Algorithms-I CSC 302 (July-Dec2022 IIITK) L45 - L46

Algorithms - I
CSC 302
SK Hafizul Islam
Department of CSE, IIIT Kalyani
October 25, 2022
SK Hafizul Islam (Department of CSE, IIIT Kalyani) Algorithms - I October 25, 2022 1 / 42
Agenda I
1 Optimal Binary Search Tree

Naive Approach
Dynamic Programming Approach
An Example
2 Suggested Readings
Binary Search Tree
In a binary search tree, all the

nodes in the left sub-tree have a
value less than that of the root
node. Correspondingly, all the
nodes in the right sub-tree have
a value either equal to or greater
than the root node. The same
rule is applicable to every sub-tree
in the tree.
Binary search tree is also called
an ordered binary tree. Because
the nodes are arranged in an or-
der.
Binary Search Tree
In a binary search tree, all the

39
nodes in the left sub-tree have a
value less than that of the root 27 45
node. Correspondingly, all the
nodes in the right sub-tree have 18 29 40 54
a value either equal to or greater

9 21 28 36 59
than the root node. The same
rule is applicable to every sub-tree
10 19 65
in the tree.
Binary search tree is also called
an ordered binary tree. Because
the nodes are arranged in an or-
der.
Binary Search Tree
levelT (u): level of a node u in a BST T- equals the number of edges on the path from
the root to u.
The level of the root (45) is 0.
The level of 39 and 56 is 1.
The level of 12 is 2.
The depth of a tree is the maximum level of the nodes in the tree.
45
39 56
12
34
Binary Search Tree
levelT (u): level of a node u in a BST T- equals the number of edges on the path from
the root to u.
The level of the root (45) is 0.
The level of 39 and 56 is 1.
The depth of a tree is the maximum level of the nodes in the tree.
Assuming, searching for a node u incurs cost propor-
45
tional to levelT (u) + 1.
How many nodes do you need to access to search for
39 56
node 45, 39, 56, 12, and 34, respectively?
12
34
Binary Search Tree
Let S = {a1 , a2 , · · · , an } be a set of n integers.

45
A balanced BST on S has depth O(logn). This is good if
we assume that all the integers in S are searched with equal 39 56
probabilities.
In practice, not all keys are equally likely: some are searched 12 78
more often than others. This gives rise to an interesting

question:
If we know the search frequencies of the integers in S, how to
build a better BST to minimize the average search cost?
Binary Search Tree
Suppose that we know the frequencies of 45, 39, 56, 12, 34,
and 78 are 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30% and 35%, respectively.
Then, the average cost of searching for a key in the BST
equals:
Binary Search Tree
equals:
Binary Search Tree
45
39 56
equals:
12 78
frq(45) · cost(45) + frq(39) · cost(39) + frq(56) · cost(56)
+frq(12) · cost(12) + frq(34) · cost(34) + frq(78) · cost(78)
= 10% · 1 + 15% · 2 + 20% · 2 + 25% · 3 + 30% · 3 + 35% · 3
= 3.5
where frq(k) denotes the search frequency of key k, and

cost(k) denotes the cost of searching for k in the tree.
Optimal Binary Search Tree
Input: We are given a sequence K = ⟨k1 , k2 , · · · , kn ⟩ of n distinct keys in sorted order

(k1 < k2 < · · · < kn ), and (n + 1) “dummy keys", d0 , d1 , · · · , dn .
For each key ki , we have a probability pi that a search is successful.
For each dummy key di , we have a probability qi that a search is unsuccessful. Therefore
n
X n
X
pi + qi = 1 (1)
i=1 i=0
d0 represents all values less than k1 , and dn represents all values greater than kn
For i = 1, 2, · · · , n − 1, the dummy key di represents all values between ki and ki+1
Output: Construct an optimal binary search tree whose expected search cost is smallest.
Then the expected cost of a search in optimal BST T is

n
X n
X
E[search cost in T ] = (depthT (ki ) + 1)pi + (depthT (di ) + 1)qi
i=1 i=0
n
X n
X
= 1+ depthT (ki )pi + depthT (di )qi (2)
i=1 i=0
i 0 1 2 3 4 5
pi 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.10 0.20
qi 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.10
k2 Node Depth Level Probability Contribution

k1 1 2 0.15 0.30
k2 0 1 0.10 0.10
k1 k4 k3 2 3 0.05 0.45
k4 1 2 0.10 0.20
k5 2 3 0.20 0.60
d0 2 3 0.05 0.15
d0 d1 k3 k5
d1 2 3 0.10 0.30
d2 3 4 0.05 0.20
d3 3 4 0.05 0.20
d2 d3 d4 d5
d4 3 4 0.05 0.20
d5 3 4 0.10 0.40
Figure: Expected search cost 2.80 Total 2.80
i 0 1 2 3 4 5
pi 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.10 0.20
qi 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.10
k2 Node Depth Level Probability Contribution

k1 1 2 0.15 0.30
k2 0 1 0.10 0.10
k1 k5 k3 3 4 0.05 0.60
k4 2 3 0.10 0.30
k5 1 2 0.20 0.40
d0 d1 k4 d5
d0 2 3 0.05 0.45
d1 2 3 0.10 0.10
k3 d4 d2 4 5 0.05 0.25
d3 4 5 0.05 0.25
d4 3 4 0.05 0.20
d2 d3 d5 2 3 0.10 0.30
Total 2.75
Figure: Expected search cost 2.75
An optimal BST is not necessarily a tree whose overall height is smallest.

