Ocean

The ocean (also the sea or the world

ocean) is the body of salt water that
makes approximately 70.8% of Earth's
surface area and contains 97% of
Earth's water.[1] An ocean can also
refer to any of the large bodies of water
into which the world ocean is
conventionally divided.[2] Separate
names are used to identify five
different areas of the ocean: Pacific
(the largest), Atlantic, Indian,
Antarctic/Southern, and Arctic (the
smallest).[3][4] Seawater covers World map of the five-ocean model with approximate boundaries
approximately 361,000,000  km2
(139,000,000 sq mi) of the planet. The
ocean is the principal component of Earth's hydrosphere, and therefore integral to life on Earth. Acting as a
huge heat reservoir, the ocean influences climate and weather patterns, the carbon cycle, and the water
cycle.

Oceanographers divide the ocean into different vertical and horizontal zones based on physical and
biological conditions. The pelagic zone consists of the water column from surface to ocean floor throughout
the open ocean. The water column is further categorized in other zones depending on depth and on how
much light is present. The photic zone includes water from the surface to a depth of 1% of the surface light
(about 200  m in the open ocean), where photosynthesis can occur. This makes the photic zone the most
biodiverse. Photosynthesis by plants and microscopic algae (free floating phytoplankton) creates organic
matter using light, water, carbon dioxide, and nutrients. Ocean photosynthesis creates 50% of the oxygen in
earth's atmosphere.[5] This upper sunlit zone is the origin of the food supply which sustains most of the
ocean ecosystem. Light penetrates to a depth of only a few hundred meters; the remaining ocean below is
cold and dark. The continental shelf where the ocean approaches dry land is more shallow, with a depth of
a few hundred meters or less. Human activity has a greater impact on the continental shelf.

Ocean temperatures depend on the amount of solar radiation reaching the ocean surface. In the tropics,
surface temperatures can rise to over 30 °C (86 °F). Near the poles where sea ice forms, the temperature in
equilibrium is about −2 °C (28 °F). Deep ocean temperature is between −2 °C (28 °F) and 5 °C (41 °F) in
all parts of the ocean.[6] Water continuously circulates in the oceans creating ocean currents. These directed
movements of seawater are generated by forces acting upon the water, including temperature differences,
atmospheric circulation (wind), the Coriolis effect and differences in salinity.[7] Tidal currents originate from
tides, while surface currents are caused by wind and waves. Major ocean currents include the Gulf Stream,
Kuroshio Current, Agulhas Current and Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Collectively, currents move
enormous amounts of water and heat around the globe. This circulation significantly impacts global climate
and the uptake and redistribution of pollutants such as carbon dioxide by moving these contaminants from
the surface into the deep ocean.
Ocean water contains large quantities of dissolved gases, including oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
This gas exchange takes place at the ocean surface and solubility depends on the temperature and salinity of
the water.[8] The increasing concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to fossil fuel combustion
leads to higher concentrations in ocean water, resulting in ocean acidification.[9] The ocean provides society
with important environmental services, including climate regulation. It also offers a means of trade and
transport and access to food and other resources. Known to be the habitat of over 230,000 species, it may
contain far more – perhaps over two million species.[10] However, the ocean is subject to numerous human-
caused environmental threats, including marine pollution, overfishing, and effects of climate change on
oceans, such as ocean warming, ocean acidification, sea level rise and many more. The continental shelf
and coastal waters that are most influenced by human activity are especially vulnerable.

Terminology

Ocean and sea

The terms "the ocean" or "the sea" used without specification refer to the interconnected body of salt water
covering the majority of the Earth's surface.[3][4] It includes the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Antarctic/Southern
and Arctic Oceans.[11] As a general term, "the ocean" and "the sea" are often interchangeable, although
speakers of British English refer to "the sea" in all cases,[12] even when the body of water is one of the
oceans.

Strictly speaking, a "sea" is a body of water (generally a division of the world ocean) partly or fully
enclosed by land.[13] The word "sea" can also be used for many specific, much smaller bodies of seawater,
such as the North Sea or the Red Sea. There is no sharp distinction between seas and oceans, though
generally seas are smaller, and are often partly (as marginal seas) or wholly (as inland seas) bordered by
land.[14]

World ocean

The contemporary concept of the World Ocean was

coined in the early 20th century by the Russian
oceanographer Yuly Shokalsky to refer to the continuous
ocean that covers and encircles most of Earth.[15][16]
The global, interconnected body of salt water is
sometimes referred to as the world ocean, global ocean
or the great ocean.[17][18][19] The concept of a
continuous body of water with relatively free
interchange among its parts is of fundamental
importance to oceanography.[20]

Etymology

The word ocean comes from the figure in classical

antiquity, Oceanus (/oʊˈsiːənəs/; Greek: Ὠκεανός
Ōkeanós,[21] pronounced  [ɔːkeanós]), the elder of the
Titans in classical Greek mythology. Oceanus was
The ocean dominates Earth's surface and
hydrosphere, producing the global thermohaline
circulation seawater flow (animation) (https://uplo
ad.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Therm
ohaline_circulation.svg)
believed by the ancient Greeks and Romans to be the divine personification of an enormous river encircling
the world.

The concept of Ōkeanós has an Indo-European connection. Greek Ōkeanós has been compared to the
Vedic epithet ā-śáyāna-, predicated of the dragon Vṛtra-, who captured the cows/rivers. Related to this
notion, the Okeanos is represented with a dragon-tail on some early Greek vases.[22]

Natural history

Origin of water

Scientists believe that a sizable quantity of water would have been in the material that formed the Earth.[23]
Water molecules would have escaped Earth's gravity more easily when it was less massive during its
formation. This is called atmospheric escape.

During planetary formation Earth possibly had magma oceans. Subsequently outgassing, volcanic activity
and meteorite impacts, according to current theories, produced an early atmosphere of carbon dioxide,
nitrogen and water vapor. The gases and with them the atmosphere are thought to have accumulated over
millions of years and after Earth's surface had significantly cooled the water vapor over time would have
condensed, forming Earth's first oceans.[24] The early oceans might have been significantly hotter than
today and appeared green due to high iron content.[25]

Geological evidence helps constrain the time frame for liquid water existing on Earth. A sample of pillow
basalt (a type of rock formed during an underwater eruption) was recovered from the Isua Greenstone Belt
and provides evidence that water existed on Earth 3.8 billion years ago.[26] In the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone
Belt, Quebec, Canada, rocks dated at 3.8 billion years old by one study[27] and 4.28 billion years old by
another[28] show evidence of the presence of water at these ages.[26] If oceans existed earlier than this, any
geological evidence either has yet to be discovered or has since been destroyed by geological processes like
crustal recycling. However, more recently, in August 2020, researchers reported that sufficient water to fill
the oceans may have always been on the Earth since the beginning of the planet's formation.[29][30][31] In
this model, atmospheric greenhouse gases kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had
only 70% of its current luminosity.[32] By 3.5  Ga, Earth's magnetic field was established, which helped
prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind.[33]

Ocean formation

The origin of Earth's oceans is unknown. Oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean eon and may
have been the cause for the emergence of life.

Plate tectonics, post-glacial rebound, and sea level rise continually change the coastline and structure of the
world ocean. A global ocean has existed in one form or another on Earth for eons.

