the footage you want in the
way you want. For example, an operation may take several hours. If it
is a heart operation there will be crucial moments you want to record.
The incision into the chest, etc.. You can anticipate these and know
how they will be framed. There is then plenty of time to shoot
cutaways of the operating team for their reactions and cutaways could
be off the family waiting for the recovery of the patient and this can
be shot after the operation when they are still waiting.

5.5. Common mistakes when shooting events

The first mistakes producers make is trying to get as many shots as the
event progress. In most cases this can lead to odd and unusable shot
framings, with no consistent sequence resulting from the shot footage.
An experienced non-fiction producer can run a mental edit of a shoot
in his /her head as he or she is on the move, but this skill requires a
great deal of experience to be effective. The second problem related to
trying to work a little bit fast and without a plan is the roaming camera
without getting any specific shot. This is where a shot rests for a
moment, then moves on, looking and searching for something else to
film. The basic principle in filming is to frame a shot, focus and hold
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it at least for a minimum time of ten seconds. Roaming shots without
specific focus on a subject for a few moments will be uneditable and
will just be a waste of tape and energy. Constant camera movements
in filming only reveal how amateurish the camera operator and the
director are. Lastly, a number of programme makers desire to use
multiple camera while shooting an event. In most cases, this is not an
answer in filming an event, because unless each crew is carefully
briefed and directed they will produce material without a clear
purpose. When using multiple cameras to record an event all the
camera crews need to be linked by talk back system to a director in
the production control room or the gallery who can see every camera
feed on a monitor wall unit. It is from the gallery that he or she can
instruct the camera operators on what shot to get. A single camera is
the most sure and controllable way in which a director and camera
crew can work to record an event.

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 CHAPTER SIX

THE SCRIPT: WORDS AND PICTURES

6.0 Introduction

A filming script is a guideline of what you're going to film and

roughly how it is all going to slot together as a final piece. It also has
a rough idea of how long each bit will be in the final edit and running
order. You will shoot everything you have included in your filming
script but you will also allow for unforeseen events and new angles
that arise during your filming. A filming script is not a waste of time;
it is a vital tool that:

a. Forces you to be clear in your own mind about the story before
you go to the field,

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 b. Acts as a very useful reminder of what your next filming

c. Keeps you on track and helps you not to forget the point in the
heat of filming

d. Helps you come up with an alternative if something fall through

by reminding you what the purpose of the last sequence.

6.1. Different types of filming and audio

In order to know what goes into a filming script, you need an idea of
what different types of filming there are. This separates into different
types of audio and different types of audio. Obviously audio and video
are often, but always the same.

Table showing different types of filming and audio

Different types of Interviews Different types of audio

Actuality Sequence Actuality

Actuality Interview Actuality Interview

Synch Interview Synch Interview

Vox Pop Voice over presentation

Safety doings for VO Commentary

Presentation (PTC) Presentation

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 Montage Music

Archival footage SFX

Astons

Subtitling

Diagrammes

GVs

Actuality sequences and interviews should take at least 60 % of your

story, interviews and voice over 30 %, commentary between 10-5%
while presentation between 0-5%.

6.2. Filming scripts and running orders

As a television producer, you will have huge variety and lengths of

stories to do; some will be a collection of Vox Pops, some will be a
one minute feature with just one sequence and one interview. But
some will be proper seven minute mini documentaries and others 15
minutes to one to two hours full length documentaries, with several
sequences, actualities, several interviews, Vox Pops, archival footage,
graphics, voice over and commentary. From the list provided above of
different types of filming, we will devise a filming script for two
young people (Ann and Otieno) planning to get married.

Synopsis:
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Aegis

Filming Script

Vision Audio R/O

Actuality sequence of Actuality 30"

Ann and Otieno going to
have supper with Otieno's
parents

Actuality Interviews (IVs) Actuality IVs with Ann 1'

and Otieno just before
parents arrive. Let them
say how important it is
that they come and they
give consent to the
wedding. Get how
anxious the two are; let
them say they worst
expectation.

Actuality Actuality of parents 45''

arriving and having a
meal, them discussing the
marriage (they might
have to lead the
conversation)

Synch/Master /One on Otieno explain why his 30''

one IV with Otieno parents are so
(record this after the disapproving and what
meeting with parents) they achieved during the
meal meeting.

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 Actuality of Ann going to V/O Ann's Master IV her 25''
shop for the wedding explaining it being no fun
dress on her own without her mum or best
friend

6.3. Call Sheet

Call sheets are your filming schedule with every piece of detailed
information on it. These are prepared for each day of shooting and
ensure that everyone involved in the day arrives in the right place at
the right time and brings everything that is required . You could
possibly want logistics, contributors name and contact, permission
from whom, addresses, contact phone numbers, location maps,
contingency plans, equipment hired among others. Call sheets are
given to people involved in the production from the executive
producer to director of photography, producers, art directors, lighting,
cameral and sound crew. The aim is to save grace if something goes
wrong.

Call sheet Template

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 Perspective Media Solutions Production

Date: 18th- 20th July, 2010.

Executive Director: Genesis Gift Tel: 0721 1113 461

Producer : Kawudha Christine Tel: 0721 113 463

Camera : Tom Wetu Tel: 0721 356 579

Sound : Dan Oloo Tel: 0722 456 357

Prod Manager : Godsend Grant Tel: 0721 098 987

Prod. Office : Perspective media Tel: 0720 113463

Client: Plan International Kenya

Equipment: HDV-Z7 with accessories, Mic-ECM 672, Boom pole,

Wind shield, Tripod (Manfrotto), Headsets, Stock-5x 60' tapes, Sand
gun, Portable lights.

Miscellaneous: All crew to carry warm clothes

Accommodation: Mt. Kenya Hotel, Nyeri.

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Day/Time Activity

Monday 18th July, 2010

6.00 am Oramisi and Beatrice travel to Nyeri for recce

4.00 John and Micah leave office with equipment

and travel to Mt. Kenya Hotel, Nyeri.

Tuesday 19th July, 2010 Crew leaves for Mwangi's farm

6.00 am Film all day in Mwangi's home

Including: Mwangi in his farm and working

on the farm

Interview Otieno: Otieno's parents

Film sequences of Otieno and parents

GVs of home

GVs and general Nyeri activities

20th July, 2010

6.00am Film all day at Ann's home

Include Ann's IV, Parents IV

Create actuality sequence of Ann

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 Sequence of parents

GVs of home

5.30PM Crew wraps and leaves for Nairobi.

As a producer, you need to run through all the filming scenarios. For
example, if Otieno's parents never turn up for a meal-what do you do?
Consider if you had not asked them before they were supposed to turn up,
explaining to them how important it is; the whole sequence would not work.
For you to achieve any narrative /actuality filming in your documentary, you
need always to consider the different ways things could go; do a pre-empting
filming, ask people all the time of what is about to happen and if it doesn't
happen, you will still be covered. In addition, you need to run the punches
because this is actual filming in real life and the unexpected often happens.
Excellent documentary making/filming is about making the most out of
things going wrong.

Seasoned documentary producers and I believe all television/film producers

when they're alone, as they go through the day and at the end of each filming
day, they make a list of shots they didn't get, the ones they still need to get.
This definitely will act as a very useful shopping list at the end of filming
otherwise, you will forget that crucial cutaways or safety doings of the
mother breastfeeding the baby, her washing clothes and her going through
that family album.