An optimal BST is not necessarily a tree whose root is a key with the greatest probability.
Key k5 has the greatest search probability of any key, yet the root of the optimal binary search
tree is k2 .
Find an Optimal BST: Naive Approach
Total number of possible Binary Search Trees with n different keys

2n
Cn
n+1
which is nth Catalan Number1 . Catalan numbers satisfy the following recursive formula
n
X
C0 = 1 and Cn+1 = Ci Cn−i for n ≥ 0
i=0
The first few Catalan numbers for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · are
1, 1, 2, 5, 14, 42, 132, 429, 1430, 4862, · · ·
Asymptotically, the Catalan numbers grow as
4n
Cn ∼ 3√
n2 π
3
Find an optimal BST T (n) = Ω(4n /n ) 2
1
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_number
Find an Optimal BST: Dynamic Programming
Step 1: The structure of an optimal binary search tree (Optimal Substructure)

We can construct an optimal solution to the problem from optimal solutions to subproblems
Assume that T : ⟨k1 , k2 , · · · , kn ⟩ ⟨d0 , d1 , · · · , dn ⟩ is an optimal BST.
A subtree T ′ : ⟨ki , ki+1 , · · · , kj ⟩ ⟨di−1 , di , · · · , dj ⟩ contain keys in a contiguous range ki , ki+1 , · · · ,
and dummy keys in a contiguous range di−1 , di , · · · , dj for 1 ≤ i ≤ j ≤ n must be optimal.
If there were a subtree T ′′ whose expected cost is lower than that of T ′ , then we could cut
T ′ out of T and paste in T ′′ , resulting in a binary search tree of lower expected cost than T ,
thus contradicting the optimality of T .
From Eq. (2), the expected search cost of a subtree of a node increases by the sum of all the
probabilities in the subtree.
Step 1: The structure of an optimal binary search tree (Optimal Substructure)

Given ⟨ki , ki+1 , · · · , kj ⟩ ⟨di−1 , di , · · · , dj ⟩, one of these keys, say kr (i ≤ r ≤ j), is the root of
an optimal subtree containing these keys. The left subtree of the root kr contains the keys ⟨ki ,
ki+1 , · · · , kr −1 ⟩, ⟨di−1 , di , · · · , dr −1 ⟩, and the right subtree contains the keys ⟨kr +1 , kr +2 ,
· · · , kj ⟩, ⟨dr , dr +1 , · · · , dj ⟩.
How to determine kr ?
Go for all possible r , i ≤ r ≤ j
We determine all optimal binary search trees containing ⟨ki , ki+1 , · · · , kr −1 ⟩, ⟨di−1 , di , · · · , dr −1 ⟩
and those containing ⟨kr +1 , kr +2 , · · · , kj ⟩, ⟨dr , dr +1 , · · · , dj ⟩, we are guaranteed that we will find
an optimal binary search tree.
Step 2: Recursive solution

We wish to find an optimal BST T containing the keys ⟨ki , ki+1 , · · · , kj ⟩ ⟨di−1 , di , · · · , dj ⟩,
where 1 ≤ i, j ≤ n, and j ≥ i − 1. When j = i − 1, there are no actual keys; we have just the
dummy key di−1 .
e[i, j]: The expected cost of searching an optimal BST containing the keys ⟨ki , ki+1 , · · · ,
kj ⟩ ⟨di−1 , di , · · · , dj ⟩.
Goal: Compute e[1, n].
When j ≥ i, we need to select a root kr from among ki , ki+1 , · · · , kj and then make an optimal
BST with keys ⟨ki , ki+1 , · · · , kr −1 ⟩, ⟨di−1 , di , · · · , dr −1 ⟩ as its left subtree and an optimal BST
with keys ⟨kr +1 , kr +2 , · · · , kj ⟩, ⟨dr , dr +1 , · · · , dj ⟩ as its right subtree.

For a subtree of a node with keys ⟨ki , ki+1 , · · · , kj ⟩ ⟨di−1 , di , · · · , dj ⟩, let us denote this sum
of probabilities as
j
X j
X
w (i, j) = pℓ + qℓ (3)
ℓ=i ℓ=i−1
Thus, if kr is the root of an optimal subtree containing keys ⟨ki , ki+1 , · · · , kj ⟩ ⟨di−1 , di , · · · ,
dj ⟩, we have

e[i, j] = pr + e[i, r − 1] + w (i, r − 1) + e[r + 1, j) + w (r + 1, j) (4)
Note that
w (i, j) = w (i, r − 1) + pr + w (r + 1, j) (5)

Therefore
e[i, j] = e[i, r − 1] + e[r + 1, j) + w (i, j) (6)
The recursive Eq. (6) assumes that we know which node kr to use as the root. We choose
the root that gives the lowest expected search cost, giving us our final recursive formulation:
(
qi−1 if j = i − 1,
e[i, j] =
Mini≤r ≤j e[i, r − 1] + e[r + 1, j) + w (i, j) if i ≤ j
Step 3: Computing the expected search cost of an optimal BST

We store e[i, j] values in a table e[1 · · · n + 1, 0 · · · n].
We use only the entries e[i, j] for j ≥ i − 1.
We use a table root[1 · · · n, 1 · · · n] for 1 ≤ i ≤ j ≤ n, for recording the root of the subtree
containing keys ⟨k1 , k2 , · · · , kn ⟩, ⟨d0 , d1 , · · · , dn ⟩.
We use a table w [1 · · · n + 1, 0 · · · n] to store the values w [i, j].
For 1 ≤ i ≤ n + 1 (base case), we compute
w [i, i − 1] = qi−1 (7)
For j ≥ i, we compute
w [i, j] = w [i, j − 1] + pj + qj (8)
Step 3: Computing the expected search cost of an optimal BST

