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AE331-Building Construction 3
Part 01
Arch. Samia Ayyoub

Introduction
The impact of technological

change
on building materials
2 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

The impact of technological change
on building materials
 Architecture plays a vital role in the emergence of new

cities in any country. The need for to have a modern city
can be attributed to the new technologies in building
construction and the need to change the landscape of the
city.
 Technology directly affects architecture by
facilitating creation of new materials with which
to build.These new materials provided the
Architect efficiency from engineering limitations
of the past and allowed for new rational designs.

 Technology transformed architecture into a
tool for social and cultural reform.
 The Industrial Revolution gave three new
materials to the architect of the 20th century:
reinforced concrete, steel and glass. The
new materials were inexpensive, mass
produced and flexible to use.
 The need to redevelop the urban landscape
affected major cities in the world

 The building construction industry does not only revolve
around brick, mortar, steel and hard labor. Compared to
the yesteryears of construction,
 the role of technology cannot be denied — it is
essential in developing and enhancing the building
sector to ensure processes are sped up,
communication improved and efficiency is
maximized.

Positive impacts of ‫ايجابيات تطبيق النكنولوجيا‬
technology
 Positive impacts of technology and innovations on building
construction:
1. Pre-fabrication: ‫مسبق الصنع‬
 Pre-fabrication is the practice of assembling building
components (be it walls or floors) off-site and then
transporting the semi-finished components to be assembled
where the building foundation is located.
2.Time savings of 15-20% )%20-10 ‫توفير الوقت من‬
3.Increased cost efficiency ‫زيادة كفاءة التكلفة‬
4.Less energy and material wastage ‫توفير للطاقة و هدر المواد‬
5. Ensure safety of construction ‫امان التنفيذ‬
6. Decreased pollution ‫( تقليل التلوث‬less noise and dust) when
components are assembled in a controlled environment
Positive impacts of technology
7.Communication
 Cameras placed on-site lets building owners view the
on going process without actually travelling to the site.
 Web-based project management systems allow
seamless project collaboration and administrative
activities between all parties involved — this increases
productivity and accuracy while reducing cycle time.

Positive impacts of technology
 8. GPS System
 Machines employing the use of GPS can perform tasks
accurately without being told what to do, and when or
where to do it.

Several of these affect the architectural
appearance of buildings.
 The central science of mechanics of building
materials itself has undergone basic progress.
 The collective knowledge about elastic and plastic
state, stress and strain, micro-cracking and fracturing,
stability, buckling, ductility, probability influences, risk
ultimate states and others has resulted in the complex
science of present-day mechanics of materials.

 Parallel to the progress in materials sciences, the
technology of construction and manufacturing of building
materials have also evolved greatly.

The different architectural styles developed as
a sum of technical development
,Requirements of clients and society and
ideas of architects.
Requirements The different

Ideas of Technical of clients and architectural
Architects development society styles
‫أفكار المعماريين‬ ‫التطور التكنولوجي‬ ‫متطلبات العمالء و‬ ‫األساليب المعمارية‬
. ‫المجتمع‬ ‫المختلفة‬

Type of Construction
‫أنواع المنشآت‬
1. Concrete Frame .‫ المنشآت ذات الهيكل الخراساني‬.1
Structures.
2. Steel Frame Structures. .‫ المنشآت ذات الهيكل الحديدي‬.2
3. Light Gauge (Weigh) steel ‫ المنشآت ذات الهيكل الحديدي‬.3
Construction .‫الخفيف‬
4. Timber frame ‫ المنشآت ذات الهيكل الخشبي‬.4
Construction. and Wood
Frame Construction.
. ‫ المنشآت ذات الجدران الحاملة‬.5
5. Load Bearing Masonry
Construction.
6. Pre Engineered Buildings ‫ لمنشآت ذات الهيكل الحديدي‬.6
‫المصنع مسبقا‬

1. Concrete Frame Structures. ….

2. Steel Frame Structures. (strength
3. is of great advantage to buildings, The
4. other important feature of steel framing is its
flexibility
5. The third characteristic of steel is its plasticity or
ductility.
This means that when subjected to great force, it will
not suddenly crack like glass, but slowly bend out of
shape) Failure in steel frames is not sudden - a
steel structure rarely collapses.
Steel in most cases performs far better in earthquake
than most other materials because of these
properties.
The weakness of steel frame structures:
 However one important property of steel is that it
quickly loses its strength in a fire.
 At 500 degrees celsius (930 degrees F), mild steel
can lose almost half its strength.
 Therefore, steel in buildings must be protected from

fire or high temperature; this is usually done by
wrapping it with boards or spray-on material called fire
protection.
 They are prone to corrosion in humid or marine
environments. ‫يصدا بتعرضه للرطوبة في األجواء الرطبة‬
WHERE STEEL FRAME STRUCTURES
ARE USED ‫استخداماته‬
 Steel construction is most often used in
High rise buildings because of its strength, low weight,
and speed of construction
 Industrial buildings because of its ability to create large

span spaces at low cost
 Warehouse buildings for the same reason
 Residential buildings in a technique called light gauge steel

construction
 Temporary Structures as these are quick to set up and

remove
3. Light Gauge (Weigh) steel Construction.(is a type
of construction that is common for residential
and small buildings in North America and parts
of Europe.)

4. Timber frame Construction.& Wood Frame
Construction. (Light wood framed construction is one
of the most popular types of building methods for
homes in the United States and parts of Europe

Wood framed
It has the following characteristics:
It is light, and allows quick construction
with no heavy tools or equipment.
Every component can easily be carried by
hand - a house essentially becomes a large
carpentry job.
The main tool is a handheld nail gun.
It is able to adapt itself to any geometric
shape, and can be clad with a variety of
materials.
There are a huge variety of products and
systems tailored to this type of construction
It has these negative characteristics:
 It is not highly fireproof, as it is made of wood.
 It is not strong enough to resist major wind events
such as tornadoes and hurricanes
7. Load Bearing Masonry Construction.
7. Pre Engineered Buildings.(Pre engineered buildings
are factory-built buildings
This style of construction is ideally suited to industrial
buildings and warehouses; it is cheap, very fast to
erect, and can also be dismantled and moved to another
site - more on that later.

Pre Engineered Buildings
 They are essentially rectangular boxes enclosed in a skin
of ridged metal sheeting.
 Great speed is achieved because while the foundations and
floor slab are being constructed, the beams and columns -
the structural system - are

being fabricated in the
factory.
Once the foundations
and floor are done, the
columns are shipped to
the site, lifted into
place by cranes, and
bolted
24
together. AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub
1. Concrete Frame Structures :
This type of building consists of a frame or skeleton of
concrete.
Concrete frame structures are a very common - or

perhaps the most common- type of modern building.

Concrete
 As the name suggests, this type of
building consists of a frame or Frame
skeleton of concrete. Structures
 Horizontal members of this frame
are called beams,
 vertical members are
called columns.(Pillars)
 Humans walk on flat planes of
concrete called slabs.
Of these, the column is the most important, as it is
the primary load-carrying element of the building. If
you damage a beam in a building, it will usually affect
only one floor, but damage to a column could bring
down the entire building
Concrete Frame Structures
 When we say concrete in the building trade, we
actually mean reinforced concrete.
 Its full name is reinforced cement concrete,
or RCC. RCC is concrete that contains steel
bars, called reinforcement bars, or rebars.
 This combination works very well, as concrete
is very strong in compression, easy to
produce at site, and inexpensive, and steel is
very strong in tension.

 To make reinforced concrete, one first makes a
mould, called formwork, that will contain the liquid
concrete and give it the form and shape we need.
 Then one looks at the structural engineer's drawings
and places in the steel reinforcement bars, and ties
them in place using wire.
 The tied steel is called a reinforcement cage,
because it is shaped like one.

 Once the steel is in place, one can start to prepare the
concrete, by mixing cement, sand, stone chips in a
range of sizes, and water in a cement mixer, and
pouring in the liquid concrete into the formwork till
exactly the right level is reached.
 The concrete will become hard in a matter of hours, but
takes a month to reach its full strength.
 Therefore it is usually propped up until that
period. During this time the concrete must be cured, or
supplied with water on its surface, which it needs for
the chemical reactions within to proceed properly.

 Working out the exact 'recipe', or
proportions of each ingredient, is a science in
itself.
 It is called concrete mix design.
 A good mix designer will start with the
properties that are desired in the mix,
then take many factors into account, and work
out a detailed mix design.

Testing of Concrete
 There are many different test procedures for determining
the prosperities of concrete.
 Testing concrete:
 Testing fresh Concrete and Testing Hard Concrete:
 The slum test applied to wet or fresh concrete.
 And The compression test applied to hardened
concrete
31 AE331-Arch. Samia Ayyoub

Slum test

Cub Test
33
A site engineer will often order a different
type of mix for a different purpose.
 For example, if he is casting a thin concrete
wall in a hard-to-reach area, he will ask for a
mix that is more flow able than stiff. This
will allow the liquid concrete to flow by
gravity into every corner of the formwork.

 So the structure is actually a connected frame of
members, each of which are firmly connected to each
other.
 In engineering parlance, these connections are
called moment connections, which means that the two
members are firmly connected to each other. There are
other types of connections, including hinged
connections, which are used in steel structures, but
concrete frame structures have moment connections in
99.9% of cases. This frame becomes very strong, and must
resist the various loads that act on a building during its
life.
 This frame becomes very strong, and must resist the various
loads that act on a building during its life.
 These loads include: two types of loads—static and
dynamic.
 Static Loads:
1. Dead Loads: the downwards force on the building coming
from the weight of the building itself, including the
structural elements, walls, facades, and the like.
2. Live Loads: the downwards force on the building coming

from the expected weight of the occupants and their,
furniture,, and so on.
 Normally these loads are specified in building codes and
structural engineers must design buildings to carry these or
greater loads.
Static Loads
 These loads will vary with the use of the
space, for example,
 whether it is residential, office, industrial to
name a few.
 It is common for codes to require live
loads for residential to be a minimum of about
200 kg/m2, offices to be 250 kg/m2, and
industrial to be 1000 kg/m2, which is the same
as 1T/m2. These live loads are sometimes
called imposed loads.

Dynamic Loads
Dynamic Loads: these occur commonly in bridges

and similar infrastructure, and are the loads created by
traffic, including braking and accelerating loads.
1. Wind Loads: This is a very important design factor,

especially for tall buildings, or buildings with large surface
area. Buildings are designed not to resist the everyday
wind conditions, but extreme conditions that may
occur once every 100 years or so.

Dynamic Loads
 These are called design wind speeds, and are
specified in building codes.
 A building can commonly be required to resist
a wind force of 150 kg/m2, which can be a very
significant force when multiplied by the surface
area of the building.
2. Earthquake Loads: in an earthquake, the
ground vigorously shakes the building both
horizontally and vertically,

 This can cause the building to fall apart. The heavier the
building, the greater the force on it.
 Its important to note that both wind and
earthquake impose horizontal forces on the
building,
 unlike the gravity forces it normally resists, which
are vertical in direction.
 The concrete frame rests on foundations , which

transfer the forces - from the building and on the building
- to the ground.

Important components of concrete frame
structures are: slabs

Beams

Columns
PILLAR : Simple Definition of PILLAR : a large post that helps to hold up

43
something (such as a roof) AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub
Elevator shaft

Shear walls

Foundations

Elements of concrete frame:
 Important components of concrete frame structures
are:
1. Slabs
2. Beams
3. Columns
4. Elevator shaft
5. Shear walls
6. Foundations

shear Walls
 shear Walls are important structural elements in
high-rise buildings.
 Shear walls are essentially very large columns -
they could easily measure 400mm thick by 3m long -
making them appear like walls rather than columns.
 Their function in a building is to help take care
of horizontal forces on buildings like wind and
earthquake loads.
 Normally, buildings are subject to vertical loads -
gravity. Shear walls also carry vertical loads.
 It is important to understand that they only work for
horizontal loads in one direction - the axis of the long
dimension of the wall. These are usually not required in
low-rise structures.

Elevator Shafts
 Elevator Shafts are vertical boxes in which
the elevators move up and down - normally
each elevator is enclosed in its own concrete
box.
 These shafts are also very good structural
elements, helping to resist horizontal loads,
and also carrying vertical loads.

WALLS IN CONCRETE FRAME
BUILDINGS:
 Concrete frame structures are strong and economical.
Hence almost any walling materials can be used with
them.
 The heavier options include Masonry walls of brick,
concrete block, or stone.
 The lighter options include drywall partitions made of light
steel or wood studs covered with sheeting material. The
former are used when strong, secure, and sound-proof
enclosures are required, and the latter when quick, flexible
lightweight partitions are needed.
When brick or concrete blocks are used, it is common to

plaster the entire surface - brick and concrete - with a cement
plaster to form a hard, long-lasting finish.

CLADDING OF CONCRETE FRAME
STRUCTURES
 Concrete frame buildings can be clad with any kind of

cladding material.
 Common cladding materials are glass, aluminum
panels, stone sheets, and ceramic facades.
 Since these structures can be designed for heavy loading,
one could even clad them in solid masonry walls of brick
or stone.

FOUNDATIONS
Part 02
Arch. Samia Ayyoub

The foundations of the building
 The foundations of the building
transfer the weight of the
building to the ground.
 While 'foundation' is a general

word, normally, every building has
a number of individual
foundations, commonly called
footings.

 Usually each column of the
building will have its own footing.

The
foundations
of the
building

 Since the weight of the building rests on the ‫حٌث إن وزن المبنى ٌقع‬ 
soil (or rock), engineers have to study the ‫على التربة أو الصخر‬
properties of the soil very carefully to ‫إذن ال بد من دراسة‬
ensure that it can carry the loads imposed ‫خصائص التربة بعناٌة‬
by the building. ‫فائقة للتأكد من قوة تحمل‬
 It is common for engineers to determine . ‫التربة للمنشأة‬
the safe bearing capacity of the soil after ‫ال بد إن ٌحدد المهندسون‬ 
such study. As the name suggests, this is the ‫قوة تحمل التربة اآلمنة و‬
amount of weight per unit area the soil can ‫بعد الدراسة ٌتم تحدٌد‬
bear. ‫الوزن الذي تتحمله كل‬
 For example, the safe bearing ‫وحدة مربعة من األرض‬
capacity(SBC) at a location could be 20 .
T/m2, or tones per square meter. ً‫ قوة تحمل نربه ف‬: ‫مثال‬ 
‫مكان ما قد تصل إلى‬
‫المنر المربع‬/‫طن‬20

 This capacity also changes at different depths ‫قوة تحمل التربة تختلف حسب‬
. ‫العمق‬
of soil.
‫كلما زاد العمق زادت قوة‬
 In general, the deeper one digs, the greater the SBC, ‫التحمل ما لم توجد طبقات‬
unless there are pockets of weak soil in the earth. To ‫ إن‬.‫ٌجب‬ ‫ضعٌفة و التربة‬
‫تكون قاسٌة و صلبة‬
properly support a building, the soil must be very ‫من المعروف ان التربة عند‬
firm and strong. ‫السطح تكون ضعٌفة و‬
‫متفككة و اذا استقر المبنى‬
 It is common for the soil near the surface of the ‫علٌها ممكن ان ٌغرق مثل‬
earth to be loose and weak. If a building is rested ‫ما تغرق السفٌنة فً البحر‬
on this soil, it will sink into the earth like a ship in .
water. ‫ٌتم الحفر حتى نصل إلى‬
‫العمق المناسب و التربة‬
 Building contractors will usually dig until they reach ‫القوٌة و الصلبة ولكن هذا‬
‫ال ٌتم قبل تصمٌم القواعد‬
very firm, strong, soil that cannot be dug up easily .
before constructing a foundation.