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 AGENDA UGANDA

Contact person: Beatrice Wangondu

E-ad: beatrice@medevatv.com

Susan Nakacwa

nakusane@yahoo.com

Location: Theatre LaBonita

P.O.Box 59835 00200 Nairobi, Kenya

Tel: + 256 777 182 708

+254 722/734 696 741

CALLSHEET Programme 1& 2 23rd Nov 2009

Time Activity Respons

7.10 - 7.40 Breakfast for All crew

7.40 - 7.55 Crew walk down to Labonita studio

7.55 - 8.45 Equipment set-up and lights at Theatre Labonita, final touches on set and rostrum, All crew
editorial meeting commences crew

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8.45 - 9.00 1st Sound technical rehearsal

9.00 - 9.45 1st technical rehearsal - cam, set and lighting crew Bonnie/

9.45 - 10am Tech crew break with snack Bea

9.15 - 9.50 Audience begin to arrive at LaBonita and sit in the upper labonita theatre space with Audienc
registration, security check Team

9.50 - 10.35 Audience briefing, audience write questions, Cissy deliver ready questions to Paul/ Sus
Editorial office, question selection process commences

10.00 - 11.00 2nd Technical Rehearsal (Sound and camera) Bonnie/B

10.00 - 10.45 Panel arrival, make-up and refreshments Betty

10.35 - 11.00 Question selection continues with printing Paul/ Sus

10.35 - 10.45 Audience walk into the studio - lower labonita theatre space Flr man/
Cissy

10.45 - 11.00 Audience briefing on safety what to expect from the show in the studio. Flr man

11.00 -11.15 Editorial Team select and print questions

11.00 -11.15 Host make-up and final wardrobe check Susan/Be

11.00 - 11.10 Mapping Susan/flr

11.10 - 11.15 Host walks into set, is miked and talks to Audience Susan

11.15 -11.30 Panel comes on set and miked, mic test, DIRs final instructions and countdown Sound
crew/Bet

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11.30 -11.40 Warm up question All crew

11.40 - Film prog 2 part 1 All crew

Part break

Film prog 2 part 2

Change tapes

Film prog 2 part 3

12.40 Film Pickups

12.40 -12.50 Wrap Prog 2 and everyone leaves studio including audience All

12.15 -1.15 Prog 1 panelists, Editorial Team, host to Mosa court for lunch and leave at leisure Jumbe an
Bea
Camera crew to lunch at mosa court,

Audience leave immediately with refunds for out of town audences

12.50 - 2nd sound technical rehearsal

1.15pm

1.15 - 2.15 camera crew back to studio for show 2 technical Rehearsal Bonnie

1.15 - 2.00 Audience 2 begins to and continues to arrives @ theatre labonita with a security Cissy
check

2.00 - 2.30 Audience briefing Paul/

Susan/Ce

2.15 - 2.30 Technical crew break

2.15 - 3.15 Prog 2 Panel arrives, lunch and make-up

2.30 - 2.40 Audience write questions as Cissy delivers them to editorial office

2.30 - 3.10 2nd technical rehearsal

2.30 - 2.45 Host make up and sound check

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2.40 - 2.55 All questions delivered to production office and question selection continues, Editorial
printing of selected questions

2.40 - 2.50 Audience walk into lower labonita studio space for studio briefing Cece/ flr

2.50 - 3.05 Audience studio briefing

3.05 - 3.20 Mapping

3.20 -3.30 Host on set miked & talks to Audience 2

3.15 - 3.30 Panel refresh (bathroom visits etc), final panel brieing and walk into studio

3.30 - 3.40 Panel on set and is miked, mike check, DIRs final instructions and countdown Bonnie

3.40 - 3.50 Warm up Question All crew

3.50 -3.55 Final studio instructions awaiting the DIR's call Bonnie

3.55 - Film prog 2 show part 1 All crew

5 min Part break

Shoot prog 2 part 2

Camera crew change tapes

4.40 Shoot prog 2 part 3

Film Pick-ups

4.45 Wrap prog 2

4.45 - 5.00 Panel to Mosa court, derigg, audience leave immediately

132
 Producer D a n O lo o

BE D ir e c t o r An g
MEDEVA
THE DOP W i l lie O w u s u

JUDGE AD B o n n ie K a t e i

AD Sh a r o n L u m b a s i
EPISODE 3and 4 CALL SHEET Day 1 - 6 Thursday- Tuesday: 15th -20th April 2010

Cast:

Set: Angelo,
Willie,Sammy,Bonnie,Sharon,Martin,Basweti,Brian,Kisara,Louisa,Makori,Margie,Mburu,Tobias
,Walter

Locations:

Call time day 1 of 6: Thursday 15th April 2010

Department Office call time Break fast time Set up time Set call

Make up and wardrobe 7am 7am-7.30am 7.30am-8.00am 8.00am

Cast 7am 7am-7.30am 7.30am-8.00am 8.00am

Technical: Lights, camera, 7.00 am 7am-7.30am 7.30am-8.00 8.00am

sound, Art

Extras 11Am - -

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 INT/EX
SCENE T CAST/EXTRAS SET / SYNOPSIS Specials
D/N

Sc' 7 INT Limo, COURT ROOM Props: As per

salama,Malaki,court Art
Script Day 1 DAY clerk, court extras Court preparation as salama and
5/8 Pgs limo flirt

Sc' 8 INT Salama Justice Malaki Props: as per

Court Room art
Script Day 1 DAY
Salama opening submission
5\8 Pgs

Sc' 9 INT Jared, salama Props :As per

COURT ROOM Art
Script Day 1 DAY
Jared's testimony
7\8Pgs

Sc' 11 INT Jared, salama COURT ROOM Props: As per

Art
Script Day 1 DAY Jared cross examination by
2 3/8Pgs salama

Sc'12 INT Limo, Props: As per

salama,Malaki,Jared,cou COURT ROOM art
Script Day 1 DAY rt clerk
Limo cross examines Jared
4 5/8 Pgs

Sc' 13 INT Salama,Jared,Justice Props: As per

Malaki,Limo,court room COURT ROOM Art
Script Day 1 DAY extras,court clerk
Jared is re examined by Salama
1 2/8 Pgs

Presenter Dan oloo COURT ROOM

Links
Episode 2

Schedule day 1 of 6
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TOTAL PGS 10 3/8 PGS

6.4. Cutting script

Before you write a cutting script, you need to go through the raw footage to
understand what you shot while on location and listen to all the interviews you
recorded. A cutting script gives the video editor the final story structure from
beginning to the end of the story with minimal changes when the first draft has
been cut by the editor. It is in the cutting script that the first editing on paper is
done. The producer logs the raw footage by selecting clips he or she feels will
advance the story plot and structure. Story structures are difficult to achieve in the
first stories but it comes with experience and watching others do it. Producers'
gives the editor the exact location of the interview sound bites, actuality and cover
shots by indicating the tape number, minute and seconds that it selected video
potion runs.

Time code like this 01.10.25-01:10:58 means the footage the producer wants used
is found in tape number one, the 10th minute and runs from the 25th second to the
58th seconds. That is the footage the producer wants included in the final edit.

Example of a cutting script

Vision Audio

135
(Time Code) TC

Otieno and Ann walking through the park Commentary: Otieno and Ann are getting
early evening on the way to supper (sort married in a week's time. Both their
of safety doing but also bridging into an parents disagree because of religion
actuality sequence) differences. Tonight they are meeting with
Otieno's parents for

01:02:22-01:02:58 support to try and persuade them to come

to the wedding.

TC- Actuality and sequence at restaurant Actuality Interview. Ann's does not think
waiting. Actuality Interview that Otieno's parents will be coming for
supper. Explaining why the parents don't
01:02:25:15-01:02:26:25
approve and how she feels important for
them that they change their mind.

TC-Actuality Otieno's brother arrives and Actuality-

says that the parents are not coming. They
are disappointed and leave all together.