Algorithm: OPT-BST(q, p, n) T (n) = O(n3 )
1 Let e[1 · · · n + 1, 0 · · · n], 6 for ℓ ← 1 to n do
root[1 · · · n, 1 · · · n], and 7 for i ← 1 to n − ℓ + 1 do
w [1 · · · n + 1, 0 · · · n] be new tables 8 j := i + ℓ − 1
2 for i ← 1 to n + 1 do 9 e[i, j] := ∞
3 e[i, i − 1] := qi−1 10 w [i, j] := w [i, j − 1] + pj + qj
4 w [i, i − 1] := qi−1 11 for r ← i to j do
5 end 12 t := e[i, r − 1] + e[r +
1, j] + w [i, j]
13 if (t < e[i, j]) then
14 e[i, j] := t
15 root[i, j] := r
16 end
17 end
18 end
19 end
20 Return(e[1 · · · n + 1, 0 · · · n],
root[1 · · · n, 1 · · · n])
Example 1 (Optimal BST)

Determine the cost and structure of an optimal binary search tree for a set of n = 5 keys with
the following probabilities:
i 0 1 2 3 4 5
pi 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.10 0.20
qi 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.10

i 0 1 2 3 4 5
pi 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.10 0.20
qi 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.10

i 0 1 2 3 4 5
pi 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.10 0.20
qi 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.10
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1
2
3
4
5
6

i 0 1 2 3 4 5
pi 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.10 0.20
qi 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.10
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6

i 0 1 2 3 4 5
pi 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.10 0.20
qi 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.10
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4
5 5 5
6 6
i = 1, 2, · · · n + 1
e[i, i − 1] := qi−1
w [i, i − 1] := qi−1
i = 1, 2, · · · n + 1
e[i, i − 1] := qi−1
w [i, i − 1] := qi−1
i = 1, 2, · · · n + 1
e[i, i − 1] := qi−1
w [i, i − 1] := qi−1
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05
2 0.10
3 0.05
4 0.05
5 0.05
6 0.10
i = 1, 2, · · · n + 1
e[i, i − 1] := qi−1
w [i, i − 1] := qi−1
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 1 0.05 1
2 0.10 2 0.10 2
3 0.05 3 0.05 3
4 0.05 4 0.05 4
5 0.05 5 0.05 5
6 0.10 6 0.10
ℓ=1
i = 1, 2, · · · n, then j = i
e[1, 1] := ∞, e[2, 2] := ∞, e[3, 3] := ∞, e[4, 4] := ∞, e[5, 5] := ∞
w [1, 1] := w [1, 0] + p1 + q1 = 0.05 + 0.15 + 0.10 = 0.30
w [2, 2] := w [2, 1] + p2 + q2 = 0.10 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.25
w [3, 3] := w [3, 2] + p3 + q3 = 0.05 + 0.05 + 0.05 = 0.15
w [4, 4] := w [4, 3] + p4 + q4 = 0.05 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.20
w [5, 5] := w [5, 4] + p5 + q5 = 0.05 + 0.20 + 0.10 = 0.35
ℓ=1
i = 1, 2, · · · n, then j = i
e[1, 1] := ∞, e[2, 2] := ∞, e[3, 3] := ∞, e[4, 4] := ∞, e[5, 5] := ∞
w [1, 1] := w [1, 0] + p1 + q1 = 0.05 + 0.15 + 0.10 = 0.30
w [2, 2] := w [2, 1] + p2 + q2 = 0.10 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.25
w [3, 3] := w [3, 2] + p3 + q3 = 0.05 + 0.05 + 0.05 = 0.15
w [4, 4] := w [4, 3] + p4 + q4 = 0.05 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.20
w [5, 5] := w [5, 4] + p5 + q5 = 0.05 + 0.20 + 0.10 = 0.35
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 ∞
2 0.10 ∞
3 0.05 ∞
4 0.05 ∞
5 0.05 ∞
6 0.10
ℓ=1
i = 1, 2, · · · n, then j = i
e[1, 1] := ∞, e[2, 2] := ∞, e[3, 3] := ∞, e[4, 4] := ∞, e[5, 5] := ∞
w [1, 1] := w [1, 0] + p1 + q1 = 0.05 + 0.15 + 0.10 = 0.30
w [2, 2] := w [2, 1] + p2 + q2 = 0.10 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.25
w [3, 3] := w [3, 2] + p3 + q3 = 0.05 + 0.05 + 0.05 = 0.15
w [4, 4] := w [4, 3] + p4 + q4 = 0.05 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.20
w [5, 5] := w [5, 4] + p5 + q5 = 0.05 + 0.20 + 0.10 = 0.35
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 ∞ 1 0.05 0.30
2 0.10 ∞ 2 0.10 0.25
3 0.05 ∞ 3 0.05 0.15
4 0.05 ∞ 4 0.05 0.20
5 0.05 ∞ 5 0.05 0.35
6 0.10 6 0.10
ℓ=1
i = 1, 2, · · · n, then j = i
r = i · · · j, i.e., r = i
For i = 1, j = 1, r = 1, t = e[1, 0] + e[2, 1] + w [1, 1] = 0.05 + 0.10 + 0.30 = 0.45 < e[1, 1],
then e[1, 1] = t = 0.45, and root[1, 1] = 1.
For i = 2, j = 2, r = 2, t = e[2, 1] + e[3, 2] + w [2, 2] = 0.05 + 0.10 + 0.30 = 0.40 < e[2, 2],
then e[2, 2] = t = 0.40, and root[2, 2] = 2.
For i = 3, j = 3, r = 3, t = e[3, 2] + e[4, 3] + w [3, 3] = 0.05 + 0.10 + 0.30 = 0.25 < e[3, 3],
then e[3, 3] = t = 0.25, and root[3, 3] = 3.
For i = 4, j = 4, r = 4, t = e[4, 3] + e[5, 4] + w [4, 4] = 0.05 + 0.10 + 0.30 = 0.30 < e[4, 4],
then e[4, 4] = t = 0.30, and root[4, 4] = 4.
For i = 5, j = 5, r = 5, t = e[5, 4] + e[6, 5] + w [5, 5] = 0.05 + 0.10 + 0.35 = 0.50 < e[5, 5],
then e[5, 5] = t = 0.50, and root[5, 5] = 5.
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 0.45
2 0.10 0.40
3 0.05 0.25
4 0.05 0.30
5 0.05 0.50
6 0.10
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 0.45 1 0.05 0.30
2 0.10 0.40 2 0.10 0.25
3 0.05 0.25 3 0.05 0.15
4 0.05 0.30 4 0.05 0.20
5 0.05 0.50 5 0.05 0.35
6 0.10 6 0.10
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