Since its formation the ocean has taken many conditions and shapes with many past ocean divisions and
potentially at times covering the whole globe.[34]

During colder climatic periods, more ice caps and glaciers form, and enough of the global water supply
accumulates as ice to lessen the amounts in other parts of the water cycle. The reverse is true during warm
periods. During the last ice age, glaciers covered almost one-third of Earth's land mass with the result being
that the oceans were about 122  m (400  ft) lower than today. During the last global "warm spell," about
125,000 years ago, the seas were about 5.5 m (18 ft) higher than they are now. About three million years
ago the oceans could have been up to 50 m (165 ft) higher.[35]

Geography
The entire ocean, containing 97% of Earth's water, spans 70.8% of
Earth's surface,[1] making it Earth's global ocean or world
ocean.[15][17] This makes Earth, along with its vibrant hydrosphere
a "water world"[36][37] or "ocean world",[38][39] particularly in
Earth's early history when the ocean is thought to have possibly
covered Earth completely.[34] The ocean is shaped irregularly,
dominating Earth's surface unevenly, allowing the discernment of
Earth's surface into a water and land hemisphere, as well as the
division of the ocean into particular oceans.

Oceanic divisions
The ocean covers ~70% of the
Earth, sometimes called the "blue
The major oceanic divisions – listed below in descending order of
planet" or an ocean world
area and volume – are so named based on nearest continents,
various archipelagos, and other criteria.[40][41][42] Oceans are
fringed with coastlines that run for 360,000 kilometres in total
distance.[43][44] They are also connected to smaller, adjoining
bodies of water such as, seas, gulfs, bays, bights, and straits.
Seawater covers approximately 361,000,000  km2
(139,000,000  sq  mi) and is customarily divided into five principal
oceans, as below:

The Atlantic, one component of the

system, makes up 23% of the
"global ocean".
 Oceans by size
Area Volume Avg. depth Coastline
# Ocean Location
(km2) (km3) (m) (km)[45]
1 Pacific Ocean Between Asia and Australasia 168,723,000 669,880,000 3,970 135,663
and the Americas[46] (46.6%) (50.1%) (35.9%)

2 Atlantic Ocean Between the Americas and 85,133,000 310,410,900 3,646 111,866
Europe and Africa[47] (23.5%) (23.3%) (29.6%)

3 Indian Ocean Between southern Asia, 70,560,000 264,000,000 3,741 66,526

Africa and Australia[48] (19.5%) (19.8%) (17.6%)

4 Antartic/Southern Between Antarctica and the 21,960,000 71,800,000 3,270 17,968

Ocean Pacific, Atlantic and Indian (6.1%) (5.4%) (4.8%)
oceans
Sometimes considered an
extension of those three
oceans.[49][50]
5 Arctic Ocean Between northern North 15,558,000 18,750,000 1,205 45,389
America and Eurasia in the (4.3%) (1.4%) (12.0%)
Arctic
Sometimes considered a
marginal sea of the
Atlantic.[51][52][53]
Total 361,900,000 1.335 × 109 3,688 377,412
(100%) (100%) (100%)

NB: Volume, area, and average depth figures include NOAA ETOPO1 figures for marginal South China Sea.
Sources: Encyclopedia of Earth,[46][47][48][49][53] International Hydrographic Organization,[50] Regional
Oceanography: an Introduction (Tomczak, 2005),[51] Encyclopædia Britannica,[52] and the International
Telecommunication Union.[45]

Ocean basins

The ocean fills Earth's oceanic basins.

Earth's oceanic basins cover different
geologic provinces of Earth's oceanic crust
as well as continental crust. As such it
covers mainly Earth's structural basins, but
also continental shelfs.

Every ocean basin has a mid-ocean ridge,

which creates a long mountain range
beneath the ocean. Together they form the
global mid-oceanic ridge system that
features the longest mountain range in the
world. The longest continuous mountain Bathymetry of the ocean floor showing the continental shelves
range is 65,000  km (40,000  mi). This and oceanic plateaus (red), the mid-ocean ridges (yellow-green)
and the abyssal plains (blue to purple)
underwater mountain range is several times
longer than the longest continental
mountain range—the Andes.[54]
Oceanographers state that less than 20% of the oceans have been mapped.[55]

Physical properties

Color

Most of the ocean is blue in color, but in some

places the ocean is blue-green, green, or even
yellow to brown.[56] Blue ocean color is a
result of several factors. First, water
preferentially absorbs red light, which means
that blue light remains and is reflected back out
of the water. Red light is most easily absorbed
and thus does not reach great depths, usually to
less than 50 meters (164  ft.). Blue light, in
comparison, can penetrate up to 200 meters Ocean chlorophyll concentration is a proxy for
(656 ft.).[57] Second, water molecules and very phytoplankton biomass. In this map, blue colors represent
lower chlorophyll and reds represent higher chlorophyll.
tiny particles in ocean water preferentially
Satellite-measured chlorophyll is estimated based on ocean
scatter blue light more than light of other
color by how green the color of the water appears from
colors. Blue light scattering by water and tiny
space.
particles happens even in the very clearest
ocean water,[58] and is similar to blue light
scattering in the sky.

The main substances that affect the color of the ocean include dissolved organic matter, living
phytoplankton with chlorophyll pigments, and non-living particles like marine snow and mineral
sediments.[59] Chlorophyll can be measured by satellite observations and serves as a proxy for ocean
productivity (marine primary productivity) in surface waters. In long term composite satellite images,
regions with high ocean productivity show up in yellow and green colors because they contain more
(green) phytoplankton, whereas areas of low productivity show up in blue.

Water cycle, weather and rainfall

Ocean water represents the largest body

of water within the global water cycle
(oceans contain 97% of Earth's water).
Evaporation from the ocean moves
water into the atmosphere to later rain
back down onto land and the ocean.[60]
Oceans have a significant effect on the
biosphere. The ocean as a whole is
thought to cover approximately 90% of
the Earth's biosphere.[55] Oceanic
evaporation, as a phase of the water
cycle, is the source of most rainfall
(about 90%),[60] causing a global cloud The ocean is a major driver of Earth's water cycle.
cover of 67% and a consistent oceanic
cloud cover of 72%.[61] Ocean
temperatures affect climate and wind patterns that affect life on land. One of the most dramatic forms of
weather occurs over the oceans: tropical cyclones (also called "typhoons" and "hurricanes" depending upon
where the system forms).

As the world's ocean is the principal component of Earth's hydrosphere, it is integral to life on Earth, forms
part of the carbon cycle and water cycle, and – as a huge heat reservoir – influences climate and weather
patterns.

Waves and swell

The motions of the ocean surface, known as undulations or wind

waves, are the partial and alternate rising and falling of the ocean
surface. The series of mechanical waves that propagate along the
interface between water and air is called swell – a term used in
sailing, surfing and navigation.[62] These motions profoundly affect
ships on the surface of the ocean and the well-being of people on
Movement of water as waves pass
those ships who might suffer from sea sickness.

