CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the related literature and studies after the thorough

and in-depth search done by the researches. This will also present they

synthesis of the art, theoretical and conceptual framework to fully understand

the research to be done and lastly the definition of terms for better

comprehension of the study.

2.1 Related Literature (Foreign)

According to the study of D. Coffeti, E. Crotti (2022), wide range of

alternative strategies to improve the sustainability of concrete. It firstly considers

the relatively easy applications of the latest technologies to manufacture

traditional Portland cement, including carbon capture, utilization and storage

technologies, and the use supplementary cementitious materials as Portland

cement replacement. It then focuses on more complex processes such as the

substitution of traditional constituents with alternative binders (both non-

Portland clinker or alkali-activated materials), recycled aggregates and non-

drinking water, up to description of high-durability/high performance mixtures.

This review also underlines the significant need to upgrade the existing

standards, and the relevance of thriving the education of designers, researches

and contractors for the development and the diffusion, also thanks to good

practice, of new concrete technologies. This research also proposes a new

sustainability index for mortars and concretes, also manufactured with

negative carbon footprint materials, modifying the Emphatic Added Sustainability

Index (EASI). The topic of sustainability of reinforced concrete structures is strictly

related with their durability in aggressive environments. In particular, at equal

environmental impact, the higher the durability of construction materials, the higher

the sustainability. The present review deals with the possible strategies aimed at

producing sustainable and durable reinforced concrete structures in different

environments. It focuses on the design methodologies as well as the use of

unconventional corrosion-resistant reinforcements, alternative binders to Portland

cement, and innovative or traditional solutions for reinforced concrete protection

and prevention against rebars corrosion such as corrosion inhibitors, coatings,

self-healing techniques, and waterproofing aggregates. Analysis of the scientific

literature highlights that there is no preferential way for the production of “green”

concrete but that the sustainability of the building materials can only be achieved

by implementing simultaneous multiple strategies aimed at reducing environmental

impact and improving both durability and performances (Luigi Coppola et.al,

2022).

2.2 Related Literature (Foreign)

This paper intended to explain the properties of calcium phosphate cement

when it is subjected with fish scales. Author determined improvisation of

mechanical properties of cement composites with respect of controlled porosity

and composite micro structure. The composite paste undergoes SEM, XRD test

respectively. He concluded the setting properties of paste when it is incorporate

with gelatin and observed the L/P ratio of cpc paste of different ratio (Bigi 2003).
 The paper intended to explain about using collagen manufacturing from fish

scales. This bio-degradable films gives good results where these can be used in

textile and decorative industries. The density, thickness, young’s modulus,

tensile strength is determined for different proportions. O’ Sullivan et al (2008)

The physical and chemical properties of fish scales that have lately generated a

lot of interest among researchers. In this study Menuer (1984) found out that

collagen fiber in fish scales have high potential in strength development

because of their high tensile strength (90 mpa). Scales vary in size, shape

structure and extent and this is useful property, in this research finding found

out that most fish scales are 200- 300mm and consists of hard outer bony layer,

supported by a softer cross- line of collagen fibers.(Deju et al. 2011)

The paper intended to explain about using collagen manufacturing from fish

scales. This bio-degradable films gives good results where these can be used in

textile and decorative industries. The density, thickness, young’s modulus,

tensile strength is determined for different proportions. (O'Sullivan et al.)

Author intended to explains that the the gelatin & collagen can be extracted

from fish scales. The author explains the properties with respect to thermal,

physical, mechanical, biodegradable & cytocompatibility. The properties can be

described with by using Micro–computed tomography analysis. He explains that

it can used as the natural synthetic bio degradable natural material in tissue

engineering. (Manikandan et al.)The phenomenon when these collagen fibers

undergo tensile loading has previously been described to slide and reorient in a

different direction, and this reorientation mechanism was studied using the X-

ray diffraction method where the fibers tend to straighten themselves in the axis

of tensile stress because of each individual fibril slides and stretches in the

direction of tension. (Zimmerman et al., 2013)

The presence of collagen is quite prominent in every type of fish scale whether

it provides excellent protector flexible property or adequate enough for some

optimization and consideration. Interestingly, the reason collagen fibers display

such an exquisite mechanical property is due to the fact of their own structure,

which at a molecular level, is constructed in a triple helix manner for each

fibril. (Sherman et al. 2015)

These strengthening mechanism works on the collagen fibrils as hydrogen

bonding begins to form among the solvents that could be methanol, ethanol,

and acetone, providing good and enhanced mechanical properties. (Jiang et al.