 To study the properties of the soil before designing
foundations, engineers will ask for a soil investigation
‫فحص التربة‬to be done.
 A soil investigation engineer will drill a 4" or 6"
hollow pipe into the ground, and will remove samples of
the earth while doing so. He will then send these
samples to a lab to find out the detailed properties of the
soil at every depth. Soil is usually composed of
strata, ‫ طبقات‬or different layers, each with its own set of
properties.
 Drilling technology today makes it easy and
economical to drill to great depths, easily several hundred
meters or more, even in hard rock.
 The soil investigation team will then prepare
 a soil investigation report ‫تقرير فحص التربة‬
that lists the engineering properties of the soil
at regular intervals, say every 2 meters. Based
on this report, engineers designing the
structure can decide at what depth of soil to
provide the foundations, the type of
foundations they should provide, and
the size of the foundations.

‫ ميكانيكا التربة‬Soil mechanics .
 Every once in a while, engineers will find fill at a site. This
occurs when humans have previously dug up the earth
there, and then filled it back in. This happens if a quarry
was dug or a building built there previously. Since fill is
loose and soft and cannot support weight, engineers will
dig to a depth below that of the fill, where strong soil is
found, and construct foundations there.
The study of soil, and its properties and behavior, is

called Soil mechanics . ‫مٌكانٌكا التربة‬

soil investigation

TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
 The common types of foundations in buildings. are
divided into two categories:
 shallow foundations and deep foundations.
 The words shallow and deep refer to the depth of soil in
which the foundation is made.
 Shallow foundations can be made in depths of as little as
3ft (1m), while deep foundations can be made at depths
of 60 - 200ft (20 - 65m).
 Shallow foundations are used for small, light buildings,
 while deep ones are for large, heavy buildings.

SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS:
 Shallow foundations are also called ‫األساسات القرٌبة‬ 

spread footings or open footings. ‫أٌضا تسمى‬
 The 'open' refers to the fact that the ‫األساسات المنتشرة‬
foundations are made by first excavating all . ‫أو المفتوحة‬
the earth till the bottom of the footing, and ‫حفر موقع البناء‬ 
then constructing the footing. During the ‫بالكامل ٌعنً فتح‬
early stages of work, the entire footing is ‫او حفر او تفرٌغ‬
visible to the eye, and is therefore called an ‫الموقع بالكامل الى‬
open foundation. ‫المستوى المطلوب‬
 The idea is that each footing takes the .‫إنشاء األساس علٌه‬
concentrated load of the column and ‫الفكرة تقوم على ان‬ 
spreads it out over a large area, so that the ‫كل قاعدة تتحمل‬
actual weight on the soil does not exceed ‫الثقل االمنقول لها‬
the safe bearing capacity of the soil. ‫من العمود وتنقله‬
. ‫للتربة‬

Type of shallow footings:
 There are several kinds of shallow footings:
1. individual footings, ‫القواعد المنفردة‬
2. strip footings and ‫القواعد المستمرة‬
3. raft foundations. ‫الفرشة‬
In cold climates, shallow foundations must be protected from
freezing. This is because water in the soil around the
foundation can freeze and expand, thereby damaging the
foundation.
4. These foundations should be built below the frost
line, ‫ مستوى التجمد‬which is the level in the ground above which
freezing occurs.
5. If they cannot be built below the frost line, they should be
protected by insulation: normally a little heat from the
building will flood into the soil and prevent freezing.

Type of shallow footings:

INDIVIDUAL FOOTINGS
 Individual footings are one of the most simple and
common types of foundations.
 These are used when the load of the building is carried by
columns.
 each column will have its own footing.
 The footing is just a square or rectangular pad of concrete
on which the column sits.
 To get a very rough idea of the size of the footing, the
engineer will take the total load on the column and divide it
by the safe bearing capacity (SBC) of the soil.
 For example, if a column has a vertical load of 10T, and the
SBC of the soil is 10T/m2, then the area of the footing will
be 1m2. In practice, the designer will look at many other
factors before preparing a construction design for the
footing.
 Individual footings : a until concreting of the footing
column.

Individual
footings are
usually
connected by
a plinth (Tie)
beam, ‫ زنار ربط‬a
horizontal beam
that is built at
ground or below
ground level.. ‫زنار‬
‫الربط السفلً و العلوي‬
Individual footings connected by a plinth beam. Note that the

footings have been cast on top of beds of plain cement
concrete (PCC) ,‫ صبة النظافة‬which has been done to create a
level, firm base for the footing.
STRIP FOOTINGS
 Strip footings are commonly

found in load-bearing masonry
construction, and act as a long
strip that supports the weight of
an entire wall.
 These are used where the
building loads are carried by entire
walls rather than isolated columns,
such as in older buildings made of
masonry.

RAFT OR MAT FOUNDATIONS
 Raft Foundations, also called Mat Foundations, are

most often used when basements are to be constructed.
In a raft, the entire basement floor slab acts as the
foundation; the weight of the building is spread evenly
over the entire footprint of the building. It is called a
raft because the building is like a boat that 'floats' in a sea
of soil.
Mat Foundations are used where the soil is weak, and

therefore building loads have to be spread over a large
area, or where columns are closely spaced, which
means that if individual footings were used, they would
touch each other.

Raft foundation

DEEP FOUNDATIONS
 PILE FOUNDATIONS PILE 

 A pile is basically a long cylinder of a strong FOUNDATIONS
material such as concrete that is pushed into the ‫ اسطوانة دائرٌة‬A pile 
ground so that structures can be supported on top ‫طوٌلة قوٌة من الخرسانة‬
of it. ‫القوٌة تدفع إلى األرض‬
. ‫لتدعم المنشأة فوقها‬
 Pile foundations are used in the following
situations: : ‫تستخدم فً الحاالت التالٌة‬ 
‫عندما تكون هناك طبقات‬ 
 When there is a layer of weak soil at the surface. ‫ضعٌفة ضمن األساسات و‬
This layer cannot support the weight of the ‫األساسات ٌجب ان تصل إلى‬
building, so the loads of the building have to bypass . ‫تربة قوبة‬
this layer and be transferred to the layer of ً‫عندما تكون األحمال ف‬ 
stronger soil or rock that is below the weak layer.
. ‫المبنى عالٌة جدا‬
 When a building has very heavy, concentrated
loads, such as in a high rise structure. Pile foundations 
 Pile foundations are capable of taking higher ‫تتحمل أحمال أكثر من‬ 
loads than spread footings. . ‫القواعد المستمرة‬

DEEP FOUNDATIONS:
PILE FOUNDATIONS
 There are two types of pile foundations, each of
which works in its own way.
1. End Bearing Piles
2. Friction Piles

PILE FOUNDATIONS

DEEP FOUNDATIONS:
 End Bearing Piles
 In end bearing piles, the bottom end of the pile rests
on a layer of especially strong soil or rock.
 The load of the building is transferred through the pile
onto the strong layer. In a sense, this pile acts like a
column.
 The key principle is that the bottom end rests on the
surface which is the intersection of a weak and
strong layer. The load therefore bypasses the weak layer
and is safely transferred to the strong layer.

Friction Piles
 Friction piles work on a different principle.
 The pile transfers the load of the building to the soil across
the full height of the pile, by friction. In other words, the
entire surface of the pile, which is cylindrical in shape, works to
transfer the forces to the soil.
 To visualize how this works, imagine you are pushing a solid metal
rod of say 4mm diameter into a tub of frozen ice cream. Once you
have pushed it in, it is strong enough to support some load. The
greater the embedment depth ‫ عمق الطمر‬in the ice cream, the
more load it can support. This is very similar to how a friction pile
works.
 In a friction pile, the amount of load a pile can support is
directly proportionate to its length.
 In practice, however, each pile resists load by a combination of
end bearing and friction.
WHAT ARE PILES MADE OF?
 Piles can be made of wood, concrete, or steel.
In traditional construction, wooden piles were used to

support buildings in areas with weak soil. Wood piles are
still used to make jetties( landing stage). For this one
needs trees with exceptionally straight trunks. The pile
length is limited to the length of a single tree,
about 20m, since one cannot join together two tree
trunks.
 The entire city of Venice in Italy is famous for being built
on wooden piles over the sea water.

WHAT ARE PILES MADE OF?
Cross sections of various pile foundations

 Concrete piles are precast, that is, made at ground level,
and then driven into the ground by hammering
 - more on that later.
 Steel H-piles can also be driven into the ground. These
can take very heavy loads, and save time during
construction, as the pile casting process is eliminated. No
protective coating is given to the steel, as during driving,
this would be scraped away by the soil. In areas with
corrosive soil ) ‫تربة متآكلة‬,(acidic soil ) concrete piles
should be used.

HOW PILES ARE USED
 As pile foundations carry a lot of load, they must be

designed very carefully. A good engineer will study the
soil the piles are placed in to ensure that the soil is
not overloaded beyond its bearing capacity.
Every pile has a zone of influence on the soil around it.

 Care must be taken to space the piles far enough apart so
that loads are distributed evenly over the entire bulb of soil
that carries them, and not concentrated into a few areas.

The load pattern of the piles on the soil surrounding them.
This is also called a zone of influence. ‫منطقة التأثير‬

pile cap
 Engineers will usually group a few piles together, and top
them with a pile cap.
 A pile cap is a very thick cap of concrete that
extends over a small group of piles, and serves as
a base on which a column can be constructed.
 The load of this column is then distributed to all the piles
in the group.

HOW PILES ARE CONSTRUCTED

 Piles are first cast at ground level and then

hammered ‫ يطرق‬or driven into the ground using
a Pile driver .
 Pile driver : This is a machine that holds the pile
perfectly vertical, and then hammers it into the ground
blow by blow. Each blow is struck by lifting a heavy weight
and dropping it on the top of the pile - the pile is
temporarily covered with a steel cap to prevent it
from disintegrating.
 ‫ ٌغطى مؤقتا بغطاء معدنً حتى ال ٌتأذى‬the pile

 The pile driver thus performs two functions –
 First, it acts as a crane, ‫ رافعة‬and lifts the pile from a
horizontal position on the ground and rotates it into the
correct vertical position,
 Second, it hammers the pile down into the ground.
 Piles should be hammered into the ground till refusal, at
which point they cannot be driven any further into the
soil.


SPECIAL PILES
Pile driving is very noisy and causes massive

vibrations through the soil.
 For this reason, it is sometimes difficult to use them in
sensitive locations.
 For example, if an operational hospital or science lab is to

be extended, driving piles would cause unwanted
disturbance. Their use is also restricted in residential areas
in many countries. The vibrations could also cause
structural damage to older buildings that are close by. In
such situations it is possible to use micro piling or
helical piling, neither of which rely on hammering.

SPECIAL PILES
1. Micro piles or mini piles are small piles that
are constructed in the following way:
 Step 1: a hole a little larger than the pile diameter and

the full length of the pile is dug into the ground using an
apparatus(equipment) like a soil boring machine.
Step 2: a precast concrete pile is lowered or pushed
into the hole.
Step 3: a concrete grout( ‫( مالط خرسانً رقٌق‬is poured into
the gap between the pile and the earth.

2. Helical piles are steel tubes that have helical (spiral)
blades attached to them.
 These can be drilled into the ground, meaning that the

pile acts as a giant drill bit, and is rotated and pushed into
the ground from above, much like a screw drills into
wood.
 Once the steel pile is driven into the ground, a pile cap
is poured on top of the pile to prepare it for the
construction above.

HIGH RISE
STRUCTURAL
SYSTEMS
Lecture 03
Arch. Samia Ayyoub
INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION INTRODUCTION AND
High rise is defined differently by DEFINITION
differ bodies.
High rise is defined differently by different bodies.
Emporis standards- The International
“A multi-story structure Conference on Fire Safety–
between 35-100 meters tall, "any structure where the
or a building of unknown height can have a serious
height from 12-39 floors is ‫االخالء‬impact on evacuation
termed as high rise. (flight)“
Building code of
Hyderabad, India- Massachusetts, United
A high-rise building is one States General Laws –
with four floors or more, or A high-rise is being higher
one 15 meters or more in than 70 feet (21 m).
height.
INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION
High rise is defined differently by
different bodies
Buildings higher than 100m is

termed as skyscraper
Buildings 300m or higher is

termed as super tall and
buildings 600m or taller is
termed as mega-tall.

Many
sustainable
towers
especially in
Europe and
Asia have been
designed with
cutting edge
technologies
and pioneering
designs.
High-rise Definition
 A relatively big building may be considered a skyscraper
if it project well above its built environment and changes the
overall skyline .
 The maximum height of structures has progressed historically
with building methods and technologies and thus what is today
considered a skyscraper is taller than before.
 The Burj Khalifa is currently the tallest building in the
world.
 High-rise buildings are considered shorter than
skyscrapers.
 and a skyscraper though a building lower than about thirty
stories is not likely to be a skyscraper and a building with fifty
or more stories is certainly a skyscraper.

DEVELOPMENT OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
 First Generation1780-1850
 The exterior walls of these buildings consisted of stone or
brick, although sometimes cast iron was added for decorative
purposes.
 The columns were constructed of cast iron, often
unprotected; steel and shaped iron was used for the
beams; and the floors were made of wood. Chicago‟s HOME
Home Insurance Company Building was ten stories tall and INSURANCE
the first skyscraper to use such a steel construction. BUILDING
 Second Generation 1850-1940
 The second generation of tall buildings, which includes the
Metropolitan Life Building (1909), the Woolworth
Building (1913), and the Empire State Building (1931),
are frame structures, in which a skeleton of welded- or
riveted-steel columns and beams, often encased(
covered) in concrete, runs through the entire building.
8 AE331-Arch. Samia Ayyoub EMPIRE STATE
BUILDING
DEVELOPMENT OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
 This type of construction makes for an extremely strong structure, but not such
attractive floor space. The interiors are full of heavy, load-bearing columns
and walls
 Third Generation 1940-present

 Buildings constructed from after World War II until today make up the most recent
generation of high-rise buildings.
 Within this generation there are those of steel-framed construction (
core construction and tube construction ), reinforced concrete
construction(shear wall), and steel-framed reinforced concrete
construction .
 Hybrid (Mixture) systems also evolved during this time. These systems make
use more than one type of structural system in a building.