Wind blowing over the surface of a body of water forms waves that
are perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The friction between air and water caused by a gentle breeze
on a pond causes ripples to form. A strong blow over the ocean causes larger waves as the moving air
pushes against the raised ridges of water. The waves reach their maximum height when the rate at which
they are travelling nearly matches the speed of the wind. In open water, when the wind blows continuously
as happens in the Southern Hemisphere in the Roaring Forties, long, organized masses of water called swell
roll across the ocean.[63]: 8 3–84 [40][64] If the wind dies down, the wave formation is reduced, but already-
formed waves continue to travel in their original direction until they meet land. The size of the waves
depends on the fetch, the distance that the wind has blown over the water and the strength and duration of
that wind. When waves meet others coming from different directions, interference between the two can
produce broken, irregular seas.[40]

Constructive interference can cause individual (unexpected) rogue waves much higher than normal.[65]
Most waves are less than 3 m (10 ft) high[65] and it is not unusual for strong storms to double or triple that
height.[66] Rogue waves, however, have been documented at heights above 25 meters (82 ft).[67][68]

The top of a wave is known as the crest, the lowest point between waves is the trough and the distance
between the crests is the wavelength. The wave is pushed across the surface of the ocean by the wind, but
this represents a transfer of energy and not horizontal movement of water. As waves approach land and
move into shallow water, they change their behavior. If approaching at an angle, waves may bend
(refraction) or wrap around rocks and headlands (diffraction). When the wave reaches a point where its
deepest oscillations of the water contact the ocean floor, they begin to slow down. This pulls the crests
closer together and increases the waves' height, which is called wave shoaling. When the ratio of the wave's
height to the water depth increases above a certain limit, it "breaks", toppling over in a mass of foaming
water.[65] This rushes in a sheet up the beach before retreating into the ocean under the influence of
gravity.[69]

Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or other major geological disturbances can set off waves that can lead to
tsunamis in coastal areas which can be very dangerous.[70][71]

Sea level and surface

The ocean's surface is an important reference point for oceanography and geography, particularly as mean
sea level. The ocean surface has globally little, but measurable topography, depending on the ocean's
volumes.

The ocean surface is a crucial interface for oceanic and atmospheric processes. Allowing interchange of
particles, enriching the air and water, as well as grounds by some particles becoming sediments. This
interchange has fertilized life in the ocean, on land and air. These processes and components altogether form
ocean surface ecosystems.

Tides

Tides are the regular rise and fall in water level experienced by
oceans in response to the gravitational influences of the moon and
the sun, and the effects of the Earth's rotation. During each tidal
cycle, at any given place the water rises to a maximum height
known as "high tide" before ebbing away again to the minimum
"low tide" level. As the water recedes, it uncovers more and more
of the foreshore, also known as the intertidal zone. The difference
in height between the high tide and low tide is known as the tidal
range or tidal amplitude.[72][73] High tide and low tide in the Bay of
Fundy, Canada.
In the open ocean tidal ranges are less than 1 meter, but in coastal
areas these tidal ranges increase to more than 10 meters in some
areas.[74] Some of the largest tidal ranges in the world occur in the Bay of Fundy and Ungava Bay in
Canada, reaching up to 16 meters.[75] Other locations with record high tidal ranges include the Bristol
Channel between England and Wales, Cook Inlet in Alaska, and the Río Gallegos in Argentina.[76]

Most places experience two high tides each day, occurring at intervals of about 12 hours and 25 minutes.
This is half the 24 hours and 50 minute period that it takes for the Earth to make a complete revolution and
return the moon to its previous position relative to an observer. Tidal force or tide-raising force decreases
rapidly with distance, so the moon has more than twice as great an effect on tides as the Sun.[77] When the
sun, moon and Earth are all aligned (full moon and new moon), the combined effect results in the high
"spring tides".[72] A storm surge can occur when high winds pile water up against the coast in a shallow
area and this, coupled with a low pressure system, can raise the surface of the ocean at high tide
dramatically.

Depth

The average depth of the oceans is about 4  km. More precisely the average depth is 3,688 meters
(12,100 ft).[40] Nearly half of the world's marine waters are over 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) deep.[19] "Deep
ocean," which is anything below 200 meters (660 ft.), covers about 66% of Earth's surface.[78] This figure
does not include seas not connected to the World Ocean, such as the Caspian Sea.
The deepest point in the ocean is the Mariana Trench, located in the Pacific Ocean near the Northern
Mariana Islands.[79] Its maximum depth has been estimated to be 10,971 meters (35,994  ft). The British
naval vessel Challenger II surveyed the trench in 1951 and named the deepest part of the trench the
"Challenger Deep". In 1960, the Trieste successfully reached the bottom of the trench, manned by a crew of
two men.

Oceanic zones

Oceanographers divide the ocean into

different vertical and horizontal zones
defined by physical and biological
conditions. The pelagic zone consists
of the water column of the open ocean,
and can be divided into further regions
categorized by light abundance and by
depth.

Grouped by light penetration

The photic zone includes the
oceans from the surface to a
depth of 200 m; it is the region
where photosynthesis can
occur and is, therefore, the The major oceanic zones, based on depth and biophysical
most biodiverse.
conditions
Photosynthesis by plants and
microscopic algae (free floating
phytoplankton) allows the
creation of organic matter from chemical precursors including water and carbon dioxide. This
organic matter can then be consumed by other creatures. Much of the organic matter created
in the photic zone is consumed there but some sinks into deeper waters.
Below the photic zone is the mesopelagic or twilight zone where there is a very small
amount of light. Below that is the aphotic deep ocean to which no surface sunlight at all
penetrates. Life that exists deeper than the photic zone must either rely on material sinking
from above (see marine snow) or find another energy source. Hydrothermal vents are a
source of energy in what is known as the aphotic zone (depths exceeding 200 m). The
pelagic part of the photic zone is known as the epipelagic.[80]

Grouped by depth and temperature

The pelagic part of the aphotic zone can be further divided into vertical regions according to depth and
temperature:[80]

The mesopelagic is the uppermost region. Its lowermost boundary is at a thermocline of

12 °C (54 °F) which generally lies at 700–1,000 meters (2,300–3,300 ft) in the tropics. Next is
the bathypelagic lying between 10 and 4 °C (50 and 39 °F), typically between 700–1,000
meters (2,300–3,300 ft) and 2,000–4,000 meters (6,600–13,100 ft). Lying along the top of the
abyssal plain is the abyssopelagic, whose lower boundary lies at about 6,000 meters
(20,000 ft). The last and deepest zone is the hadalpelagic which includes the oceanic trench
and lies between 6,000–11,000 meters (20,000–36,000 ft).
 The benthic zones are aphotic and correspond to the three deepest zones of the deep-sea.
The bathyal zone covers the continental slope down to about 4,000 meters (13,000 ft). The
abyssal zone covers the abyssal plains between 4,000 and 6,000 m. Lastly, the hadal zone
corresponds to the hadalpelagic zone, which is found in oceanic trenches.

Distinct boundaries between ocean surface waters and deep waters can be drawn based on the properties of
the water. These boundaries are called thermoclines (temperature), haloclines (salinity), chemoclines
(chemistry), and pycnoclines (density). If a zone undergoes dramatic changes in temperature with depth, it
contains a thermocline, a distinct boundary between warmer surface water and colder deep water. The
tropical thermocline is typically deeper than the thermocline at higher latitudes. Polar waters, which receive
relatively little solar energy, are not stratified by temperature and generally lack a thermocline because
surface water at polar latitudes are nearly as cold as water at greater depths. Below the thermocline, water
everywhere in the ocean is very cold, ranging from −1  °C to 3  °C. Because this deep and cold layer
contains the bulk of ocean water, the average temperature of the world ocean is 3.9  °C.[81] If a zone
undergoes dramatic changes in salinity with depth, it contains a halocline. If a zone undergoes a strong,
vertical chemistry gradient with depth, it contains a chemocline. Temperature and salinity control the density
of ocean water, with colder and saltier water being more dense, and this density in turn regulates the global
water circulation within the ocean.[80] The halocline often coincides with the thermocline, and the
combination produces a pronounced pycnocline, a boundary between less dense surface water and dense
deep water.

