ETHICS

Introduction to Morality

As children, we were taught what is right and wrong, and good and bad about human life. However, can we distinguish what is
morally right from what is not? Science is based on facts, but morality is according to one's values and understanding of things
and actions. While science is objective, morality is subjective. Living through values is a perpetual part of our lives. For instance,
morality is when we assess a particular action as right or wrong, a person as good or bad, cruel or kind, and just or unjust; this is
the foundation of experience values. What we think and do as we experience them is the primary concern of ethics.

The majority of us experience two contradicting feelings and share them with others in life. One is based on our decision and
judgment based on our moral values. The other feeling comes from experiencing getting another person's advice on what
should be done in a situation. This advice is usually given based on the morals of the advice-giver. With this context, we can say
that no one person is a moral expert. For instance, some believe that legalizing abortion is beneficial to society as it allows
women to be more active and helpful participants in society. Others believe that legalizing abortion limits the benefits society will
get from the next generation. Both arguments are based on the moral principle of doing good to society. Both choices also make
people uncomfortable because it undermines certain morals.

Making moral choices are easier when we share the same morals as the people who advise us. In reality, making decisions is
challenging because different persons will have different morals—making decisions becomes complicated when faced with a
dilemma.

Morality and Law

Occasionally, we associate something immoral as illegal, but what is the difference between morality and law? Law is the set of
rules created by state institutions, which makes law the state's authority. Law has sanctions recognized by the state and
enforced by authorized state bodies. We may distinguish between morality and laws in terms of sanctions, deliberation, and
extent of implementation.

Law

1. Law regulates and controls external human conduct. It is not concerned with inner motives. A person may have
an evil intention in his or her mind, but the law does not care about it.

2. Law is universal in a particular society. All individuals are equally subjected to it. It does not change from man to
man.

3. Political laws are precise and definite because a regular organ that formulates the law exists in every state.

4. Law is framed and enforced by a determinate political authority. It enjoys the sanction of the state. A punishment
generally follows the disobedience of the law.

5. Law falls within the purview of a subject known as jurisprudence.

Morality

1. Morality regulates and controls the inner motives and external actions. It is concerned with the whole life of a
man. Thus, the law's scope is limited compared with morality because the law is only concerned with external
actions and does not take into its fold the inner motives. Morality condemns a person if he or she has evil
intentions; laws are not applicable unless these intentions manifest externally.
 2. Morality is variable. It changes from man to man and from age to age. Every man has his moral principles.

3. Moral laws lack precision and definiteness because no authority makes and enforces them.

4. Morality is neither framed nor enforced by any political authority. The state does not support moral values.
Breaching moral principles is not accompanied by punishment. The only check against the breach of morality is
social condemnation or individual conscience. Moral actions are a matter of choice of an individual's inner
conscience; laws are a matter of compulsion.

5. Morality is studied under a separate branch of knowledge known as ethics.

Relationship Between Law and Morals

The impact of morality in a universal sense is also inherent in a wide range of various laws. For instance, in the commercial
world, laws criminalizing bribery and the imposition of legal duties on company directors embody what would commonly be
considered the "right' or moral way to conduct business. However, the law is influenced by a wide range of political, social,
economic, and cultural factors, and the moral climate of society is only one of these factors. In practice, many laws have a
bureaucratic, administrative, and technical function. They operate as an essential part of a complex modern society and have
little or no connection with morality. Moral values are not static; they evolve. Laws may change as a consequence.

Morality and Religion

Exodus 20:13 stated that "Thou shalt not kill," one of the Ten Commandments in the bible. If we can ground our morality to God,
it can be objective; we can confidently determine our moral obligations and rights. We can also answer why one ought to live
morally. In this sense, we will discuss two religious morality theories that will guide us in determining the relationship between
morality and religion and how it does not make you a moral person. One of the religious morality theories is divine command
theory (DCT). DCT is a simple theory that our moral obligations are similar to our moral duties and based on God's
commandments. Thus, if God exists and issues a command, "thou shalt not steal," then it is our moral duty not to steal, which
will be the premise of our morality. However, if God does not exist and does not issue this command, then it is
permissible. DCT also allows us to determine the overriding of the theory of other motivations, such as self-interest and
confidence. This theory emphasizes obedience and submission to God. By contrast, Robert Adams (1999) believed that the
actuality of objective moral obligation is logical only if a personal God exists.

The next theory of religious morality is the natural law theory of morality (NLT). This approach to morality does not reject that
God issues commands; it takes morality to be in God's creation of the universe and rational human beings. The impression is
that the universe is created by God while holding a natural tenacity. These purposes can be determined by careful study through
the use of our reason. From the knowledge of the proper purposes of objects, one can identify the appropriate ways to interact
with the world and each other. The NLT simply bends the idea of an object's function to its purpose, which further suggests how
it is to be used.