01:02:35-01:01:03:19

TC- Ann's synch Master Interview
02:02:13-02:03:12
Ann's Master Interview: explaining how
she knows that she can't get married if
parents do not approve. She will try but
does not think that when it comes to it
when will be able to

136
TC- Ann's safety doing-shopping for a Ann's VO/ master interview-explaining
wedding dress on her own how marriage ought to be a happy time
and having to go through with without her
mum just too upsetting.

Module V: SCRIPT ELEMENTS

There are three elements that should be incorporated into a script. These include;

 Visual elements

 Sound elements

 Story elements

Visual Elements

The visual elements of film, or what the audience ‘sees' on screen is one of the most integral aspects of
writing a script. These elements include;

The shot

The sequence

Montage

Talking heads

 The Shot
A shot is a single ‘take' on an image. It starts and finishes at a ‘cut-point', which is an editing break in the
image.

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A shot is not defined by any particular image, action or event that takes place on screen. It is more a technical
concept. You can have a single shot of a man picking up a paper or two or three of the same thing. It's
basically what occurs between two breaks in editing. In a script, a shot is the smallest visual unit of structure.

Technically, a shot may be a structural unit of film language, but what it contains is more important - action.
Shots are made of action. Something needs to be ‘happening' in a shot for the audience to see - a man
walking, a dog barking, a car reversing, a machine working, a river flowing - anything at all that has action,
images moving. These actions form events that drive the shot forward to completion. It's not enough
however, just to have random action on screen. The images, the action, the events have to be meaningful. A
documentary, like any film, has limited time in which to convey a multitude of things and to tell a story.
Therefore, all the components within the film must be specific and meaningful so as not to waste precious
screen time.

Each shot has an underlying ‘meaning' depending on the nature and arrangement of objects and actions
within it. This visual way of communication or language has evolved through the years and has three basic
elements:

 Icon

This is showing an object or emotion through its likeness - it is what it is and what the audience sees. The
signifier represents the signified through similarity to it. For example, a face on screen showing fear is a face
showing fear. There are no other meanings, no ‘reading between the lines'. This is the most straightforward
approach to a shot.

 Index

This measures a quality not because it is identical to it (like an icon), but because it has a direct and inherent
relationship to it. For example, to show heat, or the idea of heat, as a visual, the shot could show a
thermometer or heat waves over an empty road or perhaps even a man sweating profusely. This works very
well because the scriptwriter can translate an intangible object, like heat, into a tangible and visual reality.

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 Symbol or Metaphor

This is an arbitrary sign in which the signifier has neither a direct nor an indexical relationship with the
signified, but rather represents it through convention. For example, a rose could be shown to signify love or
romance, falling calendar pages could denote time. This technique of using symbols to express ideas and
objects has become very popular for its artistic appeal but can and should be used with caution and with a
view to the audience's ability to ‘read between the lines'.

 The Sequence
A sequence is a collection of shots put together that tell a story continuously. A sequence is an autonomous
piece of the larger story of the film. An entire film is made up of a series of sequences, which can be of
varying durations, and are connected to each other in some way. Each sequence has a visual and audio aspect
to it. If a shot is made up of action, a sequence is made up of events. Events mean change in action. These
events are built up by the action in the shots to make some sort of sense to the audience and pass along
information to them. Sequences usually fall into two categories, namely continuity and compilation.

A Continuity Sequence is a unit of continuing action which ends in a break in time. This type of sequence is a
collection of shots that show an event or events that happened in the same block of time. The end of the
sequence occurs when that event is complete and the film moves on to another point in time. The shots
within this kind of sequence must be functional, must be logical and must give the illusion of continuity. For
example, a continuity sequence could be of a man walking from his house to his office. The sequence starts
from when he is outside his front door and the first shot could be of him locking it. After that there could be
shots of him walking along the street in his neighborhood, passing people on the street, going past a
children's park, walking on a pedestrian path with other office goers and, finally, walking into the entrance of
his office building. The shots in this sequence would all appear to be in chronological order and continuous.

A Compilation Sequence is a unit of information or thought and is sometimes called a ‘newsreel sequence'. There
may be many breaks in time during this kind of sequence because the scope is broad. The shots within it
could be of events that occurred independently, at different points in time, at different locations and contain
different people doing different things. The common aspect that ties all these shots together is conceptual,
which is the subject of the sequence. It usually ends when the film's discussion of the subject ends. For
example, the sequence could be about worldwide protests against war and could contain different shots of
people from all parts of the globe, some holding banners, some marching hand-in-hand, some giving
speeches etc. the sequence would end, when the subject of these protests ended in the film.

139
A scriptwriter has many choices to make when deciding about the content, treatment and nature of
sequences. They can have their own distinct ‘personalities'. A sequence can have a completely autonomous
audio-visual and conceptual quality to it. A sequence can be a mere chronological aspect within the film, like a
link in a chain, without anything distinct about it. A sequence can be descriptive, where it doesn't take a stand
but just establishes details. Or it can be a strong part of the narrative within the story and contain events that
drive the story forward. A sequence can occur in linear time, which is the real time in which events occur, or
in non-linear time, when it can cut back and forth between different moments in time.

Documentary sequences, for the most part, are observational. This means that they observe events as they
happen. If the film didn't record the event, it would still take place. For example, a village farmer herding his
cattle to graze in the fields is an event that would occur everyday, whether or not there was a sequence that
contained it. However, sequences can also be organized.

Many filmmakers choose to construct or initiate events that can be then included in a sequence. For example,
if the film dealt with the issue of the fur trade and how animal rights activists are combating this evil, the
filmmaker could organize a rally with a group of activists and use that sequence in the film. The rally would
be a real event and the filmmaker's involvement in organizing it doesn't affect its authenticity.

 The Montage
A montage is a sequence of shots. It's a process of combining a number of small shots and weaving them
together to communicate a large amount of information in a short time. The shots are usually not strictly
continuous in nature nor need they be compiled according to subject. A montage can create a whole new
meaning out of the two original meanings of adjacent shots just by coupling them together in a flowing,
musical way. This visual technique is often used extensively by filmmakers to cover either broad areas of
subject matter or to portray emotion. For example, a documentary may use a montage to portray the past life
of an individual character in the film, covering large chunks of childhood, adolescence, young adulthood and
middle age, all in a matter of seconds.

 Talking heads
One of the most common features of a documentary is talking heads. This includes either interviews of
people on camera or people talking directly to the audience on camera or both. Since documentary is non-
fiction, the idea of people talking to the camera, or a filmmaker seated behind the camera is an acceptable
story-telling/information giving technique. Often these talking heads are experts, people involved in the

140
stories or people who are directly or indirectly related to the subject matter in some form. For example, a film
on forest conservation in the Himalayas may have interviews with officials from the government forest dept,
with villagers who live in the forests, with conservation experts, people involved with logging and maybe even
people protesting against logging.

Sound Elements

Sound is as important as the image. Unfortunately, this fact wasn't realized until quite recently. Sound has
always been an extremely underrated aspect of filmmaking and, consequently, sound syntax and even
technology developed quite slowly compared to its visual counterpart. One of the reasons this may have
happened is because the audience does not ‘read' sound in the same way that it does the visual image. Sound
is not only omnipresent but also omni-directional and this pervasiveness led to it being traditionally
discounted as an important medium of film. These days, the same pervasiveness is considered beneficial and
filmmakers have learnt that sound can be manipulated effectively to enhance a film.

Sound is sometimes far more effective a medium in film than the visual image. Christian Metz identified five
channels of information in film:

) the visual image

) print and other graphics

) speech

) music; and

) Noise.

Interestingly, three of the five channels are auditory rather than visual, giving testament to the importance of
sound in any film.