Grouped by distance from land

The pelagic zone can be further subdivided into two sub regions based on distance from land: the neritic
zone and the oceanic zone. The neritic zone encompasses the water mass directly above the continental
shelves and hence includes coastal waters, whereas the oceanic zone includes all the completely open water.

The littoral zone covers the region between low and high tide and represents the transitional area between
marine and terrestrial conditions. It is also known as the intertidal zone because it is the area where tide level
affects the conditions of the region.[80]

Volumes

The volume of water in all the oceans together is approximately 1.335 billion cubic kilometers (1.335
sextillion liters, 320.3 million cubic miles).[40][82][83]

It has been estimated that there are 1.386 billion cubic kilometres (333 million cubic miles) of water on
Earth.[84][85][86] This includes water in gaseous, liquid and frozen forms as soil moisture, groundwater and
permafrost in the Earth's crust (to a depth of 2 km); oceans and seas, lakes, rivers and streams, wetlands,
glaciers, ice and snow cover on Earth's surface; vapour, droplets and crystals in the air; and part of living
plants, animals and unicellular organisms of the biosphere. Saltwater accounts for 97.5% of this amount,
whereas fresh water accounts for only 2.5%. Of this fresh water, 68.9% is in the form of ice and permanent
snow cover in the Arctic, the Antarctic and mountain glaciers; 30.8% is in the form of fresh groundwater;
and only 0.3% of the fresh water on Earth is in easily accessible lakes, reservoirs and river systems.[87]

The total mass of Earth's hydrosphere is about 1.4 × 1018 tonnes, which is about 0.023% of Earth's total
mass. At any given time, about 2 × 1013 tonnes of this is in the form of water vapor in the Earth's
atmosphere (for practical purposes, 1 cubic metre of water weighs 1 tonne). Approximately 71% of Earth's
surface, an area of some 361 million square kilometres (139.5 million square miles), is covered by ocean.
The average salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5%).[88]

Temperature

Ocean temperatures depends on the amount of solar radiation falling on its surface. In the tropics, with the
Sun nearly overhead, the temperature of the surface layers can rise to over 30  °C (86  °F) while near the
poles the temperature in equilibrium with the sea ice is about −2  °C (28  °F). There is a continuous
circulation of water in the oceans. Warm surface currents cool as they move away from the tropics, and the
water becomes denser and sinks. The cold water moves back towards the equator as a deep sea current,
driven by changes in the temperature and density of the water, before eventually welling up again towards
the surface. Deep ocean water has a temperature between −2 °C (28 °F) and 5 °C (41 °F) in all parts of the
globe.[6]

It is clear that the ocean is warming as a result of climate change, and this rate of warming is
increasing.[89]: 9   The global ocean was the warmest it had ever been recorded by humans in 2022.[90] This
is determined by the ocean heat content, which exceeded the previous 2021 maximum in 2022.[90] The
steady rise in ocean temperatures is an unavoidable result of the Earth's energy imbalance, which is
primarily caused by rising levels of greenhouse gases.[90]

Temperature and salinity by region

The waters in different regions of the ocean have quite different temperature and salinity characteristics.
This is due to differences in the local water balance (precipitation vs. evaporation) and the "sea to air"
temperature gradients. These characteristics can vary widely among ocean regions. The table below
provides an illustration of the sort of values usually encountered.

General characteristics of ocean surface waters by region[91][92][93][94][95]

Characteristic Polar regions Temperate regions Tropical regions

Precipitation vs. evaporation Precip > Evap Precip > Evap Evap > Precip
Sea surface temperature in winter −2 °C 5 to 20 °C 20 to 25 °C

Average salinity 28‰ to 32‰ 35‰ 35‰ to 37‰

Annual variation of air temperature ≤ 40 °C 10 °C < 5 °C

Annual variation of water temperature < 5 °C 10 °C < 5 °C

Sea ice

Seawater with a typical salinity of 35‰ has a freezing point of about −1.8 °C (28.8 °F).[80][96] Because sea
ice is less dense than water, it floats on the ocean's surface (as does fresh water ice, which has an even
lower density). Sea ice covers about 7% of the Earth's surface and about 12% of the world's
oceans.[97][98][99] Sea ice usually starts to freeze at the very surface, initially as a very thin ice film. As
further freezing takes place, this ice film thickens and can form ice sheets. The ice formed incorporates
some sea salt, but much less than the seawater it forms from. As the ice forms with low salinity this results
in saltier residual seawater. This in turn increases density and promotes vertical sinking of the water.[100]

Ocean currents and global climate

Types of ocean currents

An ocean current is a
continuous, directed movement
of seawater generated by a
number of forces acting upon the
water, including wind, the
Coriolis effect, temperature and
salinity differences.[7] Ocean
currents are primarily horizontal
water movements. They have
different origins, such as tides Ocean surface currents
for tidal currents, or wind and
waves for surface currents.

Tidal currents are in phase with the tide, hence are

quasiperiodic; associated with the influence of the moon and
sun pull on the ocean water. Tidal currents may form various
complex patterns in certain places, most notably around
headlands.[101] Non-periodic or non-tidal currents are created
by the action of winds and changes in density of water. In
littoral zones, breaking waves are so intense and the depth
measurement so low, that maritime currents reach often 1 to 2
A map of the global thermohaline
knots.[102] circulation; blue represents deep-water
currents, whereas red represents surface
The wind and waves create surface currents (designated as
currents.
"drift currents"). These currents can decompose in one quasi-
permanent current (which varies within the hourly scale) and
one movement of Stokes drift under the effect of rapid waves movement (which vary on timescales of a
couple of seconds). The quasi-permanent current is accelerated by the breaking of waves, and in a lesser
governing effect, by the friction of the wind on the surface.[102]

This acceleration of the current takes place in the direction of waves and dominant wind. Accordingly,
when the ocean depth increases, the rotation of the earth changes the direction of currents in proportion with
the increase of depth, while friction lowers their speed. At a certain ocean depth, the current changes
direction and is seen inverted in the opposite direction with current speed becoming null: known as the
Ekman spiral. The influence of these currents is mainly experienced at the mixed layer of the ocean surface,
often from 400 to 800 meters of maximum depth. These currents can considerably change and are
dependent on the yearly seasons. If the mixed layer is less thick (10 to 20 meters), the quasi-permanent
current at the surface can adopt quite a different direction in relation to the direction of the wind. In this
case, the water column becomes virtually homogeneous above the thermocline.[102]

The wind blowing on the ocean surface will set the water in motion. The global pattern of winds (also
called atmospheric circulation) creates a global pattern of ocean currents. These are driven not only by the
wind but also by the effect of the circulation of the earth (coriolis force). Theses major ocean currents
include the Gulf Stream, Kuroshio current, Agulhas current and Antarctic Circumpolar Current. The
Antarctic Circumpolar Current encircles Antarctica and influences the area's climate as well as connecting
currents in several oceans.[102]

Relationship of currents and climate

Collectively, currents move enormous amounts of water and heat

around the globe influencing climate. These wind driven currents
are largely confined to the top hundreds of meters of the ocean. At
greater depth the drivers of water motion are the thermohaline
circulation (the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC)
is part of a global thermoholine circulation). This is driven by the
cooling of surface waters at northern and southern polar latitudes
creating dense water which sinks to the bottom of the ocean. This
cold and dense water moves slowly away from the poles which is Map of the Gulf Stream, a major
why the waters in the deepest layers of the world ocean are so cold. ocean current that transports heat
This deep ocean water circulation is relatively slow and water at the from the equator to northern latitudes
bottom of the ocean can be isolated from the ocean surface and and moderates the climate of
atmosphere for hundreds or even a few thousand years.[102] This Europe.
circulation has important impacts on global climate and the uptake
and redistribution of pollutants such as carbon dioxide by moving
these contaminants from the surface into the deep ocean.