Briefly, this approach to morality has the following three mechanisms:

1. God created the universe, including human beings and other objects, with purposes.

2. The purpose of objects in the world can be discerned using natural reason. God endowed humans with a
capacity for natural reason.

3. The purpose for which God created an object determines its proper use.

Religious Morality

Relating our moral obligation and duties to religion and God brings about the action we ought to perform and its governing
action. Although our moral responsibility is independent of our religious beliefs, we can still insist that religious faith significantly
contributes to our moral values and how we live our moral life. In other words, religious practices might support our moral life in
self-governing ways of defining how we ought to live and act. A good example is that we fear divine punishment, which motivates
us to do what is right. One's reason for not committing murder is because they fear hell. However, morality is doing the right
thing for the right reason, and that fear is not the right reason to do the right thing. Thus, such an action is not truly a moral
action or does not make you a moral person.

Moral Standard Vs. Nonmoral Standard

Different societies must have different beliefs and norms that are influenced by culture. Therefore, values have implications for
the moral standards of a particular community. For instance, divorce is significantly allowed in Western countries; in the
Philippines, it is not acceptable. Another example is how Muslims dress compared with people of other religions. Some cultures
do not dictate how women should dress. On the other hand, Muslim women wear a hijab (head covering) as part of their culture
and norms. Hence, different cultures and norms mean varying moral standards. Looking at differences of moral values among
cultures is how moral and nonmoral standards are differentiated.

Moral Standards and Its Characteristics

Moral standards are norms that are universally shared. Moral standards emphasize that right decisions are those that contribute
to the well-being and welfare of humans, animals, and the environment. Moral standards guide us on what ought to be done in
terms of a human's obligations and rights. To some extent, many scholars argued that moral standards are a combination of
norms and values. Norms are rules about our actions and behavior. For instance, telling lies is wrong. Meanwhile, values are said
to be a statement of what is right or necessary or not. For example, during an exam, we may say that cheating is wrong.

Five Characteristics of Moral Standard:

1. Moral standards include substantial injuries or benefits whether humans, the environment, or animals.

2. Moral standards are not set and may be changed by authoritarian bodies or individuals.

3. Moral standards are favored over other values and consider even self-interest.

4. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.

5. Moral standards are associated with particular emotions such as guilt and shame, good or bad, and right or
wrong.

Nonmoral Standards

Nonmoral standards are typically based on taste, choice, and preferences. For instance, it is a moral standard that honesty is a
good policy, but some cultures think it is disrespectful to be brutally frank. Other examples include how we judge manners as
good or bad in the standard of etiquette, how we judge legal from illegal based on law, and how we regard art as good or
garbage in terms of aesthetics. The violation of these standards does not harm the well-being of humans.

Differences of Moral Standards from Nonmoral Standards

Dilemmas

Do you remember a time when you had to choose with each option being hostile? Perhaps you lied, and you were faced with
revealing the truth or getting penalized for lying. This circumstance is called a dilemma, a situation where you are being
challenged for an agreeable solution. The dilemma has three types that are still present today; these are classical, ethical, and
moral dilemmas.

Classical Dilemma – It is a choice between two or more alternatives in which the outcomes are equally undesirable or favorable.
The dilemma does not typically involve a moral or ethical crisis, but the person or character's life may change due to their
decision. A classical dilemma is complicated because an individual will have to weigh the outcomes of choices.

Examples of a Classical Dilemma:

1. choosing where to go for lunch on a first date

2. deciding which option to take between two job offers

Ethical Dilemma – This dilemma arises when an individual is involuntary in choosing between two morally sound decisions.
They may also struggle with the conventional limitations of a commercial, a state agency, or the law. Several ethical dilemmas
may include the following: the truth versus being loyal to a friend, following the laws or rules versus having sympathy for an
individual's difficulty, and fears about a person versus considerable influence on a community. Typically, an ethical dilemma
arises when both choices have advantages.

Examples of an Ethical Dilemma:

1. A secretary discovered that his boss embezzled money from the office. He must decide whether he will turn him
to the authorities or the owner of the company.

2. A doctor disapproves of giving a terminally ill patient morphine, but the nurse suggests morphine because he
sees the patient suffering.

Moral Dilemma – This dilemma is a choice where a person is torn between right or wrong. A moral dilemma is where there is a
conflict with a person's values and principles. The person's choice may leave an individual to question their values, feel guilty
about their actions, and feel burdened or relieved. A moral dilemma forces a person to act or decide which choice he/she can
live with, but an outcome is seriously unpleasant no matter what.