Structural
system
classification

Service core
The size and location of the
service core in a high rise
building play a predominantly
part in the whole design.
That is well stated by Ken
Yeang in his High-rise
Elevator Cores (2002).
He believed the arrangement of
primary mass position can help
to shade or retain heat within
the building form.
Of the various possible service-
core positions i.e. „central
core’, „double core‟ or „single-
sided core‟, the double core is
to be preferred.
TALL BUILDING TRENDS IN 2013
Considering the worlds 100 tallest
buildings in 1990:
 80 percent were located in North America.

 Almost 90 percent were exclusively office use.
 More than half were constructed of steel.

List of Top 10 High-Rise Buildings
# Building City Floors Height Year
1 Burj Khalifa Dubai 163 828 m 2010
2 Makkah Clock Royal Tower Makkah 95 601 m 2012
[Abraj Al Bait]
3 Taipei 101 Taipei 101 509 m 2004
4 Shanghai World Financial Center Shanghai 101 492 m 2008
5 International Commerce Centre Hong Kong 118 484 m 2010

[Union Square]
6 Petronas Tower 1 KualaLumpu 88 452 m 1998
[Petronas Towers] r
7 Petronas Tower 2 KualaLumpu 88 452 m 1998
[Petronas Towers] r
8 Nanjing Greenland Financial Nanjing 66 450 m 2010
Center
9 Willis Tower Chicago 108 442 m 1974
10 Kingkey Finance Tower Shenzhen 100 442 m 2011
Makkah
Burj Clock
khalifa Royal
Tower
Burj Dubai
 Burj Dubai is a super tall skyscraper that is being built
in Dubai., it will be the tallest man-made structure ever
built.
 At a cost of about 4billion dollars the tower will
symbolize Dubai as a world city.
 The final height of the building is up to 160 stories and
reach a height of 800 meters. The foundation has
been laid 50 meters into the ground
 The Y-shaped tower consists of stainless steel and glass.
It rises to the sky insteps from the middle of a man-
made lake. In Islamic architecture these steps
symbolize rising towards heaven.
 Burj Dubai has apartments, shops, swimming
pools, spas and an observation platform on the 124th
floor. It is also expected to have the first hotel owned by
Italian‟s fashion tsar Giorgio Armani.
 A total of 56 elevators carrying 40 people each will be
able to move passengers at 18 minutes/second, a new
world record.

Taipei 101
International Petronas Towers
Commerce
Centre
Nanjing Greenland Financial Center
Wills Tower Kingkey Finance
Tower
STRUCTURAL CONCERNS
 The primary structural skeleton of a tall building can be
visualized as a vertical cantilever beam with its base
fixed in the ground.
 The structure has to carry the vertical gravity loads
and the lateral wind and earthquake loads.
 Gravity loads are caused by dead and live loads.
 Lateral loads tend to snap the building or topple(fall
over) it.
 The building must therefore have enough shear and
bending resistance and must not lose its vertical
load-carrying capability.

Structural Loads
• Gravity loads
– Dead loads
– Live loads
– Snow loads
• Lateral loads
– Wind loads
– Seismic loads
• Special load cases

– Impact loads
– Blast loads
Wind
Seismic Loads Loads
23
AE331-Arch. Samia Ayyoub
AD Classics: Willis Tower (Sears Tower) /
Skidmore, Owings, & Merrill
In just 60 seconds tourists can
soar to the sky deck
to experience the swaying of
the skyscraper on a windy day
and as of 2009, look at the city
beneath their feet from glass
boxes that stick out from the
deck.

CLASSIFICATION OF TALL BUILDING
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
 Can be classified based on the structural

material used such as concrete or
steel
 Structural systems of tall buildings can
also be divided into two broad
categories:
 1)INTERIOR STRUCTURES
 2)EXTERIOR STRUCURES
.25 AE331-Arch. Samia Ayyoub
CLASSIFICATION OF TALL BUILDING
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
 This classification is based on the distribution of the
components of the primary lateral load-resisting system
over the building.
 A system is categorized as an interior structure when the

major part of the lateral load resisting system is located within
the interior of the building.
 Likewise, if the major part of the lateral load-resisting system is located

at the building edge, a system is categorized as an exterior structure.
 It should be noted, however, that any interior structure is likely to have

some minor components of the lateral load-resisting system at the
building perimeter, and any exterior structure may have some minor
components within the interior of the building

INTERIOR STRUCTURES
By clustering steel columns and beams in the core,
engineers create a stiff backbone that can resist
tremendous wind forces. The inner core is used as an
elevator shaft , and the design allows lots of open space
on each floor
EXTERIOR STRUCTURES
In newer skyscrapers, like the Sears Tower in Chicago,
engineers moved the columns and beams from the core
to the perimeter, creating a hollow, rigid tube as
strong as the core design, but weighing much, much
less.
INTERIOR STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
 1)RIGID FRAME
Can build up to 20 to 25 floors
 2)SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE
Can build up to 35 Floors
 3)OUTRIGGER STRUCTURES
An build up to 150 floors

Seagram b
INTERIOR STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
 1)RIGID FRAME
 A rigid frame in structural engineering is the load-
resisting skeleton constructed with straight or
curved members interconnected by
mostly rigid connections which resist
movements induced at the joints of members.
 Its members can take bending moment, shear, and
axial loads.
 Consist of columns and girders joined by moment
resistant connections.
 Can build up to 20 to 25 floors
29 AE331-Arch. Samia Ayyoub Shear wall core

INTERIOR STRUCTURAL
SYSTEM
 2)SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE
 Concrete or masonry continuous
vertical walls may serve both
architecturally partitions and structurally
to carry gravity and lateral loading.
 Very high in plane stiffness and strength
make them ideally suited for bracing tall
building
 Usually built as the core of the building
 Can build up to 35 Floors

Shear wall system
•
•

Shangai World
financial centre
3)OUTRIGGER STRUCTURES
 The core may be centrally located with
outriggers extending on both sides or in
some cases it may be located on one side of
the building with outriggers extending to the
building columns on the other side
 The outriggers are generally in the form
of trusses (1 or 2 story deep) in steel
structures, or walls in concrete structures,
that effectively act as stiff headers inducing a
tension-compression couple in the outer
columns.
 Belt trusses are often provided to distribute
these tensile and compressive forces to a large
number of exterior frame columns.
 An build up to 150 floors

What is outrigger system?
 The outrigger system is one type of system which is
formed. from cantilever-shape horizontal member
connected to a. structure's inner core and outer columns.
34
BELT TRUSS SYSTEM SHANGHAI TOWER
MEGA
STUCTURE

EXTERIOR STRUCTURES
 1)Tube system
The different tubular systems are:
 a)Framed tube b)Braced tube c)Bundled tube
d)Tube in tube
 2)Dia-grid systems
3)Space truss
 4)Exo skeleton structure
 5)Super frame structures

EXTERIOR STRUCTURES
 1)Tube system
 The tube system concept is based on the idea that a
building can be designed to resist lateral loads by designing
it a shallow cantilever perpendicular to the ground.
 In the simplest incarnation )‫ (تجسيد‬of the tube, the perimeter
of the exterior consists of closely spaced columns that are
tied together with deep spandrel beams through
moment connections.
 This assembly ( ‫ )تجميع‬of columns and beams forms a rigid
frame that amounts to a dense and strong structural
wall along the exterior of the building.
 The different tubular systems are-
 1)Framed tube 2)Braced tube 3)Bundled tube
4)Tube in tube

The different
tubular
systems are-
The different tubular

systems are-
1)Framed tube
2)Braced tube
3)Bundled tube
4)Tube in tube

FRAMED-TUBE STRUCTURES]
The lateral resistant of the framed-tube
structures is provided by very stiff
moment-resistant frames that form a
“tube” around the perimeter of the building.Dewitt
chestnut
The frames consist of 6-12 ft (2-4m)
between centers, joined by deep spandrel
girders.
Gravity loading is shared between the tube
and interior column or walls.
The tube form was developed originally for
building of rectangular plan, and probably it‟s
most efficient use in that shape.

THE TRUSSED TUBE
The trussed tube system represents a classic solution
for a tube uniquely suited to the qualities and
character of structural steel.
Interconnect all exterior columns to form a rigid

box, which can resist lateral shears by axial in
its members rather than through flexure.
Introducing a minimum
number of diagonals
on each façade and
making the diagonal
intersect at the same
point at the corner
column John Hancock
Center introduced
trussed tube design.

BUNDLED TUBE SYSTEM
The concept allows for wider
column spacing in the tubular
walls than would be possible
Sears Tower, Chicago.
with only the exterior frame
tube form.
The spacing which make it Burj Khalifa, Dubai.
possible to place interior

frame lines without seriously
compromising interior space
planning.
The ability to modulate the

cells vertically can create a
powerful vocabulary for a
variety of dynamic shapes
therefore offers great latitude
in architectural planning of at
all building.
TUBE-IN-TUBE SYSTEM
Lumbago Tatung
This variation of the framed tube Haji Building,
consists of an outer frame tube, Kuala Lumpur
the “Hull,” together
with an internal elevator and
service core.
The Hull and core act jointly
in resisting both gravity and
lateral loading.
The outer framed tube and the
inner core interact horizontally as
the shear and flexural components
of a wall-frame structure, with the
benefit of increased lateral
stiffness.
The structural tube usually adopts
a highly dominant role because of
its much greater structural depth.

Hearst tower , New
2)Dia-grid systems York
 With their structural efficiency as a varied version of the tubular systems, dia-
grid structures have been emerging as a new aesthetic trend for tall buildings in
this era of pluralistic styles.
 Early designs of tall buildings recognized the effectiveness of diagonal bracing
members in resisting lateral forces.
 Most of the structural systems deployed for early tall buildings were steel frames
with diagonal bracings of various configurations such as X, K, and chevron.
However, while the structural importance of diagonals was well
recognized, the aesthetic potential of them was not appreciated since
they were considered obstructive for viewing the outdoors.
 Efficiently resists lateral shear by axial forces in the diagonal members
but have Complicated joints

3)Space truss
 Space truss structures are
modified braced tubes with
diagonals connecting the
exterior to interior.
 In a typical braced tube structure, all
the diagonals, which connect the
chord members – vertical corner
columns in general, are located on
the plane parallel to the facades.
 However, in space trusses, some
diagonals penetrate(break in) the
interior of the building. Bank of China, Hong Kong

 4)Exo skeleton structure
 In exoskeleton structures, lateral
load-resisting systems are placed
outside the building lines away
from their facades.
 Due to the system‟s compositional
characteristics, it acts as a primary
building identifier – one of the major
roles of building facades in general
cases.
 Fire proofing of the system is not a
serious issue due to its location
outside the building line.
Hotel de las Atres

5)Super frame structures
 Superframe structures can create ultra

high-rise buildings up to 160 floors.
 Super frames or Mega frames assume
the form of a portal which is provided on
the exterior of a building.
 The frames resist all wind forces as
an exterior tubular structure.
 The portal frame of the Super frame is
composed of vertical legs in each
corner of the building which are linked
by horizontal elements at about every
12 to 14 floors.
 Since the vertical elements are
concentrated in the corner areas of the
building, maximum efficiency is obtained for
resisting wind forces.

STRUCTURAL CONCERNS
Fighting gravity
•The weight of the building is supported by a
group of vertical columns
• Each floor is supported by horizontal steel
girders running between vertical columns.
•Curtain wall made of steel and concrete
attaches to the outside
Wind resistance
•Buildings taller than 10 stories would generally require additional steel for
lateral system.
•The most basic method for controlling horizontal sway(bend) is to
simply tighten up the structure. At the point where the horizontal girders
attach to the vertical column, the construction crew bolt: and welds them on
the top and bottom. as well as the side. This makes the entire steel super
structure move more as one unit, like a pole, as opposed to a flexible skeleton.

Example01 : Commerzbank: Frankfurt, Germany, Norman Foster
• Winter gardens allow vast amounts of light deep within the building and
provide pleasant views to those working deeper within the building.
• Creating a central atrium space in a high rise building
• Centralized core area for circulation, mechanical, and other basic building
needs.
• The core functions were pushed to the outer corners of the building to make
way for the atrium space.
•! Winter gardens had to be rotated around the facade of the building.
Assignment 01: )10 points )
 A case study of a High rise building
 Assignment requirements
 Each student as individual or a group not more than 2 students will research about
one High-rise building and paper a summary file in which they should mansion the
flowing points by text, sketches or images :
 Define the building ( name, location, designer, year of construction …)
 The concept of the design
 The main program or the functions of the spaces
 The main structural system & the materials
 The idea of sustainability in the building
 write the references ( book,..website .etc)
 Submission data and date
 The submission by not more than (5-6) slides (power point or pdf file ) and print
out by A4 size papers fixed as a file with the cover page
 All the groups will submit hard copy printed on A4 size fixed as a file
 and a softcopy by : E-learning
 write the subject of the email AE331-Assignment 01
 Don’t forgot your name and the students' number.
 Last 58
day for submission due to :8/11/2018
What materials are used to build
skyscrapers?
 Foundations are almost certainly going to be reinforced concrete,
that is concrete with reinforcing steel.
 The main framing system is most likely to be steel. There are many
ways to arrange the beams or trusses but they are probably going to
be steel.
 Elevator and stair shafts are usually made out
of concrete reinforced with steel. The floors are usually cast in
place concrete.
 Many components, like glass store fronts, are made of glass held in
place by metals like aluminium or light gauge steel.
 The mechanical units, ducts, drainpipes and such are made of all
kinds of metals, including steel, tin, copper even gold could be
found in circuit boards. Pressurized water pipes can be copper but
many times are made of plastic. There are different kinds of
plastics, PVC is very different than flexible pipes such as PEX.
What materials are used to build
skyscrapers?
 The interior finishes can be composed of just about any
material imaginable, from gold toilets, granite counter tops
to every imaginable species of wood.
 The roof is typically a concrete slab on a steel deck covered
in a waterproof product of some sort that's
either petroleum based or perhaps a synthetic material.
 Lastly tall buildings commonly have some sort of antennae
places on top, this is likely composed of structural steel.
 In summary, sky-scrappers are mostly concrete and steel shells
put together to house a host of materials collected from all
across the face of the earth.