Ocean currents greatly affect Earth's climate by transferring heat from the tropics to the polar regions and
thereby also affecting air temperature and precipitation in coastal regions and further inland. Surface heat
and freshwater fluxes create global density gradients that drive the thermohaline circulation part of large-
scale ocean circulation. It plays an important role in supplying heat to the polar regions, and thus in sea ice
regulation.

Oceans moderate the climate of locations where prevailing winds blow in from the ocean. At similar
latitudes, a place on Earth with more influence from the ocean will have a more moderate climate than a
place with more influence from land. For example, the cities San Francisco (37.8 N) and New York (40.7
N) have different climates because San Francisco has more influence from the ocean. San Francisco, on the
west coast of North America, gets winds from the west over the Pacific Ocean, and the influence of the
ocean water yields a more moderate climate with a warmer winter and a longer, cooler summer, with the
warmest temperatures happening later in the year. New York, on the east coast of North America gets winds
from the west over land, so New York has colder winters and hotter, earlier summers than San Francisco.

Warmer ocean currents yield warmer climates in the long term, even at high latitudes. At similar latitudes, a
place influenced by warm ocean currents will have a warmer climate overall than a place influenced by cold
ocean currents. French Riviera (43.5 N) and Rockland, Maine (44.1 N) have same latitude, but the French
Riviera is influenced by warm waters transported by the Gulf Stream into the Mediterranean Sea and has a
warmer climate overall. Maine is influenced by cold waters transported south by the Labrador Current
giving it a colder climate overall.

Changes in the thermohaline circulation are thought to have significant impacts on Earth's energy budget.
Since the thermohaline circulation governs the rate at which deep waters reach the surface, it may also
significantly influence atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. Modern observations, climate
simulations and paleoclimate reconstructions suggest that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation
(AMOC) has weakened since the preindustrial era. The latest climate change projections in 2021 suggest
that the AMOC is likely to weaken further over the 21st century.[103]: 1 9  Such a weakening could cause
large changes to global climate, with the North Atlantic particularly vulnerable.[103]: 1 9 

Chemical composition of seawater

Salinity

Salinity is a measure of the total amounts of

dissolved salts in seawater. It was originally
measured via measurement of the amount of
chloride in seawater and hence termed chlorinity.
It is now routinely measured by measuring
electrical conductivity of the water sample.
Salinity can be calculated using the chlorinity,
which is a measure of the total mass of halogen
ions (includes fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and
iodine) in seawater. By international agreement,
the following formula is used to determine
salinity:[105]
Annual mean sea surface salinity in practical salinity
Salinity (in ‰) = 1.80655 × Chlorinity units (psu) from the World Ocean Atlas.[104]
(in ‰)

The average ocean water chlorinity is about 19.2‰, and, thus, the average salinity is around 34.7‰.[105]

Salinity has a major influence on the density of seawater. A zone of rapid salinity increase with depth is
called a halocline. The temperature of maximum density of seawater decreases as its salt content increases.
Freezing temperature of water decreases with salinity, and boiling temperature of water increases with
salinity. Typical seawater freezes at around −2 °C at atmospheric pressure.[106]

Salinity is higher in Earth's oceans where there is more evaporation and lower where there is more
precipitation. If precipitation exceeds evaporation, as is the case in polar and some temperate regions,
salinity will be lower. If evaporation exceeds precipitation, as is sometimes the case in tropical regions,
salinity will be higher. For example, evaporation is greater than precipitation in the Mediterranean Sea,
which has an average salinity of 38‰, more saline than the global average of 34.7‰.[107] Thus, oceanic
waters in polar regions have lower salinity content than oceanic waters tropical regions.[105] However,
when sea ice forms at high latitudes, salt is excluded from the ice as it forms, which can increase the salinity
in the residual seawater in polar regions such as the Arctic Ocean.[80][108]

Observations of sea surface salinity between 1950 to 2019 indicate that due to the effects of climate change
on oceans regions of high salinity and evaporation have become more saline, while regions of low salinity
and more precipitation have become fresher.[109] It is very likely that the Pacific and Antarctic/Southern
Oceans have freshened while the Atlantic has become more saline.[109]

Dissolved gases

Ocean water contains large quantities of dissolved gases, including oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
These dissolve into ocean water via gas exchange at the ocean surface, with the solubility of these gases
depending on the temperature and salinity of the water.[8] The four most abundant gases in earth's
atmosphere and oceans are nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and
carbon dioxide. In the ocean by volume, the most abundant
gases dissolved in seawater are carbon dioxide (including
bicarbonate and carbonate ions, 14 mL/L on average),
nitrogen (9 mL/L), and oxygen (5 mL/L) at equilibrium at
24  °C (75  °F) [111][112][113] All gases are more soluble –
more easily dissolved – in colder water than in warmer water.
For example, when salinity and pressure are held constant,
oxygen concentration in water almost doubles when the
temperature drops from that of a warm summer day 30  °C
(86  °F) to freezing 0  °C (32  °F). Similarly, carbon dioxide Sea surface oxygen concentration in moles
and nitrogen gases are more soluble at colder temperatures, per cubic meter from the World Ocean
and their solubility changes with temperature at different Atlas.[110]
rates.[111][114]

Oxygen, photosynthesis and carbon cycling

The process of photosynthesis in the surface

ocean releases oxygen and consumes carbon
dioxide. This photosynthesis in the ocean is
dominated by phytoplankton, microscopic free
floating algae. After the plants grow, bacterial
decomposition of the organic matter formed by
photosynthesis in the ocean consumes oxygen and
releases carbon dioxide. The sinking and bacterial
decomposition of some organic matter in deep
ocean water, at depths where the waters are out of
contact with the atmosphere, leads to a reduction
in oxygen concentrations and increase in carbon
dioxide, carbonate and bicarbonate.[116] This
cycling of carbon dioxide in oceans is an
important part of the global carbon cycle.

The increasing carbon dioxide concentrations in Diagram of the ocean carbon cycle showing the relative
the atmosphere due to fossil fuel combustion lead size of stocks (storage) and fluxes.[115]
to higher concentrations in the ocean waters and
ocean acidification.[9] Dissolving atmospheric
carbon dioxide reacts with bicarbonate and carbonate ions in seawater to shift the chemical balance of the
water, making it more acidic. The oceans represent a major sink for carbon dioxide taken up from the
atmosphere by photosynthesis and by dissolution. There is also increasing attention focused on carbon
dioxide uptake in coastal marine habitats such as mangroves and saltmarshes, a process sometimes referred
to as “Blue carbon”. Attention is focused on these ecosystems because they are strong carbon sinks as well
as ecologically important habitats under considerable threat from human activities and environmental
degradation.