1 0.05 0.45 1 0.05 0.30 1 1
2 0.10 0.40 2 0.10 0.25 2 2
3 0.05 0.25 3 0.05 0.15 3 3
4 0.05 0.30 4 0.05 0.20 4 4
5 0.05 0.50 5 0.05 0.35 5 5
6 0.10 6 0.10
ℓ=2
i = 1, 2, · · · n − 1, then j = i + 1
e[1, 2] := ∞, e[2, 3] := ∞, e[3, 4] := ∞, e[4, 5] := ∞, e[5, 6] := ∞
w [1, 2] := w [1, 1] + p2 + q2 = 0.30 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.45
w [2, 3] := w [2, 2] + p3 + q3 = 0.25 + 0.05 + 0.05 = 0.35
w [3, 4] := w [3, 3] + p4 + q4 = 0.15 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.30
w [4, 5] := w [4, 4] + p5 + q5 = 0.20 + 0.20 + 0.10 = 0.50
ℓ=2
i = 1, 2, · · · n − 1, then j = i + 1
e[1, 2] := ∞, e[2, 3] := ∞, e[3, 4] := ∞, e[4, 5] := ∞, e[5, 6] := ∞
w [1, 2] := w [1, 1] + p2 + q2 = 0.30 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.45
w [2, 3] := w [2, 2] + p3 + q3 = 0.25 + 0.05 + 0.05 = 0.35
w [3, 4] := w [3, 3] + p4 + q4 = 0.15 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.30
w [4, 5] := w [4, 4] + p5 + q5 = 0.20 + 0.20 + 0.10 = 0.50
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 0.45 ∞
2 0.10 0.40 ∞
3 0.05 0.25 ∞
4 0.05 0.30 ∞
5 0.05 0.50
6 0.10
ℓ=2
i = 1, 2, · · · n − 1, then j = i + 1
e[1, 2] := ∞, e[2, 3] := ∞, e[3, 4] := ∞, e[4, 5] := ∞, e[5, 6] := ∞
w [1, 2] := w [1, 1] + p2 + q2 = 0.30 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.45
w [2, 3] := w [2, 2] + p3 + q3 = 0.25 + 0.05 + 0.05 = 0.35
w [3, 4] := w [3, 3] + p4 + q4 = 0.15 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.30
w [4, 5] := w [4, 4] + p5 + q5 = 0.20 + 0.20 + 0.10 = 0.50
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 0.45 ∞ 1 0.05 0.30 0.45
2 0.10 0.40 ∞ 2 0.10 0.25 0.35
3 0.05 0.25 ∞ 3 0.05 0.15 0.30
4 0.05 0.30 ∞ 4 0.05 0.20 0.50
5 0.05 0.50 5 0.05 0.35
6 0.10 6 0.10
ℓ=2
i = 1, 2, · · · n − 1, then j = i + 1
e[1, 2] := ∞, e[2, 3] := ∞, e[3, 4] := ∞, e[4, 5] := ∞, e[5, 6] := ∞
w [1, 2] := w [1, 1] + p2 + q2 = 0.30 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.45
w [2, 3] := w [2, 2] + p3 + q3 = 0.25 + 0.05 + 0.05 = 0.35
w [3, 4] := w [3, 3] + p4 + q4 = 0.15 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.30
w [4, 5] := w [4, 4] + p5 + q5 = 0.20 + 0.20 + 0.10 = 0.50
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