However, even though it's given its due by filmmakers, fiction and documentary alike, sound is often not
considered enough at the scriptwriting stage. A soundtrack can strengthen script moments and sequences and
realize both space and time. In documentary, sound can be a vivid counterpart to the visual, adding to the
drama and realism of the overall film. It is for this reason that the scriptwriter must incorporate sound into
the script.

141
There are six types of sound in a film namely

Narrative commentary / Voice over

Talking heads

Music

Ambience

Sound effects

Silence

 Narrative commentary / Voice over

Narration is the sound-track commentary that sometimes accompanies a visual image in a documentary. It's
also often called a ‘voice-over' and it can be spoken by one or more off-screen commentators.

The commentator can be virtually anybody, from a character in the film, the filmmaker to even someone
completely unidentified, whom the audience only relates to by his/her voice. Voice-over narration has always
been a very popular tool in documentaries because it is an easy and effective way to communicate verbal
information in the absence of dialogue between actors.

However, many filmmakers choose to do away with narration, preferring to communicate verbal information
to the audience through talking heads.

 Talking heads
The speech element of talking heads, or interviews, is an important element of the soundtrack and also an
effective way to communicate information to the audience. In documentary, filmmakers often choose to
discard narration completely in favor of talking heads, as they come across as more credible and in keeping
with the non-fiction nature of documentary. The audience is able to identify the person talking, thus making
their experience more organic for them. The filmmaker is then also able to show the interviewee talking, cut
to visual images while continuing the voice of the interviewee over these images, which may support or
supplement what he is saying. This provides a smooth flow of sound for the audience, who will ‘know' the
voice they are listening to and thus feel more empathy with it. Narration and talking heads are not exclusive
of each other as audio communication techniques. Even though some filmmakers prefer only using talking
heads these days, many documentaries have a bit of both and they work quite well together.

 Music
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Feature films have traditionally always relied heavily on music as part of the soundtrack. Music directors and
composers would create masterpieces, which sometimes carried entire visual sequences. Some films were
even defined and identified by their trademark musical soundtracks. Like feature films, documentaries use
music to enhance moments and create moods and cultural flavor in the film.

Background music appeals on an emotional level with the audience and increases the level of empathy with
the events on screen. Music is also used to establish a particular geographical location or identify a particular
community; for example, images of a rice field, accompanied by Indian folk music, easily identify the location
as somewhere in India.

 Ambiance sound
The sound that is naturally present in the atmosphere surrounding the visual image and is recorded
simultaneously with it is called ambiance sound. Traditionally, this sound was referred to as ‘noise' and speech
and music were given more attention. However, as sound technology developed, filmmakers realized its
importance in the construction of a complete soundtrack. More than anything else, this type of sound is
essential to the creation of a location atmosphere. The environment's sound or what is often called ‘room
tone', based on the reverberation time and harmonics of a particular location is its signature. In documentary,
ambiance sound is a necessary part of the soundtrack as it establishes the film's visual in reality and gives the
audience a realization of space and time. This is invaluable when dealing with non-fictional subjects.
Normally, ambiance sound is used continuously, along with other types of sound, throughout most of the
documentary.

 Sound effects
Any sound that is not speech, music or ambiance and is artificially injected into the soundtrack to enhance it
is called a sound effect. This could be a natural sound like a bird chirping to a digitally created or distorted
sound like microphone feedback etc. In the old days of film, sound technicians would have to create
thousands of sound effects to put in a film in the absence of ambiance sound. This was needed when either
the camera was unable to record sound or when shooting took place in studios, where the ambiance would
have been at odds with the visuals on screen. These days, sound effects are used to enhance the film's subject
or mood, during recreations or when the required sound is missing from the recorded ambiance. For
example: sounds of horses galloping, men screaming and the clang of weapons against each other could be
used while showing a recreated sequence of an ancient battle; or the sound of a helicopter could be injected
into a shot of a helicopter flying that was shot from too far away to catch the original ambiance.

 Silence

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It may sound odd to add the lack of sound as a type of sound element, but in the world of film, where
everything is deliberate, even silence within the film means that the filmmaker has chosen to put it there. In
the days of silent films, filmmakers used to hire live orchestras to play while the film was being screened to
add to their entertainment value. Today's filmmakers have realized the power of silence. The lack of any
sound over a particular moment in a film forces the audience to focus on the visual and heightens their
anticipation for the moment when the something happens or when sound re-enters the picture. This is a
technique used quite frequently in horror films. In documentary, the scriptwriter can use this technique when
he wants the audience to hone in on the visual to such an extent that it takes them into a kind of suspended
or unnatural reality. However, unless it is a silent film or silence plays a thematic role in the film, this element
should be used sparingly. Too long a gap between sounds will struggle to hold audience attention.

Story Elements
Music, whether it's hip-hop or classical, would just be noise without a story. A painting would be just a
collage without a story. Across art forms, the innate story is as variable as it is constant.

A script is not just a compilation of words. It is a compilation of conceptual elements that tell a story. These
elements when woven together with audiovisual elements create a good film.

Every film, fiction or documentary, tells a story. The elements of story have been borrowed over time from
other art forms like literature and theatre and adapted to suit film form. The story and its structure are often
what make the difference between a good script and an average one and it is important for any scriptwriter to
study them thoroughly. Like in all other art forms, film story has three broad structural elements:

a) A beginning

b) A middle

c) An end

 The beginning
The importance of a good beginning cannot be stressed enough. The beginning sets the audience up for all
the events about to occur in the film. It sets the tone and mood for the film and hints at surprises that lie
ahead by raising the right questions in the minds of the audience. In a documentary, the beginning always

144
addresses the issue at hand and introduces the subject to the audience. A good beginning should achieve the
following;

a) Create an audiovisual ‘hook' to catch the audience's interest. A ‘hook' is something that demands
attention and places the film contextually in space and time. It sets up the flavour of things to come,
both in a story and audiovisual sense.

b) Establish the ‘core assertion' of the film, which is the point the filmmaker wants to make through the
documentary and the message he wants to communicate to the audience. It is this message around
which the entire film is built going forward.

c) Create curiosity among the audience. A good beginning reveals the subject and issue at hand to the
audience in such a way that they become keen to see the events that follow in the film.

d) Show change or the promise of change, which is one of the inherent elements of story and of film.

e) Creates the element of consequence, which is one event leading to another. Cause and effect will
direct the audience and increase their understanding of the subject matter.

The Inciting Incident

This is often a common feature used in the beginning to start a story. It is an incident that radically upsets the
balance of forces within the film's story. It is a dynamic and fully developed event, not something vague. As a
story begins, the forces at play are arranged in a particular way, whether they are balanced or not. The inciting
incident is any event that swings reality in either a negative or positive way, creating imbalance relative to the
previous way. This storytelling technique is useful because the forces within the film must then react to the
inciting incident, setting the story on its way into the middle. For example; the leader of a small desert
community could be informed that a large corporation was planning to buy the nearest oasis from the
government, effectively creating a water crunch in his community. The leader could be spurred to then
organize his people to ensure the government doesn't sell their precious natural water supply. The leader
obtaining the knowledge that his community's water supply was in trouble is the inciting incident. This
incident upset the balance of forces and impelled them to react.

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 The Middle
The big, unwritten space that is the middle of the film is often a daunting challenge for the scriptwriter. Many
scriptwriters focus on the dramatic beginning and end of their film and get confused and lost in the middle,
leading to a meandering series of events that lack focus.