Examples of a Moral Dilemma:

1. A total of 11 passengers are on board a sinking ship, but only 10 lifeboats are available. A decision must be made
as to who will stay on the ship.

2. A train with broken breaks is fast approaching people on the tracks. On the left side is a woman crossing with her
children, while on the right side is an engineer fixing the track. The train driver should decide on which side to
divert the fast-moving train.

3. A wife discovered that she is terminally ill; she wants her husband's help to end her agony before her health
deteriorates further.

A moral dilemma can also be present in several subject areas, such as legalizing or decriminalizing marijuana, abortion,
government spying, the death penalty, and the drug war.

Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas

Individual Level – Dilemma is based on the individual perspective or moral values and ethical standards of a person. It can be
influenced by peer pressure, socioeconomic status, and personal financial position.

Organization Level – Dilemma is based on the embedded ethical standards in terms of policy and procedure and forms part of
the organization's foundation. However, these policies and procedures are derived from the system level or macro-perspective
of moral dilemmas.

Systemic Level – At this level or the macro-perspective, the ethical standards are defined and influenced by the wide operating
environment in which the organization exists. Factors such as government policies, economic conditions, and societal attitudes
affect the organization's regulations, standards, and policies.
NSTP 2

Lesson Proper for Week 1

IV. LESSON PROPER:

To understand fully the lesson for today, read the information comprehensively.

What is COPAR?

Community Organizing Participatory Action Research

It is a continuous and a sustained process of:

1. Educating the people to understand and develop their critical consciousness

2. Working with people to work collectively and effectively on their immediate and long term problems

3. Mobilizing with people to develop their capability and readiness to respond, take action on their immediate needs towards
solving the long term

Brief History of HRDP-COPAR

· Philippine Center for Population and Development (PCPD) saw the potentials of health academic institution’s faculty and
students, staff of private clinics and hospitals as manpower resources for undeserved depressed communities.

· PCPD launched a five-year (1985-1990) Health Resources Distribution Program (HRPD I). The program was geared towards
the distribution of health manpower resources from urban to rural areas. Three nursing schools, two medical colleges, two
private hospitals and urban church-based clinic had institutionalized outreach programs that provided for developing
community-based primary health care programs in 36 communities.

· To make Health Resource Distribution Program maw efficient and effective, health resources “distribution” became
“development” of health services but improving the capabilities of the health manpower. This gave rise to the Health Resource
Development Program (HRDP II)

· On September 19, 1991, the PCPD launched HRDP, with the aim to develop effective primary health care system towards
self-reliance in heath. Faculty and students were tapped as facilitator of health and development.

· On 1992, HRDP employed Community Organizing (CO) reaching out to the communities and the Participatory Action
Research (PAR) was adopted.

Different Approaches to Development

1. Welfare Approach

· Used during calamity

· Immediate or spontaneous response to poverty/ problem

· operation, aims-giving, charity

· Strong dependence on authorities (with resources, knowledge, power)

· Poverty is God given

· Bad luck, natural disaster beyond man’s control

2. Project Development or Modernization Approach

· Introduced lacking resources

· Use of modern technology

· Development resulting to abandoning traditions

· Lack of education and resources (money and technology)

3. Transformatory Approach

· Process of improving the poor

· Behavior, attitude and social change

Principles of COPAR

1. Start with the people

2. People, especially the poor, oppressed and marginalized have the capacity to change, to open to change, and to bring out
change

3. Should be based on the interest of the poorest sectors of society

4. Learning happens when one experiences success

5. Power is both liberating and oppressing; be vigilant of its abuse and misses

6. It should lend to self-reliant community/society

Critical Steps/ Activities in Community Organization (CO) Or in Building People’s Organization

1. Integration

· Community organizer (CO) become one with the people in the community

· Establish rapport with the community people

· Immerse oneself , be as they are

· Stay in the community

· Know and understand the culture, economy, leaders, history, rhythms and life style

Methods of Integration

· House to house visit

· Participate in people’s daily work and activities

· Sharing people’s house, food, good entertainment and meetings

· Participate in school such as birthdays, weddings, wakes, and fiestas

· Conversing with people where they usually gather such as stores, washing streams, church yards, and street corners

Process

· Respect people and see the liberating aspects of their culture that give them the strength to struggle

· See the social / structural analysis of National Health situation concretized in the people’s lives