As deep ocean water circulates throughout the globe, it contains gradually less oxygen and gradually more
carbon dioxide with more time away from the air at the surface. This gradual decrease in oxygen
concentration happens as sinking organic matter continuously gets decomposed during the time the water is
out of contact with the atmosphere.[116] Most of the deep waters of the ocean still contain relatively high
concentrations of oxygen sufficient for most animals to survive. However, some ocean areas have very low
oxygen due to long periods of isolation of the water from the atmosphere. These oxygen deficient areas,
called oxygen minimum zones or hypoxic waters, could be made worse by the effects of climate change on
oceans.[117]

Residence times of chemical elements and ions

The ocean waters contain many chemical elements as dissolved

ions. Elements dissolved in ocean waters have a wide range of
concentrations. Some elements have very high concentrations of
several grams per liter, such as sodium and chloride, together
making up the majority of ocean salts. Other elements, such as iron,
are present at tiny concentrations of just a few nanograms (10−9
grams) per liter.[105]
Residence time of elements in the
The concentration of any element depends on its rate of supply to
ocean depends on supply by
the ocean and its rate of removal. Elements enter the ocean from
processes like rock weathering and
rivers, the atmosphere and hydrothermal vents. Elements are
rivers vs. removal by processes like
removed from ocean water by sinking and becoming buried in evaporation and sedimentation.
sediments or evaporating to the atmosphere in the case of water and
some gases. Oceanographers consider the balance of input and
removal by estimating the residence time of an element. Residence time is the average time the element
would spend dissolved in the ocean before it is removed. Very abundant elements in ocean water like
sodium have high rates of input, reflecting high abundance in rocks and relatively rapid rock weathering,
coupled to very slow removal from the ocean because sodium ions are rather unreactive and very soluble.
In contrast, other elements such as iron and aluminium are abundant in rocks but very insoluble, meaning
that inputs to the ocean are low and removal is rapid. These cycles represent part of the major global cycle
of elements that has gone on since the Earth first formed. The residence times of the very abundant elements
in the ocean are estimated to be millions of years, while for highly reactive and insoluble elements,
residence times are only hundreds of years.[105]
 Residence times of elements and ions[118][119]
Chemical element or ion Residence time (years)

Chloride (Cl−) 100,000,000

Sodium (Na+) 68,000,000

Magnesium (Mg2+) 13,000,000

Potassium (K+) 12,000,000

Sulfate (SO42−) 11,000,000

Calcium (Ca2+) 1,000,000

Carbonate (CO32−) 110,000

Silicon (Si) 20,000

Water (H2O) 4,100

Manganese (Mn) 1,300

Aluminum (Al) 600

Iron (Fe) 200

Nutrients

A few elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, iron,

and potassium are essential for life, are major North
North Atlantic
Atlantic
components of biological material, and are commonly gyre
gyre
North
called “nutrients”. Nitrate and phosphate have ocean Pacific
residence times of 10,000[120] and 69,000 [121] years, gyre
respectively, while potassium is a much more abundant
South
ion in the ocean with a residence time of 12 Pacific
million[122] years. The biological cycling of these Indian gyre
Ocean South
elements means that this represents a continuous gyre Atlantic
removal process from the ocean's water column as gyre
degrading organic material sinks to the ocean floor as Ocean gyres rotate clockwise in the north and
sediment. counterclockwise in the south

Phosphate from intensive agriculture and untreated

sewage is transported via runoff to rivers and coastal zones to the ocean where it is metabolized. Eventually,
it sinks to the ocean floor and is no longer available to humans as a commercial resource.[123] Production of
rock phosphate, an essential ingredient in inorganic fertilizer[124] is a slow geological process occurring in
some of the world's ocean sediments thus making minable sedimentary apatite (phosphate) in effect a non-
renewable resource (see peak phosphorus). This continuous net deposition loss of non-renewable phosphate
from human activities may become a resource problem in the future for fertilizer production and food
security.[125][126]

Climate change
Among the effects of climate change on oceans are: an increase in sea surface temperature as well as ocean
temperatures at greater depths, more frequent marine heatwaves, a reduction in pH value, a rise in sea level
from ocean warming and ice sheet melting, sea ice decline in the Arctic, increased upper ocean
stratification, reductions in oxygen levels, increased contrasts in salinity (salty areas becoming saltier and
fresher areas becoming less salty),[127] changes to ocean currents including a weakening of the Atlantic
meridional overturning circulation, and stronger tropical cyclones and monsoons.[89] All these changes have
knock-on effects which disturb marine ecosystems. The primary factor causing these changes is the Earth
warming due to human-caused emissions of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane. This
leads inevitably to ocean warming, because the ocean is taking up most of the additional heat in the climate
system.[128] The ocean absorbs some of the extra carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, (via carbon
sequestration), and this causes the pH value of the ocean to drop.[129] It is estimated that the ocean absorbs
about 25% of all human-caused CO2 emissions.[129]

Ocean temperature stratification increases as the ocean surface warms due to rising air
temperatures.[130]: 4 71 The decline in mixing of the ocean layers stabilises warm water near the surface
while reducing cold, deep water circulation. The reduced up and down mixing reduces the ability of the
ocean to absorb heat, directing a larger fraction of future warming toward the atmosphere and land. The
amount of energy available for tropical cyclones and other storms is expected to increase, while nutrients for
fish in the upper ocean layers are expected to decrease, as is the ocean's capacity to store carbon.[131]

Warmer water cannot contain the same amount of oxygen as cold water. As a result, the gas exchange
equilibrium shifts, lowering ocean oxygen levels while increasing oxygen in the atmosphere. Increased
thermal stratification may result in a reduced supply of oxygen from surface waters to deeper waters,
lowering the water's oxygen content further.[132] The ocean has already lost oxygen throughout its water
column, and oxygen minimum zones are expanding worldwide.[130]: 4 71 

These changes harm marine ecosystems, which can accelerate species extinctions[133] or cause population
explosions, altering species distribution.[89] This also affects coastal fishing and tourism. Rising water
temperatures will also harm various oceanic ecosystems, such as coral reefs. The direct effect is coral
bleaching on these reefs, which are sensitive to even minor temperature changes, so a small increase in
temperature could have a significant impact in these environments. Ocean acidification and temperature rise
will also affect the productivity and distribution of species within the ocean, threatening fisheries and
upsetting marine ecosystems. Loss of sea ice habitats due to warming will severely impact the many polar
species that rely on it. The interactions between many of these climate change factors increase pressures on
the climate system and ocean ecosystems.[89]

Marine life
Life within the ocean evolved 3 billion years prior to life on land. Both the depth and the distance from
shore strongly influence the biodiversity of the plants and animals present in each region.[135] The diversity
of life in the ocean is immense, including:

Animals: most animal phyla have species that inhabit the ocean, including many that are
found only in marine environments such as sponges, Cnidaria (such as corals and jellyfish),
comb jellies, Brachiopods, and Echinoderms (such as sea urchins and sea stars). Many
other familiar animal groups primarily live in the ocean, including cephalopods (includes
octopus and squid), crustaceans (includes lobsters, crabs, and shrimp), fish, sharks,
cetaceans (includes whales, dolphins, and porpoises). In addition, many land animals have
adapted to living a major part of their life on the oceans. For instance, seabirds are a diverse
group of birds that have adapted to a life mainly on the oceans. They feed on marine animals
and spend most of their lifetime on water, many going on land only for breeding. Other birds
 that have adapted to oceans
as their living space are
penguins, seagulls and
pelicans. Seven species of
turtles, the sea turtles, also
spend most of their time in
the oceans.
Plants: including sea
grasses, or mangroves
Algae: algae is a "catch-all"
term to include many
photosynthetic, single-celled
eukaryotes, such as green
algae, diatoms, and
dinoflagellates, but also
multicellular algae, such as
some red algae (including
organisms like Pyropia,
which is the source of the
edible nori seaweed), and
brown algae (including
organisms like kelp).
Bacteria: ubiquitous single-
celled prokaryotes found
throughout the world
Archaea: prokaryotes distinct
from bacteria, that inhabit
many environments of the
ocean, as well as many
Some representative ocean animals (not drawn to scale) within their extreme environments
approximate depth-defined ecological habitats. Marine microorganisms also Fungi: many marine fungi
exist on the surfaces and within the tissues and organs of the diverse life with diverse roles are found
inhabiting the ocean, across all ocean habitats. The animals rooted to or in oceanic environments
living on the ocean floor are not pelagic but are benthic animals.[134]
Marine life, sea life, or ocean life
is the plants, animals and other
organisms that live in the salt water of seas or oceans, or the brackish water of coastal estuaries. At a
fundamental level, marine life affects the nature of the planet. Marine organisms, mostly microorganisms,
produce oxygen and sequester carbon. Marine life in part shape and protect shorelines, and some marine
organisms even help create new land (e.g. coral building reefs).

More than 200,000 marine species have been documented, and perhaps two million marine species are yet
to be documented.[137] Marine species range in size from the microscopic like phytoplankton, which can be
as small as 0.02 micrometres, to huge cetaceans like the blue whale – the largest known animal, reaching
33 m (108 ft) in length.[138][139] Marine microorganisms, including protists and bacteria and their
associated viruses, have been variously estimated as constituting about 70% [140] or about 90% [141][136] of
the total marine biomass. Marine life is studied scientifically in both marine biology and in biological
oceanography. The term marine comes from the Latin mare, meaning "sea" or "ocean".
Marine habitats are habitats that support marine life. Marine life depends in some way on the saltwater that
is in the sea (the term marine comes from the Latin mare, meaning sea or ocean). A habitat is an ecological
or environmental area inhabited by one or more living species.[142] The marine environment supports many
kinds of these habitats. Marine habitats can be divided into coastal and open ocean habitats. Coastal habitats
are found in the area that extends from as far as the tide comes in on the shoreline out to the edge of the
continental shelf. Most marine life is found in
coastal habitats, even though the shelf area
occupies only seven percent of the total ocean
area. Open ocean habitats are found in the deep
ocean beyond the edge of the continental shelf.
Marine ecosystems are the largest of Earth's
aquatic ecosystems and exist in waters that have a
high salt content. These systems contrast with
freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt
content. Marine waters cover more than 70% of
the surface of the Earth and account for more than
97% of Earth's water supply[143][144] and 90% of
habitable space on Earth.[145] Seawater has an
average salinity of 35 parts per thousand of water. Killer whales (orcas) are highly visible marine apex
Actual salinity varies among different marine predators that hunt many large species. But most
ecosystems. [146] Marine ecosystems can be biological activity in the ocean takes place with
divided into many zones depending upon water microscopic marine organisms that cannot be seen
depth and shoreline features. The oceanic zone is individually with the naked eye, such as marine bacteria
the vast open part of the ocean where animals and phytoplankton.[136]
such as whales, sharks, and tuna live. The benthic
zone consists of substrates below water where
many invertebrates live. The intertidal zone is the area
between high and low tides. Other near-shore (neritic)
zones can include mudflats, seagrass meadows,
mangroves, rocky intertidal systems, salt marshes, coral
reefs, lagoons. In the deep water, hydrothermal vents
may occur where chemosynthetic sulfur bacteria form
the base of the food web.

Human uses of the oceans

The ocean has been linked to human activity throughout Coral reefs form complex marine ecosystems
history. These activities serve a wide variety of purposes, with tremendous biodiversity
including navigation and exploration, naval warfare,
travel, shipping and trade, food production (e.g. fishing,
whaling, seaweed farming, aquaculture), leisure (cruising, sailing, recreational boat fishing, scuba diving),
power generation (see marine energy and offshore wind power), extractive industries (offshore drilling and
deep sea mining), freshwater production via desalination.

Many of the world's goods are moved by ship between the world's seaports.[147] Large quantities of goods
are transported across the ocean, especially across the Atlantic and around the Pacific Rim.[148] A lot of
cargo, such as manufactured goods, is usually transported within standard sized, lockable containers, loaded
on purpose-built container ships at dedicated terminals.[149] Containerization greatly increased the
efficiency and decreased the cost of moving goods by sea, and was a major factor leading to the rise of
globalization and exponential increases in international trade in the mid-to-late 20th century.[150]

Oceans are also the major supply source for the fishing industry. Some of the major harvests are shrimp,
fish, crabs, and lobster.[55] The biggest commercial fishery globally is for anchovies, Alaska pollock and
tuna.[151]: 6   A report by FAO in 2020 stated that "in 2017, 34 percent of the fish stocks of the world's
marine fisheries were classified as overfished".[151]: 5 4  Fish and other fishery products from both wild
fisheries and aquaculture are among the most widely consumed sources of protein and other essential
nutrients. Data in 2017 showed that "fish consumption accounted for 17 percent of the global population's
intake of animal proteins".[151] In order to fulfill this need, coastal countries have exploited marine
resources in their exclusive economic zone, although fishing vessels are increasingly venturing further afield
to exploit stocks in international waters.[152]

The ocean offers a very large supply of energy carried by ocean waves, tides, salinity differences, and
ocean temperature differences which can be harnessed to generate electricity.[153] Forms of sustainable
marine energy include tidal power, ocean thermal energy and wave power.[153][154] Offshore wind power
is captured by wind turbines placed out on the ocean; it has the advantage that wind speeds are higher than
on land, though wind farms are more costly to construct offshore.[155] There are large deposits of
petroleum, as oil and natural gas, in rocks beneath the ocean floor. Offshore platforms and drilling rigs
extract the oil or gas and store it for transport to land.[156]

"Freedom of the seas" is a principle in international law dating from the seventeenth century. It stresses
freedom to navigate the oceans and disapproves of war fought in international waters.[157] Today, this
concept is enshrined in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).[157]

There are two major international legal organizations that are involved in ocean governance on a global
scale, namely the International Maritime Organization and the United Nations. The International Maritime
Organization (IMO), which was ratified in 1958 is responsible mainly for maritime safety, liability and
compensation and they have held some conventions on marine pollution related to shipping incidents.
Ocean governance is the conduct of the policy, actions and affairs regarding the world's oceans.[158]

Threats from human activities

Human activities affect marine life and marine
habitats through many negative influences, such
as marine pollution (including marine debris and
microplastics) overfishing, ocean acidification and
other effects of climate change on oceans.