The key to a good middle is structure. The scriptwriter must ensure that the middle of the film presents a
chain of logic designed to prove its core assertion. Each event and action must be pertinent and in keeping
with the subject and tone of the film. The issues at hand must be kept in strict focus and events must be
arranged in such a way to ensure that the film keeps moving along and progressing. This ‘tight' structure will
result in a dynamic and interesting middle.

In order to ensure an effective middle, it helps to divide it further into independent parts, which come
together to form a whole and tell the story. Thereby, the scriptwriter can think in terms of small, contained
chunks of information and place them according to relevance and importance. These chunks of information
are sequences.

A good middle consists of good sequences, which also have their own beginnings, middles and ends. Within
the sequences, the flow of events determines these parameters. There could many types of sequences within a
film, ranging from the dramatic ones that decide the film's direction, to the sequences that lead up to and
follow after the dramatic ones. The scriptwriter must allot a particular message for each sequence and ensure
that each one has an impact on its own. Then, he can explore the order in which he will place them all
depending on flow of information and the gradual increase of impact.

These sequences must be related to each other and unified as a whole in order to give the film a flow. The
scriptwriter can use the following criteria to relate and unify them:

a) Concept, idea, thought - The most common link between sequences is subject matter. Each sequence
is related with the others through the common issues it deals with.

b) Action - Sequences can be related to each other through the kinds of events and actions they portray.

c) Setting - Many of the sequences may share a common location and many more may have different
locations within a common, larger setting.

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 d) Character - Sequences in a film often share the same characters and are, therefore, unified by these
common characters.

e) Mood - Sequences can often relate to each other by having a common flavor or mood. For example,
one sequence could show slum streets around the world, another could show the defeated faces of
employment seekers. The two sequences are related by the gravity and desolation of their mood.

 The End
In the words of Aristotle, an ending must be both ‘inevitable' and ‘unexpected.' The end of a film is what the
audience takes home with them. It is the primary factor that determines audience opinion about the film
they've just seen. The end is when the film concludes with a conclusion, usually a reiteration of the core
assertion of the film. In many films, this is done by hammering home the assertion with a ‘key feature', which
could be a anything from a phrase to a visual, or many visuals, to one last event that sets the impression to be
left on the audience in stone. All or many issues are hopefully, or at least temporarily, resolved in the end of a
film. That is why it is also called the Resolution of the film. There are two types of film endings in
documentary namely

closed end

open end

A closed ending is usually one where all the questions raised in the story are answered and all emotions evoked
are satisfied. The audience is left with a rounded and closed, overall experience that leaves nothing further to
doubt or question. This type of ending is absolute and irreversible and the film's subject cannot be extended.
For example; a documentary about a particular sect of women working to change divorce law by passing a bill
in parliament could end with the bill being passed and the battle being won. This kind of ending doesn't leave
anything further to be said on the matter and the audience is left with a feeling of closure.

An open ending is usually one which leaves one, some or many questions unanswered and some emotions
unfulfilled. This type of ending relies heavily on audience imagination to fill in the gaps once the lights have
come on. The ‘open' implication doesn't mean the film finishes in the middle, leaving everything hanging
unresolved. The questions left are answerable and the emotions resolvable and all that has gone before has

led to clear and limited alternatives that make a certain degree of closure possible for the audience. For
example; a documentary about interreligious relations during Independence Day celebrations in a particular
country may end as night falls on the festivities, but many questions as to the future of relations between the
religious groups may be left unanswered. This type of ending has become very popular in documentary films

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after many filmmakers started realizing that the issues most documentaries deal with are part of larger
problems facing the world to which there are no clear cut solutions or answers.

Each ending has a decided flavour, a mood. A resolution can occur in so many different ways. ‘Happy
endings' have always been popular in feature films as they leave the audience on a ‘happy high.' In
documentary, things are not so straightforward. The flavour or mood of the ending must be determined by
the events of real life and cannot be controlled by the scriptwriter. Depending on the events that occur, the
ending can be optimistic, pessimistic or even ironic in nature. The scriptwriter must judge the mood of the
ending after studying the conclusions the film has come to based on the turn of events. Some issues may be
left unresolved; some may have taken a turn for the worse. Many scriptwriters feel the pressure to ‘find the
silver lining' and leave the audience on a high, but they should be obliged to stick to the truth and tell it like it
is.

The end of a feature film is often called a ‘climax'. It is when the story builds to a last revolution in values
from positive to negative or negative to positive, with or without irony, at maximum charge that's absolute
and irreversible. Basically, something big happens in the end that changes the film radically and moves the
audience. The process of building to this climactic end is also often applied to documentaries in a toned down
manner because it works so well in feature films. ‘Saving the best for last' is the old adage and the climactic
sequence/series of sequences are the most meaningful and dramatic in the film in terms of resolving the
issues at hand. The climax is the last leap of the scriptwriter's imagination and should be clear and self-
evident, requiring no explanation and playing out in a dramatic rhythm and tempo. For example; a
documentary about two boxing champions may end with a climactic series of sequences in which they fight
each other for the boxing title. The scriptwriter could make winning or losing the title into a spectacular
drama played out in the ring and keep the audience on the edge of their seats.

Video Grammar

In dramatic productions, lap-dissolves (when two video sources overlap for a few seconds during
the transition from one to the other) often signal a change in time or place.

Fade-ins and fade-outs, which apply to both audio and video, can be likened to the beginning and
end of book chapters. A fade-out consists of a two- or three-second transition from a full signal to
black and silence. A fade-in is the reverse.

Fade-ins and fade-outs often signal a major change or division in a production, such as a major
passage of time. (But "often" is a long way from "always.")

Traditionally, teleplays (television plays) and screenplays (film scripts) start with a fade-in and close
with a fade-out.

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Script Terms and Abbreviations

A number of terms and abbreviations are used in scriptwriting. Some describe camera movements.

When the entire camera is moved toward or away from the subject, it's referred to as a dolly.

A zoom, which is an optical version of a dolly, achieves somewhat the same effect. A script notation
might say, "Camera zooms in for close-up of John" or "Camera zooms out to show John is not
alone." A lateral move is a truck. Some terms designate shots:

Cuts or takes are instant transitions from one video source to another. In grammatical terms, shots
can be likened to sentences where each shot is a visual statement.

The cover shot or establishing shot are designated on a script by "wide-shot" (WS) or "long shot"
(LS). Occasionally, the abbreviations XLS for extreme long shot or VLS for very long shot are used.
These all can give the audience a basic orientation to the geography of a scene (i.e., who is standing
where) after which you'll cut to closer shots.

On small screen devices or in the relatively low-resolution medium of standard-definition television

(SDTV), this type of shot is visually weak because important details aren't easy to see. Film and
HDTV (high-definition television -- often just stated in production as hi-def) don't have quite the
same problem.

Cover or establishing shots should be held only long enough to orient viewers to the relationship
between major scene elements. (How close is the burning shed to the house?) Thereafter, they can
be momentarily used as reminders or updates on scene changes as reestablishing shots.

TV scripts are usually divided into audio and video columns, with shot designations in the left video
column.

You'll find the following shot designations relating to people:

An LS (long shot) or FS (full shot) is a shot from the top of the head to the feet.

An MS (medium shot) is normally a shot from the waist up. (To save space, we've used a vertical
rather than a horizontal format in this illustration.)

An MCU (medium close-up) is a shot that includes the head and shoulders.

A relatively straight-on CU (close-up) is the most desirable for interviews. Changing facial
expressions, which are important to understanding a conversation, can easily be seen.

XCUs are extreme close-ups. This type of shot is reserved for dramatic impact. The XCU may show
just the eyes of an individual. With objects, an XCU is often necessary to reveal important detail.
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A two-shot or three-shot (2-S or 3-S) designates a shot of two or three people in one scene.