· Accepted as member of the community

· Change in values and lifestyles

2. Social Investigation

-a systematic process of collecting, collating data

Pointers in conducting social investigation

a. Use of survey questionnaire

b. Community leaders can be trained to initially assist community or organize in doing social investigation

c. Data can be collected more effectively and efficiently (house to house visits, participating in conversation in jeepneys and
others

d. Secondary data should be thoroughly examined much of the information might be already available

e. Social investigation is facilitated if community organizing (CO) is property integrated

and has acquired the trust of the people

f. Confirmation and validation of community data should be done regularly

3. Tentative Program Planning

· CO choose one to issue to work on in order to begin organizing the people and the plan

4. Ground Work

· Go around and ask people one-on-one regarding an issue that has been chosen

5. The meeting

· People collectively ratify what have already decided individually. The meeting gives the people collective
power

6. Training

· Practice, rehearse the meeting

· Role play to act out the meeting that will take place between the leaders of the people and the government representatives

· A way to train people to anticipate what will happen and prepare themselves for such eventuality

7. Mobiization

· Actual experience of the people in confronting fee powerful and actual exercise of people power.
PHASES OF COPAR PROCESS

1. Pre-entry Phase

The initial phase of organizing where the community organizer looks for communities to serve or help. It is the most complex
phase In terms of actual outputs, activities and strategies and time spent for it.

Recommended Activities:

· Statement of objectives, and realization of COPAR guidelines

· Laying out the site criteria

· Site selection

· Meeting and courtesy call to local government unit of the selected site

· Courtesy call to the barangay level

· Meeting with the “will be” foster parents of the health care students

· Setting the target date of immersion exposure and departure

2. Entity Phase (Immersion)

Sometimes called the immersion phase as it is the activities done here includes the sensitization of the people on the critical
event in their life, motivating them to share their dreams and ideas on how to manage their concerns eventually mobilizing them
to collective on these. This phase signals the actual entry of the worker / organizer in to the community.

Recommended Activities:

· Courtesy call to mayor, or the local government leader of the selected site

· Courtesy call to the barangay level

· Meeting with the foster parents

· Appreciating the environment

· Meeting with community officials and residents

· General assembly

· Preparation of survey forms

· Actual survey

· Analysis of the data gathered

3. Organization-Building Phase

The formation of more formal structures and the inclusions of more formal procedures of planning, and evaluating community-
wide activities. It is at this where the organized leaders or groups are being given trainings (formals or informal) to develop their
knowledge, skills and attitude in managing their own concerns / programs.

Recommended Activities:

· Meeting with the officials

· Identifying problems

· Spreading awareness and soliciting solution or suggestions

· Analysis of the presented solution

· Planning of the activities

· Organizing the people to build their own organization

· Registration of the organization (Legality purposes)

· Implementation of the said activities

· Evaluation

4. Sustenance and Strengthening

Occurs when the community organization has undertakings. At this point, the different communities set up in the organization-
building phase and expecting to be functioning by way of planning, implementing, and evaluating programs with the overall
guidance from the community-wide organization.

Recommended Activities:

· Meeting with the organizational leader

· Evaluation of programs

· Re-implementation of the programs (for unmet goals)

· Educating and training

· Networking and linking

· Conduct of mobilization on health and development concerns

· Implementation of livelihood projects

· Developing secondary leaders

5. Phase out

The phase when the healthcare community workers leave the community to stand alone. This phase should be stated during the
entry so that the people will be ready for this phase. The organizations built should be ready to sustain the test of the
community itself because the evaluation will be done by the residents of the community itself.

Recommended activities:

· Leaving the immersion site

· Documentation

Community Organizing Participatory Action Research

· A middle ground where the health care worker and the people need to attain community organization

· A liberal freedom of the community where the people are allowed to participate in the overall of their community.

· A transformation force, that enables the individuals, families, and groups to be responsible for their own health.

Five Key Elements of the Community Organizing Process

1. People
Each individual is a potential resource to the community. People have the creative capacity to situation-Establishing good
relationship and trust buildings are important foundations in community organizing.

2. Problem

Problems can be used to motivate and challenge people to organize themselves towards the desired change.

Change can only be achieved if people can carry out appropriate actions together.

3. Participation

People participation is the heart of community organizing.

It is the right of all people to participate in decision making on issues affecting them.

4. Process

In community organizing, process is as important as the solutions to the problems.

5. Power

People empowerment is the goal of community organizing.

There is strength in number only when people are organized. If people work together, they become stronger.