1 0.05 0.45 ∞ 1 0.05 0.30 0.45 1 1
2 0.10 0.40 ∞ 2 0.10 0.25 0.35 2 2
3 0.05 0.25 ∞ 3 0.05 0.15 0.30 3 3
4 0.05 0.30 ∞ 4 0.05 0.20 0.50 4 4
5 0.05 0.50 5 0.05 0.35 5 5
6 0.10 6 0.10
ℓ=2
i = 1, 2, · · · n − 1, then j = i + 1, i.e., j = 2, · · · , n
r = i · · · j, i.e., r = i · · · i + 1
i =1
For r = 1, t = e[1, 0] + e[2, 2] + w [1, 2] = 0.05 + 0.40 + 0.45 = 0.90 < e[1, 2], then e[1, 2] =
t = 0.90, and root[1, 2] = 1.
For r = 2, t = e[1, 1] + e[3, 2] + w [1, 2] = 0.45 + 0.05 + 0.45 = 0.95 > e[1, 2], then e[1, 2] =
t = 0.90, and root[1, 2] = 1.
i =2
For r = 2, t = e[2, 1] + e[3, 3] + w [2, 3] = 0.10 + 0.25 + 0.35 = 0.70 < e[2, 3], then e[2, 3] =
t = 0.70, and root[2, 3] = 2.
For r = 3, t = e[2, 2] + e[3, 3] + w [2, 3] = 0.40 + 0.25 + 0.35 = 0.70 = e[2, 3], then e[2, 3] =
t = 0.70, and root[2, 3] = 2.
ℓ=2
i = 1, 2, · · · n − 1, then j = i + 1, i.e., j = 2, · · · , n
r = i · · · j, i.e., r = i · · · i + 1
i =3
For r = 3, t = e[3, 2] + e[4, 4] + w [3, 4] = 0.05 + 0.30 + 0.30 = 0.65 < e[3, 4], then e[3, 4] =
t = 0.65, and root[3, 4] = 3.
For r = 4, t = e[3, 3] + e[5, 4] + w [3, 4] = 0.25 + 0.05 + 0.30 = 0.60 < e[3, 4], then e[3, 4] =
t = 0.60, and root[3, 4] = 4.
i =4
For r = 4, t = e[4, 3] + e[5, 5] + w [4, 5] = 0.05 + 0.50 + 0.50 = 1.05 < e[4, 5], then e[4, 5] =
t = 1.05, and root[4, 5] = 4.
For r = 5, t = e[4, 4] + e[6, 5] + w [4, 5] = 0.30 + 0.10 + 0.50 = 0.90 < e[4, 5], then e[4, 5] =
t = 0.90, and root[4, 5] = 5.
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 0.45 0.90
2 0.10 0.40 0.70
3 0.05 0.25 0.60
4 0.05 0.30 0.90
5 0.05 0.50
6 0.10
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 0.45 0.90 1 0.05 0.30 0.45
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 2 0.10 0.25 0.35
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 3 0.05 0.15 0.30
4 0.05 0.30 0.90 4 0.05 0.20 0.50
5 0.05 0.50 5 0.05 0.35
6 0.10 6 0.10
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

1 0.05 0.45 0.90 1 0.05 0.30 0.45 1 1 1
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 2 0.10 0.25 0.35 2 2 2
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 3 0.05 0.15 0.30 3 3 4
4 0.05 0.30 0.90 4 0.05 0.20 0.50 4 4 5
5 0.05 0.50 5 0.05 0.35 5 5
6 0.10 6 0.10
ℓ=3
i = 1, 2, · · · n − 2, then j = i + 2
e[1, 3] := ∞, e[2, 4] := ∞, e[3, 5] := ∞, e[4, 6] := ∞
w [1, 3] := w [1, 2] + p3 + q3 = 0.45 + 0.05 + 0.05 = 0.55
w [2, 4] := w [2, 3] + p4 + q4 = 0.35 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.50
w [3, 5] := w [3, 4] + p5 + q5 = 0.30 + 0.20 + 0.10 = 0.60
ℓ=3
i = 1, 2, · · · n − 2, then j = i + 2
e[1, 3] := ∞, e[2, 4] := ∞, e[3, 5] := ∞, e[4, 6] := ∞
w [1, 3] := w [1, 2] + p3 + q3 = 0.45 + 0.05 + 0.05 = 0.55
w [2, 4] := w [2, 3] + p4 + q4 = 0.35 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.50
w [3, 5] := w [3, 4] + p5 + q5 = 0.30 + 0.20 + 0.10 = 0.60
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 0.45 0.90 ∞
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 ∞
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 ∞
4 0.05 0.30 1.05
5 0.05 0.50
6 0.10
ℓ=3
i = 1, 2, · · · n − 2, then j = i + 2
e[1, 3] := ∞, e[2, 4] := ∞, e[3, 5] := ∞, e[4, 6] := ∞
w [1, 3] := w [1, 2] + p3 + q3 = 0.45 + 0.05 + 0.05 = 0.55
w [2, 4] := w [2, 3] + p4 + q4 = 0.35 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.50
w [3, 5] := w [3, 4] + p5 + q5 = 0.30 + 0.20 + 0.10 = 0.60
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 0.45 0.90 ∞ 1 0.05 0.30 0.45 0.55
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 ∞ 2 0.10 0.25 0.35 0.50
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 ∞ 3 0.05 0.15 0.30 0.60
4 0.05 0.30 1.05 4 0.05 0.20 0.50
5 0.05 0.50 5 0.05 0.35
6 0.10 6 0.10
ℓ=3
i = 1, 2, · · · n − 2, then j = i + 2
e[1, 3] := ∞, e[2, 4] := ∞, e[3, 5] := ∞, e[4, 6] := ∞
w [1, 3] := w [1, 2] + p3 + q3 = 0.45 + 0.05 + 0.05 = 0.55
w [2, 4] := w [2, 3] + p4 + q4 = 0.35 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.50
w [3, 5] := w [3, 4] + p5 + q5 = 0.30 + 0.20 + 0.10 = 0.60
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