Service areas
 Corridors , staircases, elevators, heating systems, air
conditioning and electrical systems belong to the most
important inner elements of a skyscraper.
 Although the outside structure can be completed in a few
weeks it may take years to finish the whole building.
 Pumps bring clean water to all parts of the
skyscraper, the drainage system carries away water
and waste materials.
 Air conditioning and heating systems control the
temperature in the building the whole year round.
 Electrical systems provide power and communication
throughout the building and wires carry electricity to each
floor.
 Elevators are the most important systems of a skyscraper.
They carry people up and down at speeds of up to 500
meters per minute.
Construction materials
Materials used for high rise buildings: concrete, steel, glass, cladding material,
high alumina cement used for roofs & floors. It contains bauxite instead of clay,
cement, Portland cement of lime stone, silica.
CONCRETE:-
Advantages are: cellular concrete of clay-gypsum & invention of
 Plasticity light weight concrete. ‫خرسانة مسامية‬
 Easily availability FERRO CONCRETE:-it is layer of fine mesh
 Easy in casting saturated with cement.
 Non corrosive GUNITE:- it is also known as shot Crete.
 Can be cast in situ compressed air to shoot concrete onto (or
into) a frame or structure. Shot Crete is
Disadvantages are: frequently used against vertical soil or rock
 Cost of form surfaces, as it eliminates the need for formwork.
 Dead weight GLASS:- float glass with double glass is used in tall
 Difficulty in pouring buildings .
Tempered glass is used in tall buildings instead
of plain glass, as that would shatter at such height.
62
Foundation Types
• Raft foundation: one of the most common foundation. It is known for its load
distributing capability. With the usage of this type of foundation the enormous load of the building
gets distributed & helps the building stay upright and sturdy. Loads are transferred by raft into the
ground.
• Pile foundation: used for high rise construction. load
of building is distributed to the ground with the help
of piles. Transfer the loads into the ground with an
Adequate factor of safety.
• Combined raft-pile: is the hybrid of 2 foundation. It
Consists of both the pile and raft foundation. Useful
in marshy sandy soil that has low bearing capacity.

CONSTUCTION METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
slip form construction is a construction method in
which concrete is poured into a continuously moving form. Slip
forming is used for tall structures (such as bridges, towers,
buildings, and dams), as well as horizontal structures, such as
roadways.
characteristics to piecewise construction using detached form
elements. Slip forming relies on the quick-setting properties of
concrete, and requires a balance between quick-setting capacity
and workability. Concrete needs to be workable enough to be
placed into the form and consolidated (via vibration), yet quick-
setting enough to emerge from the form with strength.
In vertical slip forming the concrete form may be surrounded
by a platform on which workers stand, placing steel reinforcing
rods into the concrete and ensuring a smooth pour. Together,
the concrete form and working platform are raised by
means of hydraulic jacks. Generally, the slip form rises at a rate
which permits the concrete to harden by the time it emerges
from the bottom of the form
SLIP FORM CONSTRUCTION
Slipforming is an economical, rapid and accurate

method of constructing reinforced concrete. At its
most basic level, slipforming is a type of movable
formwork which is slowly raised,
allowing
65 the continuous extrusion of concrete. AE331-Arch. Samia Ayyoub
CLIMB FORM CONSTRUCTION
CLIMB FORM CONSTRUCTION

is an economical, rapid and accurate method of constructing reinforced
concrete, or post-tensioned concrete structures. At its most basic level,
slipforming is a type of movable formwork which is slowly raised, allowing
the continuous extrusion of concrete.
TABLE FORM/FLYING FORM
A table form/flying form is a large pre-
assembled formwork and false work unit,
often forming a complete bay of
suspended floor slab.
It offers mobility and quick
installation for construction projects
with regular plan layouts or long repetitive
structures, so is highly suitable for flat slab,
and beam and slab layouts. It is routinely
used for residential flats, hotels, hostels,
offices and commercial buildings.

SYSTEM COLUMN FORMWORK
The column formwork systems now available are normally
modular in nature and allow quick assembly and erection
on-site while minimizing labor and crane time.
They are available in steel, aluminium and even cardboard
(not reusable but recycled) and have a variety of internal
face surfaces depending on the concrete finish required.
Innovations have led to adjustable, reusable column forms
which can be clamped on-site to give different
column sizes.

VERTICAL PANEL SYSTEMS
Crane-lifted panel systems are
commonly used on building sites to form vertical
elements and usually consist of a steel frame with
plywood, steel, plastic or composite facing material.
The systems are normally modular in nature,
assembly times and labor costs are considerably
lower than
traditional formwork methods with far fewer
components required.
They offer greater opportunities for reuse for
different applications on site.
Panel systems are extremely flexible and the larger
crane-lifted versions can be used for constructing
standard concrete walls, perimeter basement walls,
columns and in conjunction with jump form
climbing systems.

JUMP FORM SYSTEMS
jump form systems comprise the formwork and
working platforms for cleaning/fixing of the
formwork, steel fixing and concreting.
The formwork supports itself on the concrete cast
earlier so does not rely on support or access from
other parts of the building or permanent works.
Jump form, here taken to include systems often
described as climbing form, is suitable for construction
of multi-storey vertical concrete elements in high-rise
structures, such as shear walls, core walls, lift
shafts, stair
Systems are normally modular and can be joined to
form long lengths to suit varying construction
geometries. Three types of jump form are in
general use:
TYPES OF JUMP FORM
Normal jump/climbing form –
units are individually lifted off the structure and
relocated at the next construction level using a
crane.
Guided-climbing jump form –

also uses a crane but
offers greater safety and control during lifting as units
remain anchored/guided by the structure.
Self-climbing jump form –

does not require a crane as
it climbs on rails up the building by means of hydraulic
jacks, or by jacking the platforms off internal recesses
in the structure. It is possible to link the hydraulic jacks and lift
multiple
71 units in a single operation.
TUNNEL FORM
Tunnel form is used to form
repetitive cellular structures,
and is widely recognized as a
modern innovation that
enables the construction of
horizontal and vertical
elements (walls and floors) together.
Significant productivity benefits have
been achieved by using tunnel form
to construct cellular
buildings such as hotels, low- and
high-rise housing,
hostels, student accommodation,
prison and barracks
accommodation.

Thanks

The world’s tallest buildings
Nakheel Tower

 Designed for Dubai by Woods Bagot, the Nakheel
Tower is planned to be the world‟s tallest skyscraper. The
towering spire would stand over a kilometer tall,
measuring in at 1,400 meters (4,593 ft) and putting
the Burj Khalifa to shame. The tower is part of a much
larger marina development in Dubai and also designed
to LEED standards

Nakheel Tower
Nakheel Tower
 The project is part of a large 270-hectare mixed –use development called

Nakheel Harbour.
 The tower was designed to serve as Dubai‟s new capital building and it is
adorned with Islamic design elements. Shopping districts, residences, offices,
and public parks will make the area a thriving cultural hub.
 To achieve a height of over 1,400 meters, the tower features an Islamic
building typology that divides the Tower into four cores, with slots in the
middle up near the top.
 These slots allow wind to pass through the building, reducing the wind load
and allowing for uniformly-sized floor plates to be used the whole way up.
The vertical city will be a LEED certified eco-tower and include black water
treatment, storm water harvesting, reuse of fire test water, solar panels, wind
turbines, and high-voltage power distribution.
 Construction is currently on hold and there is no word on when it may
start. The entire development is estimated to take 10 years to build.

Kingdom
Tower in Jedd
ah, Saudi
Arabia,

Kingdom Tower in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
 Today AS+GC Design Firm in Chicago, announced that
they will be designing The Kingdom Tower in Jeddah,
Saudi Arabia, to be the tallest in the world. At
over 1,000 meters (3,280 feet) and a total construction
area of 530,000 square meters (5.7 million square feet),
Kingdom Tower will be the centerpiece and first
construction phase of the $20 billion Kingdom water-
front City development in Jeddah, near the Red Sea.
 It will surpass Dubai‟s Burj Khalifa (800 meters) by at
least 173 meters.

Kingdom
Tower in Jed
dah, Saudi
Arabia
 Expected to cost $1.2
billion to construct,
Kingdom Tower will be a
mixed-use building
featuring a luxury hotel,
office space, serviced
apartments, luxury
condominiums and the
world‟s highest
observatory.

Burj Mubarak al-Kabir tower
 Burj Mubarak al-Kabir tower will take approximately 25
years to complete if it comes to fruition. The plan also
includes a bridge that will eventually link Madinat Al-
Hareer with Kuwait City, which sits across a bay from the
planned location of Madinat Al-Hareer. The Burj Dubai is
already taller than Taipei 101 and will be the tallest free
standing structure ever when completed, that is till Burj
Mubarak al-Kabir comes up.

Burj Mubarak al-Kabir tower

Burj Mubarak Al-Kabir
 Burj Mubarak Al-Kabir will stand 1,001 meters
(3,284 ft). Madinat Al-Hareer is an $86 billion
dollar project built on a natural desert
reservation of 2 square kilometers, a duty free
area, a new airport, plus a large business
center, conference areas, environmental areas,
athletic areas, and areas that concentrate on
media, health, education, and industry are to be
incorporated into the plans.
 The City of Silk will also include numerous
tourist attractions, hotels, spas, and public
gardens.
BURJ KHALIFA, Worlds TALLEST
STRUCTURE

The Burj Khalifa
 The Burj Khalifa is world‟s tallest building touching the sky

in Downtown, Dubai, United Arab Emirates since 2010. Burj
Khalifa itself holds some of world‟s tallest and highest world
records which are pointed bellow.
 It‟s a living example of art, design, and architecture in the
world. It‟s construction was started on September 21, 2004
and completed in 2010 and till now Burj Khalifa is world‟s
tallest skyscraper since 2010.

Kinetics Architecture
AE331-Building Construction 3 Lecture
04
Arch. Samia Ayyoub
Kinetic architecture
 Definition :
 Kinetic architecture is a concept

through which buildings are
designed to allow parts of the
structure to move, without
reducing overall structural integrity.
Sunshades on the Al Bahr Towers, Abu
Dhabi
At Urban Green Council’s recent

Author Talk, Russell Fortmeyer
spoke about “kinetic” facades—
building envelopes that
respond to outside conditions
and the needs of the people
inside. Citing examples of
buildings with mechanical louvers,
Sunshades on the Al Bahr
Towers, Abu Dhabi
The interest in the design and construction of light
and transformable buildings goes back to initial human
civilization.
Yurts (tent ) with opening and closing elements and transformable
components are one of such designs
Leonardo Davinchi is one of the first designers in recent decades that
made activities in this area and studied the design methods of
transformable buildings such as movable bridges.
He applied the movement mechanism existing in the birds’ wings to flight
tools and also for the first movable roof.
Yurts : a circular tent of felt or skins on a collapsible
framework, used by nomads in Arab area, Mongolia, Siberia,
and Turkey
Kinetic architecture ‫البناء الحركي‬
In recent years, due to urgent need for multi-
functional buildings and also the necessity to
maintain and respect to the environment in front of
building's wastes, the demands for transformable and
changeable structures has increased rapidly
The main potential of transformable structures is

that they can accommodate with different
climates, topographies and can take many
desired forms on the basis of the user’s
requirements.
A building's capability for motion can be used just to:
1. Enhance its aesthetic qualities;
2. Respond to environmental conditions;
3. Perform functions that would be impossible for a
static structure.
 The possibilities for practical implementations of

kinetic architecture increased sharply in the late-20th
century due to advances in mechanics, electronics, and
robotics.
Main Criteria for the Design of Flexible
Temporary Buildings
1. Ease of Execution
2. Reuse and Cost Reduction
3. Beauty and Functionality
A temporary structure should be elegantly
designed so that when it is erected it is considered as a
good piece of architecture, structure and art.
4. Expansion and Deployment(Use) and
Transportation
5. Maintenance and Repair
Evaluation of Major
Transformable
Structures Inspired by
Nature
some proposals and transformable buildings inspired by
natural structures and mechanisms
One of the interesting structures made from foldable plate is the roof system
of the Qizhong Stadium which is made of 3 parts:
(1) A huge spatial steel ring-truss of 123 m diameter; 24 m wide, and 7 m high
located on the main reinforced concrete structure.
(2) Eight retractable roof systems on the 123 m-diameter spatial ring truss, each
having 1 fixed shaft and 3 concentric rail systems.
(3) Eight petal-shaped steel pipe roof trusses on the corresponding eight rail
systems, and each petal-shaped roof truss is 72 m long, 48 m wide, and has a
61.5 cantilever length.
Its opening and closing resembles the blooming of a Flower. The
building illustrates the current development in transformable plate
structure design that goes beyond converting an indoor space to an
outdoor one.
It is an example of the potential of spatial frame structures to integrate
technology, science and art.
Type of foldable plate structure, which is
inspired from natural constructions
Qizhong Stadium in Shanghai, China.
Starlight Theatre in America
Other example in this field is the transformable roof
for Starlight Theatre in America
which is realized that it has been inspired from potato’s flower
structure. It has usually five or six petals and foldable gussets
are between individual petals, or other foldable flowers with
fixed mid point
Starlight Theatre in America
Starlight
Theatre in
America
Starlight
Theatre in
America
Building with
foldable plate
 The structure of bones and muscles of animals and
humans can be used in the design of transformable
structures.
 For example Renzo Piano used spider’s leg’s form and
structure of bird’s wings in the Ladybird Travelling
Pavilion and Santiago Calatrava used nearly the same
mechanisms in his design for Kuwait Pavilion
For example Renzo
Piano used spider’s leg’s
form and structure of
bird’s wings in the
Ladybird Travelling
Pavilion
and
Santiago Calatrava used
nearly the same
mechanisms in his design
for Kuwait Pavilion
Kuwait Pavilion Expo'92
Kuwait Pavilion Expo'92
Large moving and had planned to cover
similar and also well out mobile concrete
pavilion Swissbau (Basel, 1989), but with
the advantage of being a circular was
automatically obviating the problem the
ends.
Models come from wing bones and,
therefore, needs overhang, but there is also
the image from the fingernails of Arab
swords, and in its section joint hands to
open and close each other protective ,
according to preliminary drawings by
Santiago Calatrava.
 The project consists of a mobile casing, which in the Kuwait
open position is 25 meters high, making a very visible
among the other flags of the Expo'92. The building, Pavilion
unfortunately in abeyance, has three levels, the lower
house for appliances and air conditioning technicians, Expo'92
and the reception area for special guests and the base
level, with a large lobby and a room of about 400 m2,
with a deck to 5 m above the ground, which were
projected images of Kuwait, and the higher level of
exposure, as outdoor terrace, but that was protected by
the deck moving it was closed during the day to
provide shade within, and open at night so they
could carry out the projections and outdoor
exhibits.
 Andalusia upper patio is accessed by a wide staircase that
is the largest set of monuments.
 Also, to allow passage of natural light into the ground
floor, the floor was made of marble curved translucent
glass glued to safety.
Proposed Materials
For small dimensions, the structure can be
made of composite triangular plates, MDF
or roll able intelligent skins.
It is also possible to make each triangle as a
hollow wooden or metallic frame filled with
different materials ranging from glass to
wood, steel and polymeric fabrics
Detailing and Connections
 To allow circulation, all the parts are connected
by articular connections . In order to allow the
movement in the third dimension (Z axis), hinge
connections, which can be found on spider's
legs or bird wings construction, are used at the
end of all triangular plates .
 In order to fix the corners depends on various
existed technical conditions,
Revolving Buildings, from
Theaters to Skyscrapers
 By: Bianca Bartz - Dec 7, 2009
 Architecture that revolves and rotates is one
of the latest design techniques being used be
eco-conscious builders. This cluster
highlights some of the rotating architecture
that has been designed, and in some cases
already built, around the world.
The key benefits to rotating
architecture are they can
generate kinetic energy as well
as ensure maximum sun
exposure for solar power.
Generates More Energy
Than It Needs
 By: Techno Gadget - Apr 18, 2007
 This house designed by Rolf Disch also