The term subjective shot indicates that the audience (camera) will see what the character sees. It
often indicates a handheld camera that follows a subject by walking or running. Subjective camera
shots can add drama and frenzy to chase scenes.

We sometimes indicate camera angles, such as bird's eye view, high angle, eye level, and low angle on scripts.

A canted shot or Dutch angle shot is tilted 25 to 45 degrees to one side, causing horizontal lines to
run up or down hill.

Although scriptwriters occasionally feel it necessary to indicate camera shots and angles on a script,
this is an area that's best left to the director to decide.

Even so, in dramatic scripts you may see the following terms:

 camera finds: the camera moves in on a particular portion of a scene

 camera goes with: the camera moves with a person or object

 reverse angle: a near 180-degree shift in camera position

 shot widens: signals a zoom or dolly back.

We use a number of other abbreviations:

 EXT and INT: exterior and interior settings

 SOT (sound-on-tape): The voice, music, or background sound is from the audio track of a videotape.

 SOF (sound-on-film): This is not much used anymore. Even if a production starts out on film, it's
converted into a video recording before being "rolled into" a production

 VTR: videotape, videotape recording. Video and audiotape have now been largely replaced by
computer disks and solid-state memory

 VO (voice over): narration heard at higher volume than music or background sound

 OSV (off-screen voice): voice from a person not visible to the audience

 MIC: microphone (pronounced "mike")

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 POV (point of view). Dramatic scripts may indicate that a shot will be seen from the point of view of
a particular actor.

 OS (over-the-shoulder shot): The picture shows the back of a person's head and possibly one
shoulder with the main subject in the distance facing the camera. This is also designated as O/S and
X/S.

 ANNCR: announcer

 KEY: electronic overlay of titles, credits or other video sources over background video

 SFX or F/X (special effects/visual effects): audio special effects (audio FX) or video special effects;
altering normal audio and video, generally to achieve some dramatic effect

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Module III: TV Production Personnel
Production is generally not considered a department as such, but rather as a series of functional groups.
These include the "front office" staff such as the Production Manager, the Production Coordinator, and their
assistants; the accounting staff; the various Assistant Directors; and sometimes the Locations Manager and
their assistants. The Director is considered to be a separate entity, not within the departmental structure.
Whether technical or nontechnical, Personnel needed for TV and/or film production include the following;

Producer

A film/TV producer creates the conditions for making movies TV programs. The producer initiates,
coordinates, supervises, and controls matters such as raising funding, hiring key personnel, and arranging for
distributors. The producer is involved throughout all phases of the film making process from development to
completion of a project.

Executive Producer

An executive producer is usually an investor in the project or just a credit that the filmmaker gave to someone
who paid for the credit. There may be multiple executive producers on a project, depending on the financing
arrangements.

Production Manager

The production manager supervises the physical aspects of the production (not the creative aspects) including
personnel, technology, budget, and scheduling. It is the production manager's responsibility to make sure the
filming stays on schedule and within its budget. The PM also helps manage the day-to-day budget by
managing operating costs such as salaries, production costs, and everyday equipment rental costs. The PM
often works under the supervision of a line producer and directly supervises the Production Coordinator.

Unit Manager

The unit manager fulfills the same role as the production manager but for secondary "unit" shooting. In some
functional structures, the unit manager subsumes the role of the Transport Coordinator.

Production Coordinator

The Production Coordinator is the information nexus of the production, responsible for organizing all the
logistics from hiring crew, renting equipment, and booking talent. The PC is an integral part of film
production.

Post-production supervisor

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Post Production Supervisors are responsible for the post production process, during which they maintain
clarity of information and good channels of communication between the Producer, Editor, Supervising
Sound Editor, the Facilities Companies (such as film labs, CGI studios and negative cutters) and the
Production Accountant. Although this is not a creative role, it is pivotal in ensuring that the film's Post
Production budget is manageable and achievable, and that all deadlines are met. Because large amounts of
money are involved, and most of a film's budget is spent during Production, the Post Production period can
often be difficult and challenging.

Director

The director is responsible for overseeing the creative aspects of a film, including controlling the content and
flow of the film's plot, directing the performances of actors, organizing and selecting the locations in which
the film will be shot, and managing technical details such as the positioning of cameras, the use of lighting,
and the timing and content of the film's soundtrack. Though the director wields a great deal of power, they
are ultimately subordinate to the film's producer or producers. Some directors, especially more established
ones, take on many of the roles of a producer, and the distinction between the two roles is sometimes
blurred.

First Assistant Director

The first assistant director (1st AD) assists the production manager and director. The ultimate aim of any 1st
AD is to ensure the film comes in on schedule while maintaining a working environment in which the
director, principal artists (actors) and crew can be focused on their work. They oversee day-to-day
management of the cast and crew scheduling, equipment, script, and set. A 1st AD may also be responsible
for directing background action for major shots or the entirety of relatively minor shots, at the director's
discretion.

Second Assistant Director

The second assistant director (2nd AD) is the chief assistant of the 1st AD and helps carry out those tasks
delegated to the 1st AD. The 2nd AD may also direct background action and extras in addition to helping the
1st AD with scheduling, booking, etc. The 2nd AD is responsible for creating Call Sheets that let the crew
know the schedule and important details about the shooting day

Production Assistant

A production assistant assists the first assistant director with set operations. Production assistants, almost
always referred to as PAs, also assist in the production office with general tasks.

Script Supervisor

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Also known as the "continuity person", the script supervisor keeps track of what parts of the script have been
filmed and makes notes of any deviations between what was actually filmed and what appeared in the script.
They make notes on every shot, and keep track of props, blocking, and other details to ensure continuity
from shot to shot and scene to scene. The Script Supervisor's notes are given to the Editor to expedite the
editing process. The script supervisor works very closely with the director on set.

Stunt Coordinator

Where the film requires a stunt, and involves the use of stunt performers, the stunt coordinator will arrange
the casting and performance of the stunt, working closely with the director.

Casting Director

Chooses the actors for the characters of the film by inviting the actors to a practice for the script called an
audition.

Legal Counsel

Entertainment lawyers negotiate contracts, clear licensing rights for any intellectual property used in the film,
obtain tax credits from local governments, and take care of immigration paperwork when cast and/or crew
cross international borders to shoot on location.

Accountant

Production accountants manage the money and ensure the production comes in on budget and everyone gets
paid.

Insurance Broker

Due to the rising cost of computer-generated special effects, shooting on location, and A-list talent, major
motion picture budgets continue to set new records each decade. As a result, most investors will not commit
to financing a film unless an insurer can be found to protect them against the risk that the film ultimately
cannot be released as a result of a total catastrophe such as total loss of film negatives (or digital media), death
of the director or stars during production, natural disasters destroying the sets, and so on. Insurance brokers
help arrange for the insurance coverage that in turn makes a production financially feasible.

Production Designer

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Also known as the creative director, the production designer is responsible for creating the physical, visual
appearance of the film - settings, costumes, character makeup, all taken as a unit. The production designer
works closely with the director and the cinematographer to achieve the 'look' of the film.

Art Director

The art director reports to the production designer, and more directly oversees artists and craftspeople, such
as the set designers, graphic artists, and illustrators who give form to the production design as it develops.
The art director works closely with the construction coordinator to oversee the aesthetic and textural details
of sets as they are realized.

Assistant art director

The first, second and third assistant art directors carry out the instructions of the art director. Their work
often involves measuring locations, creating graphics and paper props, collecting information for the
production designer and drawing sets. Sometimes a set designer is also the first assistant art director. In this
capacity, they manage the work flow and act as the 'foreman' of the drawing office.

Set Designer

The set designer is the draftsman, often an architect, who realizes the structures or interior spaces called for
by the production designer.