1 0.05 0.45 0.90 ∞ 1 0.05 0.30 0.45 0.55 1 1 1
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 ∞ 2 0.10 0.25 0.35 0.50 2 2 2
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 ∞ 3 0.05 0.15 0.30 0.60 3 3 4
4 0.05 0.30 1.05 4 0.05 0.20 0.50 4 4 4
5 0.05 0.50 5 0.05 0.35 5 5
6 0.10 6 0.10
ℓ=3
i = 1, 2, · · · n − 2, then j = i + 2, r = i · · · j, i.e., r = i · · · i + 2
i = 1, r = 1, 2, 3
For r = 1, t = e[1, 0] + e[2, 3] + w [1, 3] = 0.05 + 0.70 + 0.55 = 1.30 < e[1, 3], then e[1, 3] =
t = 1.30, and root[1, 3] = 1.
For r = 2, t = e[1, 1] + e[3, 3] + w [1, 3] = 0.45 + 0.25 + 0.55 = 1.25 < e[1, 3], then e[1, 3] =
t = 1.25, and root[1, 3] = 2.
For r = 3, t = e[1, 2] + e[4, 3] + w [1, 3] = 0.90 + 0.05 + 0.55 = 1.50 > e[1, 3], then e[1, 3] =
t = 1.25, and root[1, 3] = 2.
ℓ=3
i = 2, r = 2, 3, 4
For r = 2, t = e[2, 1] + e[3, 4] + w [2, 4] = 0.10 + 0.60 + 0.50 = 1.20 < e[2, 4], then e[2, 4] =
t = 1.20, and root[2, 4] = 2.
For r = 3, t = e[2, 2] + e[4, 4] + w [2, 4] = 0.40 + 0.30 + 0.50 = 1.20 = e[2, 4], then e[2, 4] =
t = 1.20, and root[2, 4] = 2.
For r = 4, t = e[2, 3] + e[5, 4] + w [2, 4] = 0.70 + 0.05 + 0.50 = 1.25 > e[2, 4], then e[2, 4] =
t = 1.20, and root[2, 4] = 2.
i = 3, r = 3, 4, 5
For r = 3, t = e[3, 2] + e[4, 5] + w [3, 5] = 0.05 + 1.05 + 0.60 = 1.70 < e[3, 5], then e[3, 5] =
t = 1.70, and root[3, 5] = 3.
For r = 4, t = e[3, 3] + e[5, 5] + w [3, 5] = 0.25 + 0.50 + 0.60 = 1.35 < e[3, 5], then e[3, 5] =
t = 1.35, and root[3, 5] = 4.
For r = 5, t = e[3, 4] + e[6, 5] + w [3, 5] = 0.60 + 0.10 + 0.60 = 1.30 < e[3, 5], then e[3, 5] =
t = 1.30, and root[3, 5] = 5.
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 0.45 0.90 1.25
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 1.20
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 1.30
4 0.05 0.30 1.05
5 0.05 0.50
6 0.10
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 0.45 0.90 1.25 1 0.05 0.30 0.45 0.55
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 1.20 2 0.10 0.25 0.35 0.50
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 1.30 3 0.05 0.15 0.30 0.60
4 0.05 0.30 1.05 4 0.05 0.20 0.50
5 0.05 0.50 5 0.05 0.35
6 0.10 6 0.10
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

1 0.05 0.45 0.90 1.25 1 0.05 0.30 0.45 0.55 1 1 1 2
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 1.20 2 0.10 0.25 0.35 0.50 2 2 2 2
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 1.30 3 0.05 0.15 0.30 0.60 3 3 4 5
4 0.05 0.30 1.05 4 0.05 0.20 0.50 4 4 4
5 0.05 0.50 5 0.05 0.35 5 5
6 0.10 6 0.10
ℓ=4
i = 1, 2, · · · n − 3, then j = i + 3
e[1, 4] := ∞, e[2, 5] := ∞
w [1, 4] := w [1, 3] + p4 + q4 = 0.55 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.70
w [2, 5] := w [2, 4] + p5 + q5 = 0.50 + 0.20 + 0.10 = 0.80
ℓ=4
i = 1, 2, · · · n − 3, then j = i + 3
e[1, 4] := ∞, e[2, 5] := ∞
w [1, 4] := w [1, 3] + p4 + q4 = 0.55 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.70
w [2, 5] := w [2, 4] + p5 + q5 = 0.50 + 0.20 + 0.10 = 0.80
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 0.45 0.90 1.25 ∞
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 1.20 ∞
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 1.30
4 0.05 0.30 1.05
5 0.05 0.50
6 0.10
ℓ=4
i = 1, 2, · · · n − 3, then j = i + 3
e[1, 4] := ∞, e[2, 5] := ∞
w [1, 4] := w [1, 3] + p4 + q4 = 0.55 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.70
w [2, 5] := w [2, 4] + p5 + q5 = 0.50 + 0.20 + 0.10 = 0.80
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 0.45 0.90 1.25 ∞ 1 0.05 0.30 0.45 0.55 0.70
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 1.20 ∞ 2 0.10 0.25 0.35 0.50 0.80
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 1.30 3 0.05 0.15 0.30 0.60
4 0.05 0.30 1.05 4 0.05 0.20 0.50
5 0.05 0.50 5 0.05 0.35
6 0.10 6 0.10
ℓ=4
i = 1, 2, · · · n − 3, then j = i + 3
e[1, 4] := ∞, e[2, 5] := ∞
w [1, 4] := w [1, 3] + p4 + q4 = 0.55 + 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.70
w [2, 5] := w [2, 4] + p5 + q5 = 0.50 + 0.20 + 0.10 = 0.80
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