rotate on a central axle.
 The front of the house is composed of
triple-glazed glass to point toward that
glowing ball of gas in the sky during the That's cool!! The solar-
•
winter, while a heavily insulated backside collecting array you see at the
rotates around to keep the heat at bay during top is the reliable source of
those warm summer months. energy of this house. In fact
the house produces more
energy than it requires.
Spain's Solar-Powered B
& W House
 By: Marissa Brassfield - Jan 20, 2009
 The eco-friendly B & W solar-powered house you see in the above

is the work of scientists from the University of Madrid. It's Team
Spain's entry into the Solar Decathlon in Washington, D.C.
The B & W House has a roof equipped with thermal and
photovoltaic solar panels; the roof rotates such that it is
always in the best position to capture sunlight.
 At night, the roof rotates to lie flat, thereby reducing wind
resistance.
This solar-powered house is expected to produce enough energy
to not only power the home, but also donate energy back to the
power grid.
Conclusion
The proposed structure can take different shapes and
configuration and is able to be quickly assembled and
disassembled for temporary applications.
This structure can be built up in different topographical
conditions, and due to it is re- configure ability and
movement of its elements, it can meet different
performances and functions.
The main features and characteristics of this structure are
concluded in Table 1
Evaluation and analysis of the
proposed structure
Pre-cast
Construction
Lecture 05
Arch. Samia Ayyoub
Introduction
 The concept of precast structures also known as
prefabricated/ modular structures.
 The structural components are standardized and
produced in plants ‫ مصنع‬in a location away from the
building site.
 Then transported to the site for assembly.‫تجميع‬
 The components are manufactured by industrial
methods based on mass production in order to
build a large number of buildings in a short time
at low cost.
2
15 PRECAST CONCRETE FRAMING SYSTEMS
Plant-Cast Precast Concrete
 Concrete elements, cast and cured in a manufacturing plant,
then transported to the construction site.
 Plant casting allows increased efficiency and higher quality
control.
 Durable, permanent steel forms are reused many times, reducing
formwork costs compared to sitecast concrete.
 Use of Type III, high early strength cement and steam curing allow
concrete members to be cast and cured in as little as 24 hours.
 Controlled casting conditions and high quality forms allow for
greater control of surface finishes.
Plant-Cast Precast Concrete
 Structural elements are
commonly reinforced
with tightly stretched
pre-tensioned steel
strands, which provide
increased structural
efficiency.
 Conventional steel
reinforcing is added for
resistance to thermal
and other secondary
stresses.
15 PRECAST CONCRETE FRAMING SYSTEMS
Plant-Cast Precast
 On the construction site,
precast concrete elements
Concrete
are lifted into place and
assembled into structural
assemblies in a process
similar to that used for
structural steel.
 Compared to site-
cast concrete,
precast concrete
erection is faster
and less affected by
adverse weather
conditions.
A vacuum lifting device is used to lift and place precast
concrete pranks.
Why prefabricated or precast or /
modular structure?
1. Speed
2. Quality
3. Safety
4. Skills
5. Sustainability
6. Cost
Comparison
Site-cast Precast at plant
 no transportation  transportation and
 the size limitation is elevation capacity limits
depending on the elevation the size-
capacity only  higher, industrialized
 lower quality because quality – less affected by
directly affected by weather
weather  no space requirement on
 proper, large free space the site for fabrication
required  unlimited opportunities of
architectural appearance
 option of standardized
components
7
PRECAST,
PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE
STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS
Design concept for precast
concrete buildings
 The design
concept of the
precast buildings
is based on
 1.build ability.
 2.economy
3.standardization
of precast
components.
9
Foundations :
Specially designed reinforced concrete isolated
footings
Foundations:
Foundations : 
Columns
 Reinforced concrete columns are provided with
adequate corbels in multi-storied buildings to
support the main girders and the spandrel beams.
Pre-stressed concrete columns might also be
manufactured.
PRECAST, PRESTRESSED CONCRETE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
Precast Concrete Columns and Wall Panels
 Provide support for beam

and slab elements.
 Since these elements
carry mainly axial loads
with little bending force,
they may be
conventionally reinforced
without prestressing.
 Or, long, slender
multistory elements may
be prestressed to provide
resistance to bending
forces during handling
and erection (columns at
right).
Columns
corbels
adequate corbels
Precast Concrete Columns and Wall Panels
 Precast concrete wall panels may be

solid (right), hollow, or sandwiched
(with an insulating core).
 Wall panels can be ribbed, to
increase their vertical span capacity
while minimizing weight, or formed
into other special shapes (below).
Beams
 Reinforced as well as pre-stressed concrete
beams are currently produced, allowing large free
spans.
Precast Concrete Beams and Girders
 Provide support for slabs.
 The projecting reinforcing bars will bond with concrete cast
on site.
 Right: Inverted tee beams supported by precast columns.
Beams
Roofing Elements
 These include reinforced concrete
slabs, hollow core, single or
double-tee pre-stressed slabs and
special section pre-stressed slabs
for special projects.
 Hollow core slabs are produced
currently in 20 cm and 35 cm
thickness. They can span efficiently
in multi-storied buildings up to 16
m.
 Hollow core slabs in 25 cm and 50
cm thickness could also be
produced allowing free spans up to
20 m.
Precast Concrete Slabs
 Used for floor and roof decks.
 Deeper elements (toward the right
below) span further than those that
are shallower (toward the left).
 Right: Hollow core slabs stacked at
the pre-casting plant.
Roofing
Elements
Internal and External walls
 Internal Walls poured in batteries are
produced with both their sides fair-faced.
Electrical conduits(‫ )قناة‬and boxes may be
placed within the walls prior to their pouring.
 External walls are poured on horizontal
tilting tables and may reach up to 12 m in
length and 4.25 m in height. For projects
requiring heights larger than 4.25 m, the wall
elements are made with a width less than
4.25 m and to the required length.
Internal and
External
walls
Sandwich panels
 Sandwich panels are currently
produced with an intermediary
layer of expanded polystyrene
sheets 3 to 7 cm thick to
insure the thermal insulation
required by the most stringent
building codes.
 .
Various external finishes
might be produced:
 - Smooth or textured fair-faced surfaces.

 - Washed aggregate surface.
 - Natural stone, marble or ceramic facing.
 The internal surfaces of the wall are
smoothed so as to be ready for paint after
erection therefore eliminating the high cost of
plaster
Retaining walls
 cantilever type retaining walls as
high as 16 m. The retaining wall is
poured as one piece together with
its foundation.
Precast stairs and landings
 In large projects, precast stairs and landings
allow for significant cuts in cost and in
execution time. Such elements were
produced and used successfully in
residential, commercial and industrial
projects.
Other Precast Concrete Elements
 Precast concrete stairs (below)
 Uniquely shaped structural
elements for a sports stadium
(right)……Etc.
Boundary walls
 Grooved columns poured
together with their
footings are produced,
allowing a quick and neat
execution of boundary
walls.
Special elements
 Reinforced concrete elements for rainwater
gutters, oil cellars, manholes, stairs or elevator
shafts, chimneys, septic tank cylindrical walls,
lintels, copings, 6m length curbstones,
 Three - dimensional reinforced concrete shafts
and roof elements are currently produced.
Special elements
Assembly Concepts for
Precast Concrete Buildings
 Vertical support can be
provided by precast
columns and beams
(above), wall panels
(below), or a combination of
all three.
 The choice of roof and floor
slab elements depends
mainly on span
requirements.
 Precast slab elements are
frequently also used with
other vertical loadbearing
systems such as sitecast
concrete, reinforced
masonry, or steel.
Assembly Concepts for Precast
Concrete Buildings
Complete precast concrete modular units
where a large quantity of similarly sized

and outfitted rooms are needed
Piles
 Pilings are used to support structures in poor soil

conditions, especially in marine environments, due to
their excellent adaptability and resistance to corrosion.
Exterior finishes,
reveal patterns and
panel shapes
Assembly Concepts for

Precast Concrete
Buildings
 Above: Precast
concrete structure
consisting of solid wall
panels and hollow core
slabs.
 Below: A single story
warehouse consisting
of double tees
supported by insulated
sandwich wall panels.
Assembly
Concepts for
Precast
Concrete
Buildings
 A parking
garage
structure
consisting of
precast double
tees supported
by inverted tee
beams on
hunched
columns.
Planning traffic route
 How long transporter • Is
route permission
vehicle is required? required?
 What is the required load
capacity of the transporter
vehicle?
 What is the maximum
vertical extension of the
shipment
 Routs on the site
40
Equipments
cranes:
 mobile crane
 tower crane (above
3stories)
lifting tools:
 spreader beams
 wire rope slings
rigging tools:
 eye bolt
 shakles
41
 hooks
Advantages
 Quick erection times
 Possibility of conversion, disassembling
and moving to another site
 Possibility of erection in areas where a
traditional construction practice is not possible
or difficult
 Low labor intensively‫شديد‬
 Reduce wastage of materials
 Easier management of construction sites
 Better overall construction quality
 Ideal fit for simple and complex structures
42
Limitations
 size of the units.
 location of window openings has a limited variety.
 joint details are predefined.
 site access and storage capacity.
 require high quality control.
 enable interaction between design phase and
production planning.
 difficult to handling & transporting.
43
Economy:
 Economy in precast is achieved due to the
following:
1. - Economy on molds and workmanship for
highly repetitive elements or for hollow core slabs.
2. - Economy on materials due to the use of high
quality concretes and pre-stressing techniques.
3. - Economy on scaffoldings (‫ )سقاالت‬if precast
cladding is used in high rise buildings.
4. - Substantial economy of For instance roof or
cladding elements of a fifth floor in a building
might be produced when the foundations on site
have not been yet completed.
Economy:
5. Cutting down in the execution time of a
project leads automatically to a more feasible
project.
These benefits are achieved by early completion

which means early occupancy or operation and
reduced total project cost.
The execution time of large projects may be cut by
several months and sometimes up to several
years.
Some projects in Jordan
 Housing Projects in Amman area comprising more than
1500 apartments
 The Royal National Geographic Center (20,000 m² in
Jubeiha, near Amman)
 Boscan International Factory (30,000 m² - Prince Hassan
Industrial Estate - Irbid)
 Jordache Factory (30,000 m² - Prince Hassan Industrial
Estate - Irbid)
 Falcon Jordanian International Garment Factory (36,000 m² -
Prince Hassan Industrial Estate - Irbid)
 United Creation Garment Factory - Phase I (11,000 m²- Duleil
Industrial Park)
 Borj Al-Asad Factory (10,000 m² - Prince Hassan Industrial
Estate - Irbid)
 Cozmo Center (10,000 m² - 7th Circle - Amman)
 Rainbow Textiles Garment Factory (6,000 m² - Duleil
Industrial Park)
Some projects in Jordan
 International Tobacco And Cigarettes Company Warehouses (6,000 m² -
Naour, near Amman)
 Mecca Mall (49,000 m² - Macca Street - Amman)
 United Creation Garment Factory - Phase II (9,000 m² - Duleil
Industrial Park)
 4 floor underground Parking at the Jordan Gate project
 Kindergarten De La Salle Project
 Modern Arab Distribution Company Warehouse Project – Mqablein
 Modern Arab Distribution Company Warehouse Project – Qastal
 Expansion of Midas Furniture Project
 Jordan Hospital External Clinic Extension
 Al Taqaddom Pharmaceutical Industries Warehouse
 Hammoudeh Plastic Container Factory – Mafraq
 The Arab Company for the manufacture of electronic
devices Factory and Warehouse Project
 Gallery Mercedes-Benz showroom Project
 Pre-stressed/Post-tensioned beams for the new Abdali Intersection
 Many small projects including housing buildings for workers,
factories, commercial buildings, stadiums and pedestrian over-passes
Projects Mercedes -Benz
Examples….
The hospital will feature multi-trade prefabricated racks in the corridors, an

approach that is still new in the U.S.
49
50
Miami Valley Hospital Dayton,OH
MANUFACTURING OF
PRECAST CONCRETE
STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS
ELEMENTS
Casting Hollow
Core Planks
 Precast elements are
manufactured in casting
beds, 800 ft or more in
length.
 High-strength steel
strands are strung the
length of the bed and
tensioned.
 Conventional reinforcing,  Un-tensioned pre-stressing strands
weld plates, block outs,
lifting loops, and other
embedded items are
added as needed.
 Concrete is placed.
MANUFACTURING OF PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
Pre-stressing and Reinforcing Steel
 Many precast
elements
contain both
pre-stressing
strands and
conventional
reinforcing.
Casting Hollow
Core Planks
 Individual
sections are
lifted from the
casting bed and
stockpiled to
await shipping
to the
construction
site.
Casting Hollow Core

Planks
 Precast concrete
elements are shipped
to the construction site
by truck and erected on
site by crane.
Casting Hollow
Core Planks
 Sample hollow
core slab
sections of
varying depths.
 At bottom left,
note the
insulated
sandwich floor
panel.
JOINING PRECAST
CONCRETE ELMENTS
Example Column-to-Column Connection
 Metal bearing plates and embedded anchor (attach) bolts are
cast into the ends of the columns.
 After the columns are mechanically joined, the connection is
grouted(‫ ) مالط رقيق‬to provide full bearing between elements and
protect the metal components from fire and corrosion.
JOINING PRECAST CONCRETE ELEMENTS
Example Beam-to-Column Connection
 Beams are set

on bearing pads
on the column
corbels.
 Steel angles are
welded to metal
plates cast into
the beams and
columns and
the joint is
grouted solid.
Connection concepts and types of connections
Beam To Column With Corbel
Beam to
column
connection
63
Example Slab-to-Beam Connection
 Hollow core slabs

are set on bearing
pads on precast
beams. Site-cast
 Steel reinforcing
bars are in inserted
into the slab
keyways to span
the joint.
 The joint is grouted
solid.
 The slab may
remain untopped
as shown, or
topped with several
inches of cast in
place concrete.
Site-cast Concrete Toppings over Precast Slabs
 Greater floor
strength and
stiffness
 Greater fire
resistance
 Greater acoustic
isolation
 Allow easy
integration of
electrical
services into
floor system
 Create a
smoother, flatter
floor surface.
Wall to slab connection
Precast concrete structure consisting of

66 solid wall panels and hollow core slabs.
Precast Concrete Construction and Seismic
Design
 In areas of high
seismic risk, structures
must be designed to
respond safely to the
dynamic forces
imparted into the
structure.
 Innovations in joint
design are improving
the connection
systems in precast
concrete structures
and making them
increasingly suitable A large scale test facility for simulating seismic forces on
for use in such areas. precast concrete structural systems.
Conclusion
oThe use of prefabrication and preassembly is
estimated to have almost doubled in the last 15
years, increasing by 86%.
oThe use of precast concrete construction can
significantly reduce the amount of construction waste
generated on construction sites.
o Reduce adverse environmental impact on sites.
o Enhance quality control of concreting work.
o Reduce the amount of site labour.
o Increase worker safety .
o Other impediments to prefabrication and
preassembly are increased transportation
difficulties, greater inflexibility, and more advanced
68 procurement requirements.
PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Lecture 07
Arch. Samia Ayyoub
Introduction
Reinforced concrete:
 Concrete is strong in compression weak in tension.
 Steel in strong in tension
 Reinforced concrete uses concrete to resist compression

and to hold bars in position and uses steel to resist tension.
 Tensile strength of concrete is neglected (i.e. zero )
 R.C beams allows crack under service load.