2020)

Paper intended to grace the properties of fish scale by subjected to

experiments. The mechanical properties of fish scale such as tensile, brittle,

penetration and SEM experiment conducted to determine the layer micro

structure and behavior. Deju Zhu et al (2011):

 Paper represents the usage of short bio-degradable fibers obtained from the

scales of a fresh water fish (Labeo-rohita). This fiber marix is added new

interface between the oxygen atom of the epoxy and

Hydrogen atom of the polypeptide chain of fish scale is responsible for the

formation of this new class of composites. Due to this improvised of micro-

hardness and exhibit tensile and flexural-strength marginally different from the

neat epoxy. Alok Satapathy et al (2012)

The concrete mix ratio, the length and the volume mixing ratio of crushed

Haluan fish scales (Channa striata) are intended for varying parameters in order

to examine the fundamental mechanical properties of Haluan fish scale

(Channa striata) reinforced recycled aggregate concrete. For this investigation,

324 specimens have been finished. Crushed Haluan scales recycled concrete's

compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, elastic modulus, and axial

compressive strength have each been the subject of an experimental research

and a theoretical analysis using 81 specimens, respectively. All specimens had

a 100% replacement rate for coarse aggregate with recycled aggregate. With

the enhancement of concrete strength grade, experimental results demonstrate

that the failure process and failure pattern of Haluan scales recycled concrete

and regular concrete are similar, when the volume mixing ratio of crushed

Haluan scales is 1KG, the mechanic performance can effectively improve, and

the length of crushed Haluan scales has less of an impact on the mechanical

indexes.

1.1 Related Studies

 Fish Scales as a Biocomposite of Collagen and Calcium Salts

Collagen for biomedical applications is mainly isolated from animal tissues

(bovine or porcine skin and bovine or equine Achilles tendons). Type I collagen

has been also extracted from skin, bone, fins and scales of fresh water and

marine fishes. Fish scales are composed of collagen covered with calcium salts.

In the present study we report the preparation of collagen from fish scales for

potential cosmetic, pharmaceutical and implant applications. In our laboratory

collagen was isolated from scales of Esox lucius. It was the first time that this

species were used as sources of collagen. Extraction of collagen from fish

scales was done in two steps. In the first step, fish scales were demineralized

using EDTA. Energy dispersive X-ray analysis of demineralized scale was

carried out for quantitative estimation of inorganic content. Then, demineralized

fish scales were dissolved in acetic acid. Collagen isolated from Esox Lucius

may serve as an attractive and safe source of collagen for biomedical and

pharmaceutical applications. Fish collagen can be processed in sheet, sponges

foams, injectable viscous solution, and dispersions. According to Alina

Sionkowska and Justyna Kozlowska

c1.2 Synthesis

Fish scales as the contribution of different types of purposes in society and

community has been well researched. Fish Scales are composed with calcium

salts, collagen has been also extracted from skin, bone, fins and scales of fresh

water and marine fishes since fish scales are composed of collagen cover with

calcium salts. fish scales were dissolved in acetic acid. Collagen isolated from
Esox Lucius may serve as an attractive and safe source of collagen for

biomedical and pharmaceutical applications. (Alina Sionkowska and Justyna

Kozlowska). Using collagen manufacturing from fish scales. This bio-

degradable films gives good results where these can be used in textile and

decorative industries. O' Sullivan et al., (2008). In this study collagen fiber in fish

scales found out that have high potential in strength development because of

their high tensile strength Meneur (1984). Hydrogen atom of the polypeptide

chain of fish scale is responsible for the formation of this new class of

composites. Due to this improvised of micro-hardness and exhibit tensile and

flexural-strength marginally different from neat epoxy. Alok Satapathy et al,.

(2012). These recent studies have been provide that fish scales as a waste

products provide a various uses for construction and as an another substance

of chemical to be created and to provide differential uses.