1 0.05 0.45 0.90 1.25 ∞ 1 0.05 0.30 0.45 0.55 0.70 1 1 1 2
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 1.20 ∞ 2 0.10 0.25 0.35 0.50 0.80 2 2 2 2
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 1.30 3 0.05 0.15 0.30 0.60 3 3 4 5
4 0.05 0.30 1.05 4 0.05 0.20 0.50 4 4 4
5 0.05 0.50 5 0.05 0.35 5 5
6 0.10 6 0.10
ℓ=4
i = 1, r = 1, 2, 3, 4
For r = 1, t = e[1, 0] + e[2, 4] + w [1, 4] = 0.05 + 1.20 + 0.70 = 1.95 < e[1, 4], then e[1, 4] =
t = 1.95, and root[1, 4] = 1.
For r = 2, t = e[1, 1] + e[3, 4] + w [1, 4] = 0.45 + 0.60 + 0.70 = 1.75 < e[1, 4], then e[1, 4] =
t = 1.75, and root[1, 4] = 2.
For r = 3, t = e[1, 2] + e[4, 4] + w [1, 4] = 0.90 + 0.30 + 0.70 = 1.90 > e[1, 4], then e[1, 4] =
t = 1.75, and root[1, 4] = 2.
For r = 4, t = e[1, 3] + e[5, 4] + w [1, 4] = 1.25 + 0.05 + 0.70 = 2.00 > e[1, 4], then e[1, 4] =
t = 1.75, and root[1, 4] = 2.
ℓ=4
i = 2, r = 2, 3, 4, 5
For r = 2, t = e[2, 1] + e[3, 5] + w [2, 5] = 0.10 + 1.30 + 0.80 = 2.20 < e[2, 5], then e[2, 5] =
t = 2.20, and root[2, 5] = 2.
For r = 3, t = e[2, 2] + e[4, 5] + w [2, 5] = 0.40 + 1.05 + 0.80 = 2.25 > e[2, 5], then e[2, 5] =
t = 2.20, and root[2, 5] = 2.
For r = 4, t = e[2, 3] + e[5, 5] + w [2, 5] = 0.70 + 0.50 + 0.80 = 2.00 < e[2, 5], then e[2, 5] =
t = 2.00, and root[2, 5] = 4.
For r = 5, t = e[2, 4] + e[6, 5] + w [2, 5] = 1.20 + 0.10 + 0.80 = 2.10 > e[2, 5], then e[2, 5] =
t = 2.00, and root[2, 5] = 2.
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 0.45 0.90 1.25 1.75
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 1.20 2.00
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 1.30
4 0.05 0.30 1.05
5 0.05 0.50
6 0.10
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 0.45 0.90 1.25 1.75 1 0.05 0.30 0.45 0.55 0.70
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 1.20 2.00 2 0.10 0.25 0.35 0.50 0.80
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 1.30 3 0.05 0.15 0.30 0.60
4 0.05 0.30 1.05 4 0.05 0.20 0.50
5 0.05 0.50 5 0.05 0.35
6 0.10 6 0.10
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

1 0.05 0.45 0.90 1.25 1.75 1 0.05 0.30 0.45 0.55 0.70 1 1 1 2 2
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 1.20 2.00 2 0.10 0.25 0.35 0.50 0.80 2 2 2 2 4
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 1.30 3 0.05 0.15 0.30 0.60 3 3 4 5
4 0.05 0.30 1.05 4 0.05 0.20 0.50 4 4 4
5 0.05 0.50 5 0.05 0.35 5 5
6 0.10 6 0.10
ℓ=5
i = 1, 2, · · · n − 4, then j = i + 4
e[1, 5] := ∞
w [1, 5] := w [1, 4] + p5 + q5 = 0.70 + 0.20 + 0.10 = 1.00
ℓ=5
i = 1, 2, · · · n − 4, then j = i + 4
e[1, 5] := ∞
w [1, 5] := w [1, 4] + p5 + q5 = 0.70 + 0.20 + 0.10 = 1.00
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 0.45 0.90 1.25 1.75 ∞
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 1.20 2.00
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 1.30
4 0.05 0.30 1.05
5 0.05 0.50
6 0.10
ℓ=5
i = 1, 2, · · · n − 4, then j = i + 4
e[1, 5] := ∞
w [1, 5] := w [1, 4] + p5 + q5 = 0.70 + 0.20 + 0.10 = 1.00
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 0.45 0.90 1.25 1.75 ∞ 1 0.05 0.30 0.45 0.55 0.70 1.00
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 1.20 2.00 2 0.10 0.25 0.35 0.50 0.80
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 1.30 3 0.05 0.15 0.30 0.60
4 0.05 0.30 1.05 4 0.05 0.20 0.50
5 0.05 0.50 5 0.05 0.35
6 0.10 6 0.10
ℓ=5
i = 1, 2, · · · n − 4, then j = i + 4
e[1, 5] := ∞
w [1, 5] := w [1, 4] + p5 + q5 = 0.70 + 0.20 + 0.10 = 1.00
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