What is pre-stressed concrete?
• Pre stressed concrete is a method for
overcoming concrete's natural
weakness in tension.
 It can be used to produce beams, floors or
bridges with a longer span than is practical
with ordinary reinforced concrete
What is pre-stressed concrete?
Pre stressing tendons (generally of high tensile
steel cable or rods) are used to provide a clamping
load which produces a compressive stress that
balances the tensile stress that the concrete
compression member would otherwise experience
due to a bending load.
Traditional reinforced concrete is based on the use of
steel reinforcement bars, re bars, inside poured
concrete.
Pre-stressed Concrete
• What is Pre-stressed Concrete?:
– Internal stresses are induced(
encourage) to counteract external
stresses.
– In 1904, Freyssinet attempted to
introduce permanent acting forces in
conc. to resist elastic forces
under loads and was named
“Pre stressing”.
The concept of pre stressing was invented
years ago when metal brands were wound
around wooden pieces to form barrels.
The metal brands were tighten under tensile stress

which creates compression between the staves ‫ضلع‬
‫ البرميل‬allowing them to resist internal
liquid pressure.
Principle of pre-stressing:
 Pre-stressing is a method in which compression force is applied to the
reinforced concrete section.
 The effect of pre stressing is to reduce the tensile

stress in the section to the point till the tensile
stress is below the cracking stress. Thus the concrete
does not crack.
 It is then possible to treat concrete as a elastic material.
 The concrete can be visualized to have two compressive
force
▪ i . Internal pre-stressing force.
▪ ii . External forces
 These two forces must counteract each other.
Pre-stressed Concrete: Methods
 There are two basic methods of applying
pre-stress to a concrete member
 Pre-tensioning – most often used in

factory situations
 Post-tensioning – site use

I. Pre-tensioning
In Pre-tension, the tendons are tensioned against some ‫االوتار‬
abutments* before the concrete is place. After the concrete
hardened, the tension force is released.
The tendon tries to shrink back to the initial length but the
concrete resists it through the bond between them, thus,
compression force is induced(generate) in concrete.
Pretension is usually done with precast member
*a structure built to support the lateral pressure of an arch or span, e.g., at the ends of a
bridge
Pre-tensioned concrete
In pre – tensioning system, the high- strength steel
tendons are pulled between two end abutments (also
called bulkheads) prior to the casting of concrete.
The abutments are fixed at the end pre stressing bed
Once the concrete attains the desires strength for pre
stressing, the tendon are cut loose from the abutments. The pre
stress is transferred to the concrete from the tendons,
due the bond between them
During the transfer of pre stress, the member undergoes elastic
shortening. If the tendons are located eccentrically‫ خارج المركز‬, the member
is likely to bend and deflect .
The various stages of the pre-tensioning
operation are summarized as follows :
Anchoring of
tendons against Placing of
the end jacks
abutments
Applying
Cutting of
tension to
the
the tendons
tendons
Casting of
concrete
II . Post tensioning
 Post-Tensioning Construction Basics
 Construction of post-tensioned slabs on grade is very similar to
using reinforcing steel, except for the tensioning step. Cables are
arranged as indicated by the engineer and chaired to run through
the center of the slab.
 Stressing should only be done by qualified workers. After stressing,
the tendon is cut off and the pocket in which the anchors are
located is filled with grout to protect them from corrosion.
II . Post tensioning
 In Post tension, the tendons are tensioned after the
concrete has hardened. Commonly, metal or plastic
ducts are placed inside the concrete before casting.
After the concrete hardened and had enough strength, the
tendon was placed inside the duct, stressed, and anchored against
concrete.
Grout may be injected into the duct later. This can be done either as
precast or cast-in-place.
What is Post-Tensioning
 Post tensioning is a technique for reinforcing concrete.
 Post-tensioning tendons, which are pre-stressing steel
cables inside plastic ducts or sleeves, are positioned in
the forms before the concrete is placed. Afterwards,
once the concrete has gained strength but before
the service loads are applied, the cables are pulled
tight, or tensioned, and anchored(attach) against
the outer edges of the concrete.
Post tensioning
Tendon (cable) tails after tensioning.The cables are pulled to

33,000 pounds, resulting in 8 inches of elongation in a 100-
foot cable.
What is Post-Tensioning ‫بعد الشد‬
 Post-tensioning is a form of pre-stressing.
 Pre-stressing simply means that the steel is stressed
(pulled or tensioned) before the concrete has to
support the service loads.
 Most precast, pre-stressed concrete is actually pre-tensioned-
the steel is pulled before the concrete is poured.
 Post-tensioned concrete means that the concrete is poured
and then the tension is applied-but it is still stressed before
the loads are applied so it is still pre-stressed.
Post tensioning
Post – tensioned concrete
• Post-tensioning is a method of reinforcing
(strengthening) concrete or other materials with
high-strength steel strands or bars, typically referred
to as tendons
• Post-tensioning applications include office and
apartment buildings, parking structures, slabs-on-
ground, bridges, sports stadiums, rock and soil
anchors, and water-tanks
The lower and upper terraces cantilever over
APPLICATIONS the stream below. The temporary structural
steel shoring was placed beneath the main
level terrace.
• Falling water is comprised of
a series of concrete cantilever
“trays” 30-ft. above a waterfall.
• Previous efforts failed to
permanently address excessive
deflections of the cantilever and
repair the cracks. After a thorough
design review
•The owner and engineer
selected an external post-
tensioning solution for its
durability, aesthetics and
structural unobtrusiveness.
Frank Lloyd Wright's Fallingwater

Mill Run, Pennsylvania
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
 PRINCIPLE – Using high tensile strength steel alloys
producing permanent pre-compression in areas
subjected to Tension.
 A portion of tensile stress is counteracted thereby
reducing the cross-sectional area of the steel
reinforcement .
 METHODS :- a) Pre-tensioning
b)Post-tensioning
 PRETENSIONING :- Placing of concrete around
reinforcing tendons that have been stressed to the
desired degree.
 POST-TENSIONING :- Reinforcing tendons are
stretched by jacks whilst keeping them in serted in
voids left pre-hand during curing of concrete.
 These spaces are then pumped full of grout to bond
steel tightly to the concrete.
STEEL BARS BEING STRETCHED
BY JACKS
Advantages Of Both System
• Take full advantages of high strength concrete
and high strength steel
• Need less materials
• Smaller and lighter structure
• No cracks
• Use the entire section to resist the load
• Better corrosion resistance
• Good for water tanks and nuclear plant
• Very effective for deflection control
• Better shear resistance
Post-tensioning, (PT) which is a form of pre-
stressing, has several advantages over
standard reinforcing steel (re-bars):
1. Improving the performance of the building under various
service condition.
2. Allow to carry a greater load or span a greater distance then
ordinary reinforce concrete.
3. It reduces or eliminates shrinkage cracking-
4. It allows slabs and other structural members to be thinner
5. It allows us to build slabs on expansive or soft soils
6. It lets us design longer spans in elevated members, like floors or
beams
Disadvantages compared to RC:
 Need higher quality materials
 More complex technically
 More expensive
 Harder to re-cycle
COLUMM BEAM
KajangSilk –Sg.Ramal Jln Mid-valley
Application:
• Bridges
• Slabs in buildings: where soils are likely
to move (expansive soils)-especially in
the American southwest
• Water Tank
• Concrete Pile
• Thin Shell Structures
• Offshore Platform
• Nuclear Power Plant
• Repair and Rehabilitations
• to resist seismic forces
• Another good application for PT slabs is
producing crack-free Tennis courts .
Hillview interchange_Ulu Klang
Another good application for PT slabs is producing
crack-free Tennis courts
Lecture 07
Arch. Samia Ayyoub
what is
underwater
construction?
Introduction
• During the construction of bridges,
dams or any other structure where the
foundation part of the structure is
most likely to lie underwater,
We have to select underwater

construction
ls
Activities
include:
Underwater
restaurants
and hotels
Activities include
• power generation
• bridges
• water utilities
ship husbandry
‫سفينة حربية‬
• industrial
mining pipeline
• power and gas

transmission
AIATower in Hong Kong 180
m tall 44 floors completed in
1999 65 Caissons
 The famous
Taj Mahal at
Agra stands
on well
foundation.
Underwater construction
techniques
almost any
construction
technique that can be
used above water can
also be used
underwater
underwater construction
techniques
There are a number of
products and materials
that have been
formulated or developed
specifically for
underwater work
Ways concreting under water
 When concreting underwater water works on loose the
cement concrete and result in a lack of resistance and
sour in the surrounding waters.
 For this reason, it uses a type of add-ons called: Ant
washout Admixture which is one of the latest types
of additives on the market today.
 These plug-ins work on the composition of the bulk of
the water in the ocean of granulated cement from
Washes by water is also working to increase the
viscosity and cohesion between the particles of
concrete and improve its resistance to separation
‫صب الخرسانة تحت الماء‬
‫‪ ‬عند صب الخرسانة تحت الماء يعمل الماء على إجتراف‬
‫األسمنت من الخرسانة وينتج عن ذلك نقص في مقاومتها و‬
‫تعكر في المياه المحيطة بها‪ .‬ولهذا السبب يستخدم نوع من‬
‫اإلضافات تسمى ‪Antiwashout Admixture :‬والتي‬
‫تعتبر من أحدث أنواع اإلضافات الموجودة فى األسواق‬
‫حاليا‪ .‬حيث تعمل هذه اإلضافات على تكوين جل فى الماء‬
‫المحيط بحبيبات األسمنت فتحميه من اإلجتراف بفعل الماء‬
‫كما تعمل على زيادة اللزوجة و التماسك بين جزئيات‬
‫الخرسانة و تحسن من مقاومتها لإلنفصال‬
13
underwater construction
techniques
• wet construction
&
• dry construction
wet construction
• a diver
• evaluate the overall
cost of the work
• considering time
• equipment needs
• the capability of a
diver to accomplish
the specific task
• a more gross(unpleasant) than fine nature
Dry construction
caisson
&
cofferdam
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES:
Definition:
Caisson is a French word which
means ‘a large chest or ‘a box’.
Caisson is a waterproof structure made of wood, steel,
R.C.C i.e. reinforced cement constructed in connection
with excavation for the foundation of bridges, piers in
rivers, dock structures etc.
What is a Caisson Foundation?
 A caisson foundation also called as pier foundation is a
watertight retaining structure used as a bridge pier,
in the construction of a concrete dam, or for the repair
of ships. It is a prefabricated hollow
box or cylinder sunk into the
ground to some desired depth and
then filled with concrete thus
forming a foundation.
Types of Caisson Foundations
1. Box Caissons
2. Excavated Caissons
3. Floating Caissons
4. Open Caissons
5. Pneumatic Caissons
6. Sheeted Caissons
1. Box caissons are watertight (waterproof)boxes that are
constructed of heavy timbers and open at the top. They are
generally floated to the appropriate location and then sunk
into place with a masonry pier within it.
2. Excavated caissons are just as the name suggests,

caissons that are placed within an excavated site. These are
usually cylindrical in shape and then back filled with
concrete.
3. Floating caissons are also known as floating docks and

are prefabricated boxes that have cylindrical cavities.
4. Open caissons are small cofferdams that are placed
and then pumped dry and filled with concrete. These are
generally used in the formation of a pier*.
 *A pier: construction a barrier built out to sea to
protect a harbor from heavy waves
5. Pneumatic caissons are large watertight boxes or
cylinders that are mainly used for under water
construction
1. Caissons
 Constructed in such a manner so that the water can
be pumped out
 Watertight( Waterproof) retaining structure .
• Permanent structure
 Used to work on foundation of bridge pier,
construction of concrete dam or for the repair of ships.
 Keeps working environment dry.
 large hollow structure that sunk down through the
earth
USES OF CAISSON
Caissons are more suitable for the deep foundation
under water where the foundation should be extended
up to or below the river bed so as to obtain the proper
stability.
Caissons as type of well foundation is constructed in
rivers and lake, bridges, break water dock structures for
the point of view of shore protection.
When depth of water in river, lake, or sea etc. are more,
then caisson structure is used.
It is also occasionally used for large and multi-storey
building and other structures.
working area of caissons
TYPES OF CAISSON
There are three types of caisson as follows:
Open Caisson.
Box Caisson.
Pneumatic ‫ هوائي‬Caisson.
Open Caisson
Box caisson
Pneumatic Caisson
1. Open Caissons
 An open caisson is a box without top or bottom, made
of timber, metal, or concrete.
 An open caisson has heavy walls and sharp wedge like
edges which allow it to sink with the aid of additional
temporary loads and jets of water while the inside
material is dragged out.
 The sinking of an open caisson proceeds at
atmospheric pressure, and theoretically, there is no
limit to the depths of sinking.
Open Caisson
Types of Caissons
Open caisson
similar to a box caisson but
does not have bottom face
 Used in soft clays not
having large obstructions
beneath
During sinking it may
filled with water
TYPES OF CAISSONS
Open caisson  Similar to box but does not

have bottom face.
 Used in soft clays not having
large obstructions (‫– انسداد‬
grab barrier) beneath.
Ground
 It may fill with water during
water sinking
level
Circumfer
ential gap
shoe
36
Open caisson
Box Caissons
Box caisson is similar to open
caisson, only difference is that it is
closed at the bottom.
 Box caisson is cast and cured
properly on ground and then it is
launched in water by filling sand or
gravel or concrete in the empty spaces.
Types of Caissons
Box caisson
Pre fabricated concrete box, it is set
down on the prepared bases
Once in place it is filled with concrete
as part of placement work
Must be ballasted ( ‫ يفرش بالحصى‬or
anchored– attach )-to prevent this
phenomenon the floating of hollow
concrete structures
TYPES OF CAISSONS
Control post
pontoon
Box caisson
 Prefabricated concrete
box.
 It is set down on
prepared bases
 Once in place Ballast water
 it is filled with concrete

to become part of the
permanent works
40
 Box
Caissons
Box Caissons
Box caisson
TYPES OF CAISSONS
Open caisson
Control post
pontoon
grab
Ground
water Ballast water
level
Circumfer
Box caisson
ential gap
shoe
45
Pneumatic Caissons
 This type of caisson is open at the bottom and close
at the top.
 Pneumatic caisson is specially used at the place
where it is not possible to construct the well.
 It is suitable for the depth of water more than 12 m.
 In the construction of Pneumatic Caisson, the
compressed air is used to remove water from the
working chamber and the foundation work is
carried out in dry condition.
 This type of caisson can be made of timber,
concrete or steel.
Pneumatic Caisson
Pneumatic ‫ هوائي‬Caisson PNEUMATIC CAISSON
• Large inverted box on which pier is built.