Marine pollution
[159]
Global cumulative human impact on the ocean
Marine pollution occurs when substances used or
spread by humans, such as industrial, agricultural
and residential waste, particles, noise, excess
carbon dioxide or invasive organisms enter the ocean and cause harmful effects there. The majority of this
waste (80%) comes from land-based activity, although marine transportation significantly contributes as
well.[160] Since most inputs come from land, either via the rivers, sewage or the atmosphere, it means that
continental shelves are more vulnerable to pollution. Air pollution is also a contributing factor by carrying
off iron, carbonic acid, nitrogen, silicon, sulfur, pesticides or dust particles into the ocean.[161] The pollution
often comes from nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff, wind-blown debris, and dust. These
nonpoint sources are largely due to runoff that enters the ocean through rivers, but wind-blown debris and
dust can also play a role, as these pollutants can settle into waterways and oceans.[162] Pathways of
pollution include direct discharge, land runoff, ship pollution, atmospheric pollution and, potentially, deep
sea mining.

The types of marine pollution can be grouped as pollution from marine debris, plastic pollution, including
microplastics, ocean acidification, nutrient pollution, toxins and underwater noise. Plastic pollution in the
ocean is a type of marine pollution by plastics, ranging in size from large original material such as bottles
and bags, down to microplastics formed from the fragmentation of plastic material. Marine debris is mainly
discarded human rubbish which floats on, or is suspended in the ocean. Plastic pollution is harmful to
marine life.

Plastic pollution

Marine plastic pollution (or plastic pollution in the ocean) is a type of marine pollution by plastics, ranging
in size from large original material such as bottles and bags, down to microplastics formed from the
fragmentation of plastic material. Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, or is
suspended in the ocean. Eighty percent of marine debris is plastic.[163][164] Microplastics and nanoplastics
result from the breakdown or photodegradation of plastic waste in surface waters, rivers or oceans.
Recently, scientists have uncovered nanoplastics in heavy snow, more specifically about 3000 tons that
cover Switzerland yearly.[165] It is estimated that there is a stock of 86 million tons of plastic marine debris
in the worldwide ocean as of the end of 2013, assuming that 1.4% of global plastics produced from 1950 to
2013 has entered the ocean and has accumulated there.[166] It is estimated that 19–23 million tonnes of
plastic leaks into aquatic ecosystems annually.[167] The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference estimated
that the oceans might contain more weight in plastics than fish by the year 2050.[168]

Water ways are polluted by

plastic particles ranging in
size from large original
material such. as bottles
and bags, down to
microplastics formed from
the fragmentation of plastic
material. This material is
only very slowly degraded
or removed from the ocean
so plastic particles are now
widespread throughout the
surface ocean and are
known to be having
deleterious effects on
marine life.[169] Discarded
plastic bags, six pack rings,
cigarette butts and other A woman and a boy collecting plastic waste at a beach during a cleanup exercise
forms of plastic waste
which finish up in the
ocean present dangers to wildlife and fisheries.[170] Aquatic life can be threatened by butts through
entanglement, suffocation, and ingestion.[171][172][173] Fishing nets, usually made of plastic, can be left or
lost in the ocean by fishermen. Known as ghost nets, these entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks,
dugongs, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs, and other creatures, restricting movement, causing starvation,
laceration, infection, and, in those that need to return to the surface to breathe, suffocation.[174] There are
various types of ocean plastics causing problems to marine life. Bottle caps have been found in the
stomachs of turtles and seabirds, which have died because of the obstruction of their respiratory and
digestive tracts.[175] Ghost nets are also a problematic type of ocean plastic as they can continuously trap
marine life in a process known as "ghost fishing".[176]

Overfishing
Overfishing is the removal of a species of fish (i.e. fishing) from a body of water at a rate greater than that
the species can replenish its population naturally (i.e. the overexploitation of the fishery's existing fish
stock), resulting in the species becoming increasingly underpopulated in that area. Overfishing can occur in
water bodies of any sizes, such as ponds, wetlands, rivers, lakes or oceans, and can result in resource
depletion, reduced biological growth rates and low biomass levels. Sustained overfishing can lead to critical
depensation, where the fish population is no longer able to sustain itself. Some forms of overfishing, such as
the overfishing of sharks, has led to the upset of entire marine ecosystems.[177] Types of overfishing
include: growth overfishing, recruitment overfishing, ecosystem overfishing.

Protection
Protecting Earth's oceans ecosystem/s against its recognized threats is a major component of environmental
protection and is closely related to sustainable development. One of its main techniques is the creation and
enforcement of marine protected areas (MPAs). Other techniques may include standardized product
certifications, supply chain transparency requirements policies, policies to prevent marine pollution, eco-
tariffs, research and development,[178] ecosystem-assistance (e.g. for coral reefs), support for sustainable
seafood (e.g. sustainable fishing practices and types of aquaculture), banning and systematically obstructing
(e.g. via higher costs policies) unsustainable ocean use and associated industries (e.g. cruise ship travel,
certain shipping practices), monitoring, revising waste management of plastics and fashion industry
pollutants, protection of marine resources and components whose extraction or disturbance would cause
substantial harm, engagement of broader publics and impacted communities,[179] novel decision-making
mechanisms,[180] and the development of ocean clean-up projects. Ocean protection serves to i.a. protect
human health and to safeguard stable conditions of this natural ecosystem upon which humans
depend.[181][182]

It may be necessary to consider marine protection within a national, regional and international context.[183]
Marine protection could also have synergistic effects – for instance, according to a study, a global network
of MPAs designed to improve fisheries productivity could substantially increase future catch.[184]

In 2021, 43 expert scientists published the first scientific framework version that – via integration, review,
clarifications and standardization – enables the evaluation of levels of protection of marine protected areas
and can serve as a guide for any subsequent efforts to improve, plan and monitor marine protection quality
and extents. Examples are the efforts towards the 30%-protection-goal of the "Global Deal For Nature"[185]
and the UN's Sustainable Development Goal 14 ("life below water").[186][187]

Extraterrestrial oceans
Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds. The only confirmed
large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, which are made of hydrocarbons
instead of water. However, there is strong evidence for subsurface water oceans' existence elsewhere in the
Solar System. The best-established candidates for subsurface water oceans in the Solar System are Jupiter's
moons Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto; and Saturn's moons Enceladus and Titan.[188]

Although Earth is the only known planet with large stable bodies of liquid water on its surface and the only
one in the Solar System, other celestial bodies are thought to have large oceans.[189] In June 2020, NASA
scientists reported that it is likely that exoplanets with oceans may be common in the Milky Way galaxy,
based on mathematical modeling studies.[190][191]

Supercritical fluid on gas giants

The inner structure of gas giants remain poorly understood. Scientists suspect that, under extreme pressure,
hydrogen would act as a supercritical fluid, hence the likelihood of oceans of liquid hydrogen deep in the
interior of gas giants like Jupiter.[192][193]
Oceans of liquid carbon have been hypothesized to exist on ice giants, notably Neptune and
Uranus.[194][195]

See also
Oceans portal

Geography portal

Ecology portal
Environment
portal
Weather portal

World portal

European Atlas of the Seas

Land and water hemispheres
List of seas
Marine heatwave
World Ocean Atlas
World Oceans Day

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External links
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) Fisheries Division (http://ww
w.fao.org/fishery/en)
NOAA – National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (United States) (https://www.noa
a.gov/)
United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021–2030) (http
s://www.oceandecade.org/)

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