1 0.05 0.45 0.90 1.25 1.75 ∞ 1 0.05 0.30 0.45 0.55 0.70 1.00 1 1 1 2 2
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 1.20 2.00 2 0.10 0.25 0.35 0.50 0.80 2 2 2 2 4
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 1.30 3 0.05 0.15 0.30 0.60 3 3 4 5
4 0.05 0.30 1.05 4 0.05 0.20 0.50 4 4 4
5 0.05 0.50 5 0.05 0.35 5 5
6 0.10 6 0.10
ℓ=5
i = 1, r = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
For r = 1, t = e[1, 0] + e[2, 5] + w [1, 5] = 0.05 + 2.00 + 1.00 = 3.05 < e[1, 5], then e[1, 5] =
t = 3.05, and root[1, 5] = 1.
For r = 2, t = e[1, 1] + e[3, 5] + w [1, 5] = 0.45 + 1.30 + 1.00 = 2.75 < e[1, 5], then e[1, 5] =
t = 2.75, and root[1, 5] = 2.
For r = 3, t = e[1, 2] + e[4, 5] + w [1, 5] = 0.90 + 1.05 + 1.00 = 2.95 > e[1, 5], then e[1, 5] =
t = 2.75, and root[1, 5] = 2.
For r = 4, t = e[1, 3] + e[5, 5] + w [1, 5] = 1.25 + 0.50 + 0.35 = 3.10 > e[1, 5], then e[1, 5] =
t = 2.75, and root[1, 5] = 2.
For r = 5, t = e[1, 4] + e[6, 5] + w [1, 5] = 1.75 + 0.10 + 0.35 = 3.20 > e[1, 5], then e[1, 5] =
t = 2.75, and root[1, 5] = 2.
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 0.45 0.90 1.25 1.75 2.75
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 1.20 2.00
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 1.30
4 0.05 0.30 1.05
5 0.05 0.50
6 0.10
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 0.05 0.45 0.90 1.25 1.75 2.75 1 0.05 0.30 0.45 0.55 0.70 1.00
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 1.20 2.00 2 0.10 0.25 0.35 0.50 0.80
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 1.30 3 0.05 0.15 0.30 0.60
4 0.05 0.30 1.05 4 0.05 0.20 0.50
5 0.05 0.50 5 0.05 0.35
6 0.10 6 0.10
e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

1 0.05 0.45 0.90 1.25 1.75 2.75 1 0.05 0.30 0.45 0.55 0.70 1.00 1 1 1 2 2 2
2 0.10 0.40 0.70 1.20 2.00 2 0.10 0.25 0.35 0.50 0.80 2 2 2 2 4
3 0.05 0.25 0.60 1.30 3 0.05 0.15 0.30 0.60 3 3 4 5
4 0.05 0.30 1.05 4 0.05 0.20 0.50 4 4 4
5 0.05 0.50 5 0.05 0.35 5 5
6 0.10 6 0.10
Step 4: Construct an optimal BST

Algorithm: CONSTRUCT-OPTIMAL-BST(r , i, j, last)
1 if i = j then
2 Return
3 end
4 if last ̸= 0 then
5 Print root[i, j] + “is the root”
6 end
7 else if j < last then
8 Print root[i, j] + “is the left child of” + last
9 end
10 else
11 Print root[i, j] + “is the right child of” + last
12 end
13 CONSTRUCT-OPTIMAL-BST(root, i, root[i, j] − 1, root[i, j])
14 CONSTRUCT-OPTIMAL-BST(root, root[i, j] + 1, j, root[i, j])
https://walkccc.me/CLRS/Chap15/15.5/
Suggested Readings
Chapter 15, Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Lieserson, Ronald L. Rivest and Clifford Stein,
Introduction to Algorithms, 3rd Edition, MIT Press/McGraw-Hill, 2009.
Chapter 05, E. Harowitz, S. Sahani, and S. Rajasekaran, Fundamentals of Computer
Algorithms, 2nd Edition, University Press, 2008.
Chapter 12, Michael T. Goodrich and Roberto Tamassia, Algorithm Design and Appli-
cations, Wiley, 2014.
Thank You

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Algorithms - I

Department of CSE, IIIT Kalyani

October 25, 2022

1 Optimal Binary Search Tree

In a binary search tree, all the

In a binary search tree, all the

a value either equal to or greater

Let S = {a1 , a2 , · · · , an } be a set of n integers.

more often than others. This gives rise to an interesting

where frq(k) denotes the search frequency of key k, and

Input: We are given a sequence K = ⟨k1 , k2 , · · · , kn ⟩ of n distinct keys in sorted order

Then the expected cost of a search in optimal BST T is

k2 Node Depth Level Probability Contribution

k2 Node Depth Level Probability Contribution

An optimal BST is not necessarily a tree whose overall height is smallest.

Total number of possible Binary Search Trees with n different keys

Step 1: The structure of an optimal binary search tree (Optimal Substructure)

Step 1: The structure of an optimal binary search tree (Optimal Substructure)

Step 2: Recursive solution

Step 2: Recursive solution

w (i, j) = w (i, r − 1) + pr + w (r + 1, j) (5)

Step 2: Recursive solution

e[i, j] = e[i, r − 1] + e[r + 1, j) + w (i, j) (6)

Step 3: Computing the expected search cost of an optimal BST

w [i, i − 1] = qi−1 (7)

w [i, j] = w [i, j − 1] + pj + qj (8)

Step 3: Computing the expected search cost of an optimal BST

Example 1 (Optimal BST)

Example 1 (Optimal BST)

Example 1 (Optimal BST)

Example 1 (Optimal BST)

Example 1 (Optimal BST)

e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

e[i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 w [i, j] 0 1 2 3 4 5 r [i, j] 1 2 3 4 5

Step 4: Construct an optimal BST

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