• Compressed air is used to keep the water and
mud out.
Used to work on riverbed or quicksand's. •
48
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Caissons:
 Advantages of Caissons:
 Economics
 Minimizes pile cap needs
 Slightly less noise and reduced vibrations
 Easily adaptable to varying site conditions
 High axial and lateral loading capacity
 Disadvantages of Caissons:
 Extremely sensitive to construction procedures

 Not good for contaminated sites (dirty sites)
 Lack of construction expertise
 Lack of Qualified Inspectors
Advantages of Pneumatic Caissons
 Quality control is good because work is done in dry
conditions.
 Slightly less noise and reduced vibrations.
 Easily adaptable to varying site conditions.
 High axial and lateral loading capacity.
 Minimal handling equipment is required for placement
of reinforcing cage.
 Placement is sometimes possible in types of soil that a driven
pile could not penetrate(enter)
 There is direct and easy passage to reach the bottom of
caisson, hence any obstruction can easily be removed.
51
Disadvantages of Pneumatic
Caissons
 There is more chances of caisson diseases to
workmen
 working under high pressure.
 Labor cost is high
 Maximum depth below water table is limited to 30
m to 40 m. Beyond 40 m depth, construction is
not possible.
 There is more chances of caisson diseases to
workmen
Dangers encountered:
 Caisson disease is so named since it appeared in
construction workers when they left the compressed
atmosphere of the caisson and rapidly re entered
normal (decompressed) atmospheric conditions.
 Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge, which was
built with the help of caissons, resulted in many
workers being either killed or permanently injured
by caisson disease during its construction, including
the designer's son and Chief Engineer of the project.
53
Difference between Open Caisson and
Pneumatic Caissons
Caisson foundation(summary )
 A permanent substructure that, while being sunk into position,
permits excavation to proceed inside and also provides protection for
the workers against water pressure and collapse of soil.
 The term caisson covers a wide range of foundation structures.
 Caissons may be open, pneumatic, or floating type; deep or
shallow; large or small; and of circular, square, or rectangular
cross section.
 The walls may consist of timber, temporary or permanent steel shells,
or thin or massive concrete.
 Large caissons are used as foundations for bridge piers, deep-water
wharves, and other structures.
 Small caissons are used singly or in groups to carry such loads as
building columns. Caissons are used where they provide the most
feasible method of passing obstructions, where soil cannot otherwise
be kept out of the bottom, or where cofferdams cannot be used.
 The bottom rim of the caisson is called the cutting edge .The edge is
sharp or narrow and is made of, or faced with, structural steel. The
narrowness of the edge facilitates removal of ground under the shell
and reduces the resistance of the soil to descent of the caisson.
 An open caisson is a shaft open at both ends. It is
used in dry ground or in moderate amounts of water.
 A pneumatic caisson is like a box or cylinder in
shape; but the top is closed and thus compressed air
can be forced inside to keep water and soil from
entering the bottom of the shaft.
 A pneumatic caisson is used where the soil cannot be
excavated through open shafts or where soil conditions
are such that the upward pressure must be balanced.
 A floating or box caisson consists of an open box
with sides and closed bottom, but no top. It is usually
built on shore and floated to the site where it is
weighted and lowered onto a bed previously prepared
by divers
57
Cofferdams ‫سد صندوقي‬
 In an engineering structure, such as a bridge
pier, has to be built in an area covered with
water, e.g. in the middle of a river, the area
where the work has to be done is
surrounded by a cofferdam.
 A cofferdam is a well made of earth
materials, of steel or timber sheet piling,
or a combination of various materials.
Cofferdams: ‫سد صندوقي‬
 Temporary structure
 Built within or in pairs across a body of water
 Allows the enclosed space to be pumped out, creating a dry
work environment .
 Enclosed coffers are commonly used for construction and
repair of oil platforms, bridge piers and other support
structures built within or over water.
 Used for shallow constructions having depth less than
10m.
59
Cofferdam
 Cofferdams are usually welded steel structures. With
components consisting of sheet piles, and
cross braces
 For dam construction, two cofferdams are usually
built, one upstream and one downstream
 A cofferdam involves the interaction of the structure,
soil, and water. The loads imposed include the
hydrostatic forces of the water, as well as the dynamic
forces due to currents and waves.
Components of cofferdam:
 Sheet piling
Sheet piling is a manufactured
construction product with a
mechanical connection “interlock”
at both ends of the section.
These mechanical connections
interlock with one another to form
a continuous wall of sheeting.
Bracing frame
 Brace piling
 Concrete seal
Sheet piles
61
COFFERDAM CONSTRUCTION
SEQUENCE:
1. Pre-dredge ‫ آلة رفع الرمل‬to remove soil or soft sediments ‫الترسبات‬
and level the area of the cofferdam
2. Drive temporary support piles.
3. Temporarily erect bracing frame on the support piles
4. Set steel sheet piles.
5. Drive sheet piles to grade.
6. Block between bracing frame and sheets, and provide ties for sheet
piles at the top as necessary
7. Excavate inside the grade ) position )or slightly below grade, while
leaving the cofferdam full of water
8. Drive bearing
9. Place rock fill as a levelling and support course.
10. Place Tremie concrete seal .
62
Cofferdam construction
sequence(I) .
1. Pre-dredge.
2. Drive support piles; set
prefabricated bracing
frame and hang from
support piles.
3. Set sheet piles; drive sheet
piles; block and tie sheet
piles to top wale.
Cofferdam
construction
sequence(II)
4. Excavate initial
and final grade.
5. Drive bearing piles
in place.
6. Place tremie
concrete.
Cofferdam construction
sequence (III).
7. Check blocking;
dewater; construct footing
block; block between
footing and sheet piles.
8. Remove lower bracing;
construct pier pedestal;
construct pier shaft.
9. Flood cofferdam; pull sheets; remove bracing; backfill
Working inside a cofferdam
DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING GCET JAMMU 66

working area of
cofferdams
ADVANTAGES OF COFFERDAM:
 Allow excavation (digging ) and construction
of structures in otherwise poor environment.
 Provides safe environment to work.
 Contractors typically have design
responsibility.
 Steel sheet piles are easily installed and
removed.
 Materials can typically be reused on other
projects.
68
69
UNDERWATER CONCRETING
It is a process in which the prepared concrete
is poured below the water surface by using
suitable methods.
PLACEMENT
METHODS:
Tremie method. Pump method. Toggle bags. Bags work.
70
placing concrete under water
‫‪TREMIE METHOD‬‬
‫‪ A Tremie is a watertight‬‬ ‫طريقه القادوس (التريميو ‪-‬‬
‫‪pipe‬‬ ‫‪Tremie‬‬
‫و فيها ُتصب الخرسانة من خالل‬
‫‪ Generally 100-250mm in‬‬ ‫قادوس أو قمع متصل بماسورة‬
‫‪dia.‬‬ ‫قطرها من ‪ ١٠‬إلى ‪ ١٥‬سم تصل‬
‫إلى القاع المطلوب صب‬
‫‪ Funnel shaped hopper at‬‬ ‫الخرسانة عليه بحيث يراعى أن‬
‫‪its upper end and a loose‬‬ ‫حافة الماسورة السفلية تكون‬
‫‪plug at the bottom.‬‬ ‫غاطسة فى الخلطة الخرسانية‬
‫على أن ُترفع الماسورة أثناء‬
‫‪ It is supported on a‬‬ ‫الصب بمعدل اليسمح بخروج‬
‫‪working platform above‬‬ ‫الخلطه من الماسوره حتى ال‬
‫تتسرب المياه بداخلها‬
‫‪water level.‬‬
‫‪72‬‬
Laying of concrete by using Tremie
73
Basic principle behind Method Method of underwater

concreting— Tremie
of underwater concreting - method (inside view)
Tremie method
placing concrete under water
The satisfactory method of placing concrete underwater is
by the use of tremie pipe
Tremie method
• A tremie is a water tight pipe
• generally 250 mm in diameter
• capable of easy coupling for increase
or decrease of length
• Funnel (cone) shaped hopper at its
upper end and a loose plug at the
bottom
• the concrete having a very high slump
of about 15 to 20 cm is poured into the
Placing concrete under water
Tremie method
lifted up and slight jerk is given,
so that the concrete gets
discharged
• again concrete is poured over
the funnel, the pipe is slightly
lifted and given jerk
• In this way concrete work is
progressed without stopping till
the concrete level comes above
the water level
Specifications of concrete to
be used in Tremie method:
 Coarse Aggregate: Gravel of 3/4” (20mm) max. size. Use 50-55 %
of the total aggregate by weight.
 Sand, 45-50% of the total aggregate by weight.
 Cement: Type II ASTM (moderate heat of hydration), 600 lbs./yd3
 Water/Cement Ratio: 0.42 (0.45 Maximum).
 Water-Reducing Admixture (preferably it is also plasticizer): Do not
use super plasticizers.
 Air-Entrainment Admixtures: To give 6% total air.
 Retarding Admixture: To increase setting time to 4-24 hours, as
required.
 Slump: 6 1/2" ± 1"
 This mix will develop compressive strength in the range of 5,600 –
7,000 psi at 28 days.
76
PUMP METHOD:
 Pumping concrete directly into
‫ وهى‬- Concrete Pumping ‫طريقه ضخ الخرسانه‬
its final position, involving both ‫تطوير لطريقة القادوس حيث تصب الخرسانة بالضخ عن‬
horizontal and vertical delivery ‫طريق مواسير ممدودة إلى قاع مكان الصب‬
of concrete.
 Pumping concrete has the
advantage of operational
efficiency with potential savings
of time and labour.
 For massive underwater concrete
construction of navigation
structures, the pump method
should be forbidden
77
Togle Bags :
• Toggle bags are ideal for ‫• وفيها يتم وضع خرسانة ذات قوام‬
small amounts of ‫جاف فى أكياس من الجوت سعة كل‬
‫منها واحد متر مكعب تقريبا وتربط‬
concrete placement. ‫األكياس جيدا ثم ترص في مكان‬
• The bag is filled in the ‫الصب في صفوف مترابطة كما في‬
dry with wet concrete ‫حالة بناء الحوائط بحيث تكون‬
‫األكياس في النهاية كتلة واحدة‬
• Used for repair work. .‫متماسكة ومتداخلة‬
• The concrete is
squeezed out by a diver.
Used only in special cases like repair works, etc.
78
Bag work :
• Bags are made of .‫ أكياس مصنوعة من مادة نسج مفتوحة‬
‫ أكياس التعامل مع الغواص وعادة ما‬
open weave material.
‫ لترا قدرة ولكن‬20 ‫ إلى‬10 ‫تكون من‬
• Diver-handled bags ‫ يمكن وضعها‬cub.m 1 ‫أكياس‬
.‫باستخدام رافعة‬
are usually of 10 to 20
litres capacity but
1cub.m bags can be
placed using a crane.
CONCLUSION:
• Cofferdams are temporary structures and
used in cases where the plan area of foundation
is very large, depth of water is less and for the
soft soils, where soils allow easy driving of sheet
piles.
• Caissons are permanent structures and beco
mes economical in cases where the plan area of
foundation is small, large depth of water and for
loose soils.
• Suction caisson anchors are gaining
considerable acceptance in the offshore
industry. 80
CONCLUSION:
 At present, the Tremie placement method is
the standard way of placing high-quality
concrete underwater.
 The other placement method are not able to
reliably place high-quality underwater concrete
for major structures, although they may find
application in special cases.
 For massive underwater concrete construction
of navigation structures, the pump method
should be forbidden.
Large span Structure
Lecture 08
Arch. Samia Ayyoub
SHELLS
• Shell is a type of building enclosures.
• Shells belong to the family of arches . They can be defined as curved or
angled structures capable of transmitting loads in more than two
directions to supports.
• A shell with one curved surface is known as a vault (single curvature ).
• A shell with doubly curved surface is known as a dome (double
curvature).
Classification of shells
• There are many different ways to classify shell
structures but two ways are common:
1. The material which the shell is made of: like

reinforced concrete, plywood or steel, because
each one has different properties that can
determine the shape of the building and
therefore, these characteristics have to be
considered in the design.
2. The shell thickness: shells can be thick or thin.