Illustrator

The illustrator illustrates visual representations of the designs to communicate the ideas imagined by the
production designer.

Set Decorator

The set decorator is in charge of the decorating of a film set, which includes the furnishings and all the other
objects that will be seen in the film. They work closely with the production designer and coordinates with the
art director.

Buyer

The buyer is the number two person in the set department below the set decorator. The buyer locates, and
then purchases or rents the set dressing.

Lead Man

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The lead man is the foreman of the sets crew, often referred to as the "swing gang". Also assists the set
decorator.

Set Dresser

The set dressers apply and remove the "dressing", i.e., furniture, drapery, carpets-everything one would find
in a location, even doorknobs and wall sockets. Most of the swing gang's work occurs before and after the
shooting crew arrives but one set dresser remains with the shooting crew and is known as the on-set dresser.

Props Master

The property master is in charge of finding and managing all the props that appear in the film. The property
master usually has several assistants.

Prop maker

Propmaker, as the name implies, builds the props that are used for the film. Props builders are often
technicians skilled in construction, plastics casting, machining, and electronics.

Armorer or Weapons master

The armorer is a specialized prop technician who deals with firearms. In most jurisdictions this requires
special training and licenses.

Construction Coordinator

The construction coordinator oversees the construction of all the sets. The coordinator orders materials,
schedules the work, and supervises the often sizeable construction crew of carpenters, painters and labourers.
In some jurisdictions the construction coordinator is called the construction manager.

Head Carpenter

The head carpenter is the foreman of a "gang" of carpenters and laborers.

Key Scenic

The key scenic artist is responsible for the surface treatments of the sets. This includes special paint
treatments such as aging and gilding, as well as simulating the appearance of wood, stone, brick, metal, and
stained glass anything called for by the production designer. The key scenic artist supervises the crew of
painters, and is often a master craftsperson. In the UK, the above responsibilities would normally be those of
the head painter; the scenic artist is responsible for producing artist painted backings.

Greens man

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The greensman is a specialised set dresser dealing with the artistic arrangement or landscape design of plant
material, sometimes real and sometimes artificial, and usually a combination of both. Depending on the scope
of the greens work in a film, the greensman may report to the art director or may report directly to the
production designer. If a significant amount of greens work is required in a film, then the Greens may be an
identifiable sub-department, with its own team - often of a size numbering double figures - and hierarchy (eg.
Greensmaster, Greens Supervisor, Foreperson, Leading Hand, Laborers). Specialists from other areas of the
Art Dept. (eg. Fabricators, Sculptors, Painters/Scenics) may also be drafted to work exclusively on Greens.

Special Effects

This department oversees the mechanical effects-also called practical or physical effects-that create optical
illusions during live-action shooting. It is not to be confused with the visual effects department, which adds
photographic effects during filming to be altered later during post-production video editing.

Special Effects Supervisor

The special effects supervisor instructs the special effects crew on how to design moving set elements and
props that will break, explode, burn, collapse and implode without destroying the film set. S/he is also
responsible for reproducing weather conditions and other on-camera "magic."

Special effects assistant

The SFX assistants carry out the instructions of the special effects supervisor, building set pieces like
breakaway furniture and cities in miniature, lighting pyrotechnics, and setting up rigging equipment for stunts.
They also assist in prosthetic makeup.

Make-up Artist

Make-up artists work with makeup, hair and special effects to create the characters look for anyone appearing
on screen. Their role is to manipulate an actor's on-screen appearance whether it makes them look more
youthful, larger, older, or in some cases monstrous. There are also body makeup artists who concentrate their
abilities on the body rather than the head.

Hairdresser

The hair stylist is responsible for maintaining and styling the hair of anyone appearing on screen. They work
in conjunction with the makeup artist.

Costume designer

The costume designer is responsible for all the clothing and costumes worn by all the actors that appear on
screen. They are also responsible for designing, planning, and organizing the construction of the garments
down to the fabric, colors, and sizes. The costume designer works closely with the director to understand and
interpret "character", and counsels with the production designer to achieve an overall tone of the film. In
large productions, the costume designer will usually have one or more assistant costume designers.
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Costume supervisor

The costume supervisor works closely with the designer. In addition to helping with the design of the
costumes, they manage the wardrobe workspace. They supervise construction or sourcing of garments, hiring
and firing of support staff, budget, paperwork, and department logistics. Also called the wardrobe supervisor.

Key costumer

The key costumer is employed on larger productions to manage the set costumers, and to handle the Star's
wardrobe needs.

Costume standby

The Costume standby is present on set at all times. It is his/her responsibility to monitor the quality and
continuity of the actors and actresses costumes before and during takes. (S)he will also assist the actors and
actresses with dressing.

Art finisher or Breakdown artist

An Art finisher may be employed during the pre-production setup to "break down" garments. This
specialized job includes making new clothing appear dirty, faded and worn. They are also known as
breakdown artists.

Costume Buyer

On large productions a buyer may be employed to source and purchase fabrics and garments. A buyer might
also be referred to as a shopper. This distinction is often made when the lead actor in a production has
control over their wardrobe, and they may personally hire this person.

Cutter/fitter

This is a costume technician who fits or tailors costumes, usually on-set. They can also be called cutters,
seamstresses or tailors. Some celebrity actors have favorite cutters, and larger productions may hire several
and have them on set at the same time, particularly in period film projects that might have complicated or
extremely expensive extras wardrobe.

Cinematographer

The term cinematographer has been a point of contention for some time now. It is usually synonymous with
"director of photography", though some professionals insist this only applies when the director of
photography and camera operator are the same person.

Director of Photography

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The director of photography is the chief of the camera and lighting crew of the film. The DoP makes
decisions on lighting and framing of scenes in conjunction with the film's director. Typically, the director tells
the DoP how they want a shot to look, and the DoP chooses the correct aperture, filter, and lighting to
achieve the desired effect as per the director's requirements.

Camera Operator

The camera operator uses the camera at the direction of the cinematographer, director of photography, or
the film director to capture the scenes on film. Generally, a cinematographer or director of photography does
not operate the camera, but sometimes these jobs may be combined.

First Assistant Camera (Focus Puller)

The first assistant cameraman (1st AC) is responsible for keeping the camera in focus as it is shooting, as well
as building the camera at the beginning of the day and taking it apart at the end. They also thread the film
when a new magazine is loaded.

Second Assistant Camera (Clapper Loader)

The second assistant cameraman (2nd AC) operates the clapperboard at the beginning of each take and loads
the raw film stock into the camera magazines between takes, if there is no additional specifically designated
film loader. The 2nd AC is also in charge of overseeing the meticulously kept notebooks that record when the
film stock is received, used, and sent to the lab for processing. Additionally, the 2nd AC oversees
organization of camera equipment and transport of the equipment from one shooting location to another.

Loader

The loader is the designated film loader. They transfer motion picture film from the manufacturer's light-tight
canisters to the camera magazines for attachment to the camera by the 2nd AC. After exposure during
filming, the loader then removes the film from the magazines and places it back into the light-tight cans for
transport to the laboratory. It is the responsibility of the loader to manage the inventory of film and
communicate with the 1st AC on the film usage and remaining stock throughout the day. On small
production crews, this job is often combined with the 2nd AC. With the prevalence of digital photography,
this position is often eliminated.

Camera Production Assistant (camera intern/camera trainee)

Usually a volunteer or trainee in the camera department, the camera PA assists the crew with menial details
while learning the trade of the camera assistant, operator or cinematographer.