Thin Concrete Shells
The thin concrete shell structures are a lightweight construction composed of a
relatively thin shell made of reinforced concrete, usually without the use of
internal supports giving an open unobstructed interior.
There are two important factors in the development of the thin concrete
shell structures:
• the shape
The first factor is which was developed along the history of
these constructions. Some shapes were resistant and can be erected easily.
However, the designer’s incessant desire for more ambitious structures did
not stop and new shapes were designed.
• The second factor to be considered in the thin concrete shell
structures is
the thickness, which is usually less
than 10 centimeters. For example, the thickness of
the Hayden planetarium was 7.6 centimeters.
Types of Thin Concrete Shells
1. Barrels shells
2. Hyperbolic Paraboloid (Hypar)
3. Various Double Curvature
4. Dome
5. Translation Shells
6.
1. Barrels shells
The cylindrical thin
shells, also called barrels, should not
be confused with the vaults even with
the huge similarity in the shape of both
structures, because each of these
structures has a different structural
behavior as well as different
requirements in the minimum thickness
and the shape.
• On one hand, the structural behavior of the vault is
based on connected parallel arches, which transmit
the same effort to the supports . Therefore, the
materials used in these structures have to be able to
resists compressions (e.g. stone) and the thickness is
usually higher. Furthermore, the shape of the vaults
must be as similar as possible to the arch in order to
achieve the optimum structural behavior.
• On the other hand, the structural behavior of the

barrels shell is that it carries load longitudinally as a
beam and transversally as an arch. and therefore, the
materials have to resist both compression and tension
stresses. This factor takes advantage of the bars of the
reinforced concrete, because these elements can be
placed where tension forces are needed and
therefore, the span to thickness Ratios can be
increased. Furthermore, the shape has fewer
requirements than the vaults and therefore, new
curves like the ellipse or the parabola can be used
improving the aesthetic quality of the structure.
2. Hyperbolic Paraboloid (Hypar)
A Hypar is a surface curved in two
directions that can be designed as a shell
or warped lattice.
A hypar is triangular, rectangular or

rhomboidal in plan, with corners raised to
the elevation desired for use and/or
appearance. The
edges of
Hypars are typically
restrained by stiff hollow
beams that collect &
transfer roof loads to the Rhomboid
foundations.
3. Various Double Curvature

4. Dome
A rounded roof, with a circular base,
shaped like an arch in all directions..
First used in much of the Middle East
and North Africa whence it spread to
other parts of the Islamic world,
because of its unique form the dome
has, like the minaret, become a symbol
of Islamic architecture.
Dome has double curvature and the

resulting structure is much stiffer and
stronger than a single curved surface,
such as a barrel shell.
5. Translation Shells
A translation shell is a
dome set on four arches.
The shape is different from a
spherical dome and is generated by a
vertical circle moving on another
circle. All vertical slices have the
same radius. It is easier to form than
a spherical dome.
• Advantages of Concrete Shells:
The curved shapes often used for concrete shells are
naturally strong structures.
Shell allowing wide areas to be spanned without the
use of internal supports, giving an open, unobstructed
interior.
The use of concrete as a building material reduces both
materials cost and the construction cost.
As concrete is relatively inexpensive and easily cast into
compound curves.
• Disadvantages of Concrete Shells

Since concrete is porous material, concrete domes often
have issues with sealing (closing ) If not treated,
rainwater can seep through the roof and leak into the
interior of the building.
On the other hand, the seamless construction of concrete
domes prevents air from escaping, and can lead to
buildup of condensation on the inside of the shell.
Shingling or sealants are common solutions to the
problem of exterior moisture, and ventilation can
address condensation.
• Folded plates
Folded plates
Definition
Folded plates are assemblies of flat plates rigidly connected
together along their edges in such a way that the structural
system capable of carrying loads without the need for
additional supporting beams along mutual edges.
Engineer Eudene
Freyssinet performed the
first roof with the folded
structure in 1923 as an
aircraft hangar at Orly
Airport in Paris.
Folding Systems in Nature
The principle of folding as a tool to develop a general
structural shape has been known for a long time. Folded
structure systems which are analogous to several
biological systems such as found at broadleaf-tree leaves,
petals and foldable insect wings, are adopted to be
employed in a new, technical way.
Leaf of Palm Tree Beetle Insect With Seashell

Foldable Wings
The Basic concept of Folding
The concept of stiffness

generation
Types of Folded Structure
Based on geometric shape folded
structures can be divided into:
 Folded plate surfaces structures

 Folded plate frames structures
 Spatial folded plate structures
2. Folded plate
A thin-walled building structure of
the shell type.
Advantages of Folded Plate Roofs over Shell Roofs are:

(a) Movable form work can be employed.
(b) Form work required is relatively simpler.
(c) Design involves simpler calculations.
Disadvantages of Folded Plate Roofs over Shell Roofs are:

(a) Folded plate consumes more material than shells.
(b) Form work may be removed after 7 days whereas in
case of shells it can be little earlier.
Folded plate types
Folded Plates system
Folded-Plate Hut in Osaka
Folded Plates Library
Types of Folded Structure
Classification of folded structures based on the
material they are made of:
 Folded structures made of reinforced

concrete
 Metal folded structures
 Folded structures of wood
 Folded structures of glass
 Folded structures of plastic materials
 Folded constructions made in combination
of different materials
Mezzanine ceiling called Miami Marine Stadium,
"Kielsteg" Florida
As Floor Structure 
As Roof Structure 
Securing The Foundation Church of Notre Dame

Pit With Larsen Planks de Royan, France
As Wall Structure

As Steel Sheet Piles 

The Application of Folded Structures
Advantages and Disadvantages of Folded-Plate Structure
 Advantages:
 Very light form of construction. To span 30 m shell

thickness required is 60 mm only.
 The use of concrete as a building material reduces both
materials cost and a construction cost.
 Longer span can be provided.
 Flat shapes by choosing certain arched shapes.
 Esthetically it looks good over other forms of construction.
Disadvantages: 
 Shuttering is difficult.
 Greater accuracy in formwork is required.
 Good labor and supervision necessary.
 Rise of roof may be a disadvantage.
Some Real Life Examples of Folded Plate
Structure
Air Force Academy Chapel, USA

Architect: Walter Netsch,
Length: 280 ft, Height: 150 ft,
Width: 84 ft,
Year: 1962
Structure
Yokohama International Passenger

Terminal, Architect: Alejandro
Zaera-Polo & Farshid Moussavi
Floor Area: 34,732 m2,
Length: 430m, Height: 15m, Width:
70m
Source: www.osanbashi.com/en/outline/features.html
Structure More In Bangladesh:
Bangladesh National Museum Kamalapur Rail Station

Structure
More In Bangladesh:
Mohakhali Bus Terminal Mausoleum Of Three Leaders

Recommendation
There are many homeless people in Bangladesh. Specially during
disaster, many people become homeless. We can use the concept of
folded plate structure to make portable shelter for the homeless
people. Significant works on this project is already in progress. It is very
cheap and easily useable by anyone. We just have to adopt it for our
people.
reCover Accordion Shelter

Light Weight Emergency Shelter
• Portal Frames
•Space Frames
SPACE FRAMES
DEFINITION
A SPACE FRAME OR SPACE STRUCTURE IS A TRUSS-LIKE,
lightweight rigid structure constructed from interlocking struts in
a geometric pattern.
space frames can be used to span large areas with few interior supports.
HALL OF NATION
PRAGATI MAIDAN
PRAGATI MAIDAN HALL NO-18
• Space frames are essentially three dimensional
trusses able to span in two directions
• They may be flat for use as roofs, walls or inclined
walls, or may be curved to form continuous barrel
type roof geometries.
• Flat frames used as roofs sometimes have slight
cambers to direct water to appropriate roof
outlets.
• Space frames allow for easy service distribution
within their depth and can provide light elegant
structural solutions.
• Depth: Span/40
• Typical maximum length: 100 m
• According to Curvature
– Flat covers
– Spherical domes
Barrel vaults –
(b) (c)
(a)
Fig (a) Flat cover ; (b) Spherical dome ; (c)

Barrel vault
• According to grid layers
• Single Layer
• Double layer
(a) (b)
Fig (a) Single layer ; (b) Double layer

TYPES OF SPACE FRAME
1) Two and three-way grids
• Characterized as two way or three way
2) Single, Double and Triple Layered

• Single layer frame has to be singly or doubly curved.
• Commonly used space frames are double layered
and flat.
• Triple layered is practically used for a large span
building.
COMPONENTS OF SPACE FRAME
• Consists of axial members : which are tubes and
connectors
TUBES
1) Circular Hollow Sections
2) Rectangular Hollow Sections

Nodus Connector
• It can accept both
rectangular and
circular hollow
sections and that
the cladding can be
fixed directly to the
chords.
• Chord connectors
have to be welded
to the ends of the
hollow members on
site.
ADVANTAGES for space frame
• Light
• Elegant & Economical
• Carry load by three dimensional action
• High Inherent Stiffness
• Easy to construct
• Save Construction Time & Cost
• Services (such as lighting and air conditioning) can be
integrated with space frames
• Offer the architect unrestricted freedom in locating
supports and planning the subdivision of the covered
space.
EXAMPLES OF BUILDING
SAN SIRO STADIUM, MILAN
•Coffered or Waffle slab
Coffered or waffle
slab
DECORATIVE COFFERED SLABS IN HISTORICAL STRUCTURES
A series of these sunken panels were used as
decoration for a ceiling or a vault, also
called caissons ('boxes"), or lacunaria
("spaces, openings")
Giuliano da Sangallo's flat caisson ceiling,

Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome
Gilded coffering on a barrel vault

of the apsis in Nazaré, Portugal Coffering on the Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome
Coffering on the ceiling
of the Pantheon,Rome
Late 16th century coffered ceiling

of Santa Maria in Aracoeli, Rome
• A coffer should be square or
WORKING nearly square to ensure that it
behaves as a two-way structure.
• As a coffer becomes more
rectangular, the two-way action
decreases and a one-way system
spanning the shorter direction
develops because the shorter
coffer ribs are stiffer and carry a
greater portion of the load.
• Greater the depth of the ribs
more resistance to the bending,
hence larger the span.
• This type of floor is
used where widely
spaced square
column grid is
necessary and the
floor support
comparatively heavy
loads.
• The waffle grid form
of the floor may be
cast around plastic
or metal formers laid
on timber centering,
so that the smooth
finish of the soffit
may be left exposed.
• Suitable for up to 16m long
spans, longer spans may be
possible with post tensioning.
• For the maximum efficiency,
coffers should be square or
nearly square as possible.
• Waffle slab can be efficiently
cantilevered in two directions
up to 1/3 of a main span. when
no cantilevered is present, a
perimeter slab band is formed by
omitting dome forms.
• Coffer underside is usually
left exposed.
PLAN
DIAGONAL GRIDS
* The egg-crate construction is not efficient as diagonal system.
* Particularly if it is required to support the grid at four points
only, the diagonal grid has the greater tordional rigidity.
3-WAY GRIDS FOR
TRIANGULAR &
HEXAGONAL AREAS
* With the beams in three
direction, the grid becomes 3-way,
and this system is stiffer than 2-
way diagonal grid.
COMPARISON:
LONG SPAN
STRUCTURES
LENS LIGHT CONCRETE ROOF
• Lens lights –to provide
diffused daylight
through concrete roofs
• Lens lights are used in a
concrete roof as roof
lights to provide
resistance to fire , for
reasons of security and
to reduce sound
transmission.
• Square or round glass
blocks or lenses those
are cast into reinforced
concrete ribs
• The lens lights can be
pre-cast and bedded in
place on site or in-situ
cast in a concrete roof
SERVICES IN
COFFERED SLAB
* The coffer blocks used in the
Coffer Slab are manufactured
from plastic, making them light
and easy to handle.
* The assembly of the coffer
blocks is done on the ground
before being lifted into position
between the supporting ribs. The
result is less labor and quick and
easy installation.
Museum of the Park
South America - Brazil - Fortaleza
• Spanish architects
Alarcon Asociados have
developed a new
construction product that
allows a six-storey
building to fit into a five-
storey volume
• Developed for buildings
with large construction
spans such as schools and
hospitals, Holedeck is a
concrete waffle slab
system that can
accommodate electrical
cables, plumbing and
ventilation ducts within
the floor structure rather
than hung below. This
prevents the need for
suspended ceilings,
which are installed to
hide these services.
•Tensile Structure
Tensile Structure
Definition
• Tension roofs or canopies are those in which

every part of the structure is loaded only in
tension ,with no requirement to resist
compression or bending forces.
Structural Fabric
• Structural fabric is the material that defines
lightweight tensile structures.
• Requirements As a primary structural element, it
must have the strength to span between
supporting elements, carry snow and wind loads,
and be safe to walk on.
• As enclosure element, it needs to be airtight,
waterproof, fire resistant and durable.
• As daily use element, it requires to transmit
daylight, reflect heat, control sound, and be easy
to keep clean.
• Fabric Membranes:
1. PTFE Fiberglass PTFE, or
polytetrafluoroethylene, is a Teflon®-
coated woven fiberglass membrane that
is extremely durable and weather
resistant. PTFE fiberglass membranes
can be installed in climates ranging from
the frigid arctic to the scorching desert
heat with a project life in some cases
exceeding 30 years.
PTFE Fiberglass
(polytetrafluoroethylene)
2. ETFE Film ETFE (Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene)
can be applied in multiple ways such as single,
double, or triple layered applications. The
material is durable, highly transparent and very
lightweight in comparison to glass structures
ETFE((Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene)
3.PVC, or polyvinyl chloride, is available as a
woven or non-woven material. PVC membrane
is a cost-effective alternative to traditional
roofing systems and can be produced in a
multitude of colors to coordinate with individual
building project needs.
PVC(polyvinyl chloride)
Insulated Tensioned Membrane
• Insulated Tensioned Membrane Tensotherm™
is a composite system comprised :
• of a PTFE fiberglass membrane exterior skin,
• a thin translucent insulation blanket
embedded with aerogel,
• and a thinner and lighter acoustic or vapor
barrier interior liner.
Insulated Tensioned Membrane
EPTFE
• EPTFE-coated high translucency (EPTFE) fabric

• membrane is a dynamic tensile material
unmatched for its aesthetics and durability,
which is a woven, non-flammable material
uses 100 percent fluoropolymer coating and
can offer up to 40 percent light transmission
(versus just 13 percent with PVC), eliminating
glare to allow broad illumination throughout a
given interior space.
EPTFE
Rigid Structural Elements
• Rigid structural elements, such as masts(poles) , struts

and arches, are to support the flexible fabric and cable
membrane, generate its peaks, form its edges, and
create the anchors that hold it down.
• Requirements
• The rigid elements in tensile structures must be strong,
light, reliable, readily available, easy to fabricate,
transport and erect.
• Sample Materials
• Steel, Reinforced Concrete, Pre-stress Concrete,
Laminated Wood, Aluminum, Composite Synthetic
Materials.
Steel tension
construction
Wood tension
construction

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AE331-Building Construction 3

Arch. Samia Ayyoub

The impact of technological

2 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

 Architecture plays a vital role in the emergence of new

3 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

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5 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

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8 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

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12 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

Requirements The different

13 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

15 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

1. Concrete Frame Structures. ….

 Therefore, steel in buildings must be protected from

 Industrial buildings because of its ability to create large

 Warehouse buildings for the same reason

 Residential buildings in a technique called light gauge steel

 Temporary Structures as these are quick to set up and

19 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

20 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

23 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

the structural system - are

Concrete frame structures are a very common - or

25 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

27 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

28 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

29 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

30 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

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2. Live Loads: the downwards force on the building coming

37 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

Dynamic Loads: these occur commonly in bridges

1. Wind Loads: This is a very important design factor,

38 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

39 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

 The concrete frame rests on foundations , which

40 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

41 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

42 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

PILLAR : Simple Definition of PILLAR : a large post that helps to hold up

44 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

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46 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

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When brick or concrete blocks are used, it is common to

50 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

 Concrete frame buildings can be clad with any kind of

51 AE331-Arch. samia Ayyoub

Arch. Samia Ayyoub

 While 'foundation' is a general

2 AE331-Arch. Samia Ayyoub

3 AE331-Arch. Samia Ayyoub