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Digital Imaging Technician (DIT)

On digital photography productions the digital imaging technician is responsible for the coordination of the
internal workings of the digital camera. Under the direction of the cinematographer or director of
photography, the DIT will make adjustments to the multitude of variables available in most professional
digital cameras to creatively or technically manipulate the resulting image. It may also be the responsibility of
the DIT to archive and manage the digital data, create compressed dailies from raw footage and prepare all
digital images for post-production.

Steadicam operator

A Steadicam operator is someone who is skilled at operating a Steadicam (trademark for a camera
stabilization rig). This person is usually one of the camera operators on the production.

Motion Control Technician/Operator

This technician operates a motion control rig, which essentially is a 'camera robot' able to consistently repeat
camera moves for special effects uses.

Motion control rigs are typically rented with an experienced operator.

Production Sound Mixer

The production sound mixer is head of the sound department on set, responsible for recording all sound
during filming. This involves the choice and deployment of microphones, operation of a sound recording
device, and sometimes the mixing of audio signals in real time.

Boom Operator

The boom operator is an assistant to the production sound mixer, responsible for microphone placement and
movement during filming. The boom operator uses a boom pole, a long pole made of light aluminum or
carbon fiber that allows precise positioning of the microphone above or below the actors, just out of the
camera's frame. The boom operator may also place radio microphones and hidden set microphones. In
France, the boom operator is called the perch man.

Utility Sound Technician

The utility sound technician has a dynamic role in the sound department, most typically pulling cables, but
often acting as an additional boom operator or mixer when required by complex filming circumstances. Not
all films employ a utility sound technician, but the increasing complexities of location sound recording in
modern film have made the job more prevalent. This role is sometimes credited as "cable man" or "python
wrangler".

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Grip

Grips are trained lighting and rigging technicians. Their main responsibility is to work closely with the
electrical department to put in the non-electrical components of lighting set-ups required for a shot, such as
flags, overheads, and bounces. On the sound stage, they move and adjust major set pieces when something
needs to be moved to get a camera into position.

Key grip

The key grip is the chief grip on a set, and is the head of the set operations department. The key grip works
with the director of photography to help set up the set and to achieve correct lighting and blocking.

Best boy (Grip)

The best boy grip is chief assistant to the key grip. They are also responsible for organizing the grip truck
throughout the day.

Dolly grip

The grip in charge of operating the camera dollies and camera cranes is called the dolly grip. They place, level,
and move the dolly track, then push and pull the dolly, and usually a camera operator and camera assistant as
riders.

Grips

Grips report to the Key Grip and are responsible for lifting heavy things and setting rigging points for lights.

Gaffer

The gaffer is the head of the electrical department, responsible for the design and execution of the electrical
distribution and lighting plan for a production. Sometimes the gaffer is credited as "Chief Lighting
Technician".

Best boy (Electrical)

The best boy electric is the chief assistant to the gaffer. He or she is not usually on set, but dealing with the
electric truck, rentals, manpower, and other logistics.

Lighting Technician

Lighting technicians are involved with setting up and controlling lighting equipment.

Location Manager

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Oversees the Locations Department and its staff, typically reporting directly to the Production Manager
and/or Assistant Director (or even Director and/or Executive Producer). Location Manager is responsible
for final clearing (or guaranteeing permission to use) a location for filming and must often assist
Production/Finance Dept(s) in maintaining budget management regarding actual location/permit fees as well
as labor costs to production for himself and the Locations Department at large.

Assistant Location Manager

Works with the Location Manager and the various departments in arranging technical scouts for the essential
staff (grips, electric, camera, etc.) to see options which the Location Manager has selected for filming. The
Assistant Location Manager will be onset during the filming process to oversee the operation, whereas the
Location Manager continues preproduction from elsewhere (generally an office) on the upcoming locations.
(Note: On most location-based television shows, there will be two Assistant Location Managers that alternate
episodes, allowing one to prep an upcoming episode while the other is on set with the current one.)

Location Scout

Does much of the actual research, footwork and photography to document location possibilities. Often the
Location Manager will do some scouting himself, as well as the Assistant Location Manager.

Location Assistant

Hired by the Location Manager to be on-set before, during, and after the filming process. General
responsibilities include arriving first at the location to allow the set dressers into the set for preparation;
maintaining the cleanliness of the location areas during filming; fielding complaints from neighbors; and
ultimately, at the end of the filming, making sure it seems as though the film crew was never there. There is
generally one to three assistants on a shoot at any given time.

Location Production Assistant

This position exists generally on larger budget productions. The Locations PA is the assistant who is almost
never onset, but instead is always "prepping" a location or "wrapping" a location. That is, when a location
requires several days of set up and breakdown prior and following the day(s) of filming. A location
production assistant is what a set production assistant is in Canada.

Film Editor

The film editor is the person who assembles the various shots into a coherent film, with the help of the
director. There are usually several assistant editors.

Colorist

With a photochemical process, the color timer adjusts the color of the film via printer lights for greater
consistency in the film's colors. With a digital intermediate process, the colorist can use digital tools in
manipulating the image and has greater creative freedom in changing the aesthetic of a film.

Negative Cutter

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The negative cutter cuts and splices the negatives as directed by the film editor, and then provides the
assembled negative reels to the lab in order for prints (positives for projection) to be made.

Telecine Colorist

In post production, a telecine colorist is responsible for a "grade" - that is a look that has been created with a
grading system, which adjusts brightness, contrast and color.

Visual Effects

Visual effects commonly refers to post-production alterations of the film's images, although the VFX crew
works alongside the special effects department for any on-set optical effects that need physical representation
during filming (on camera.)

Visual Effects Producer

The visual effects producer works with the visual effects supervisor to break down the script into
storyboards, and advises the director as to how s/he should approach the scenes. Together they determine
which sequences are to be shot as live action elements, which would work well in miniature, and which (if
any) should be computer generated.

Visual Effects Creative Director

VFX creative directors are very much like production designers, except they direct and supervise the
creative side of the film's visual effects. The position is particularly in demand for films with massive amounts
of computer generated imagery and scenes.

Visual Effects Supervisor

The visual effects supervisor is in charge of the VFX crew, working with production and the film's director
to achieve the desired in-camera optical effects of the film.

Visual Effects Editor

The visual effects editor incorporates visual effects into the current cuts of live action sequences, producing
multiple versions of each shot. Altered scenes are then evaluated by the visual effects supervisor and creative
director for aesthetic and technical direction, and by the producers for review and final editing.

Compositor

A compositor is a visual effects artist responsible for compositing images from different sources such as
video, film, computer generated 3-D imagery, 2-D animations, matte paintings, photographs, and text.

Roto, paint

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These artists may rotoscope the footage, manually creating mattes for use in compositing. They may also
paint visual information into or out of a scene, such removing wires and rigs, logos, dust busting, scratch
removal, etc.

Matte Painter

These artists draw/paint entire sets or extend portions of an existing set.

Sound Designer

The sound designer, or "supervising sound editor", is in charge of the post-production sound of a movie.
Sometimes this may involve great creative license, and other times it may simply mean working with the
director and editor to balance the sound to their liking.

Dialogue Editor

Responsible for assembling and editing all the dialog in the soundtrack.

Sound Editor

Responsible for assembling and editing all the sound effects in the soundtrack.

Re-recording Mixer

Balances all of the sounds prepared by the dialogue, music and effects editors, and finalizes the films audio
track.

Music Supervisor

The music supervisor, or "music director", works with the composer, mixers and editors to create and
integrate the film's music. In Hollywood, a music supervisor's primary responsibility is to act as liaison
between the film production and the recording industry, negotiating the use rights for all source music used in
a film.

Composer

The composer is responsible for writing the musical score for a film.

Foley Artist

The foley artist is the person who creates many of the ambient or routine sound effects for a film.

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