Community Selection Criteria

1. The area must be economically depressed.

2. Must have a relative concentration of poor families.

3. Must have a population often and above.

4. As much as possible, no hospital but with RHU and BHS.

5. Accessibility of transportation must be considered.

6. No strong resistance from the community.

7. Peace and order problem must be considered.

8. Rural community will be a top priority.

9. Preferably with adjacent barangays.

Tasks of the Community Organizer (CO):

1. Entry and immersion in the community

2. Formation of the core group

3. Facilitating the formation of the “Community Based Organization (CBO)”

4. Guiding the participatory research process

5. Facilitating community planning

6. Facilitating community decision making

7. Overseeing project implementation

8. Coordinating community mobilization

9. Motivating community to accomplish goals

10. Guiding the monitoring and evaluating process

11. Documentation of the “Community Organizing (CO)” process

IDEAL COPAR AGAINST COPAR

1. Time frame and mode of exposure

Ideal COPAR:

· Three (3) to six (6) immersion

· Three to six weeks duty, eight hours a day, five to six days a week

Practiced COPAR:

· Sometimes eight to sixteen, hours a week, for two to four weeks depending on the time allotted by the school or institution

2. Methodology and survey form

Ideal COPAR:

· The survey form will vary to the needs of the community (custom made) and the methodology is surveying the participants

Practiced COPAR:

· Use of ready survey from the alcohol, books, or from the institution they are working for.

· Some use survey but others just collect data from previous studies

3. Number of recipients

Ideal COPAR:

· 30 %, 60%, or 100% depending on the number of population and situation of the community

· 25-50 families or depending on the required number of families by the school or institution

4. Organization building stage

Ideal COPAR:

· A primary and secondary organization be built and it should be strengthened by set of officers, by laws, registrations to the
institution.

· The primary and secondary leaders are and the members are all coming from the community and not from, the healthcare
workers.

Practiced COPAR:

· No organizations built or sometimes the organizations are not properly strengthened or registered

5. Problem Statement

Ideal COPAR:

· The problem will only be stated after the survey has been done, tallied and analyzed

· The problem will be from the survey form sot from the judgment of the healthcare worker, because of the simple reason
that any problem not perceived is not a problem

· Any problem, too big or too complicated to the health worker to manage should not be prioritized. The principle within is
we should not prioritize something that we can do nothing about

Practice COPAR:

· Not considering the result of the survey

6. Implementation

Ideal COPAR:

· Fishing rod effect

· The program should not be a one day affair but should be programmed that will last even after the phase out. It should be
something that you will leave with community.
Practiced COPAR:

· Fish effect

One day programs are often done. This program also diminishes after the health workers leave

7. Evaluation

Ideal COPAR:

· The health workers learn to accept reality that not all programs will prosper and not all them be met.

· After evaluation should be a re-implementation

Practiced COPAR:

· Some results are just to say that they are met

· No re-implementation

The Community Organizing Process

I. Pre-Entry Phase

· The initial of the organizing process where the community organizer looks for community to serve or help

· Actual outputs, activities and strategies and spent for it

Recommended Activities:

· Statement of objectives, and realization of COPAR guidelines

· Laying out the site criteria

· Site selection

· Meeting and courtesy call to the local government unit of the selected site

· Courtesy call to the barangay level

· Meeting with the “will be” foster parents of the healthcare students

· Setting the target date of immersion, exposure, and departure

II. Entry Phase (Immersion)

· Sometimes called the immersion phase

· This phase signals the actual entry of the community worker/ organizer into the community

· Recommended Activities:

· Courtesy call to mayor, or the local government leader of the selected site, courtesy call to barangay level

· Meeting with the foster parents

· Appreciating the environment

· Meeting with the community officials and residents

· General Assembly

· Preparation of survey forms

· Actual survey

· Analysis of the data gathered

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (ST) AND SOCIETY

Preliminary Activity for Week 1

Reading Activity: Carefully examine the images and paragraphs from the YouTube video entitled Ancient Mesopotamia 101 of
the National Geographic.

“The story of writing, astronomy, and law. The story of civilization itself begins in one place. Mesopotamia is an exceedingly fertile plain
situated between Tigris and Euphrates. In these civilizations, innovations were fostered and changed the world forever.”

Inhabited for nearly 12, 000 years, Mesopotamia has

They developed advanced mathematics, including a
the most stable climate. Rich soil and a steady water
base 60 system that created a 60-second minute, a 60-
supply made it ideal for agriculture to develop and
minute hour, and a 360-degree circular angle.
thrive.

They divided an earth year into 12 periods. Each division

They also divided the weeks into seven days, naming
was named after the prominent constellations in the
each after their 7 Gods, embodied by the sky’s seven
heavens, a tradition later adopted by the Greeks to create
visible planets.
the zodiac.

But perhaps, the most impactful innovation from This includes recording the law of the Babylonian
Mesopotamia is literacy. Their writing system was called King Hammurabi, which formed the basis of the
cuneiform. standardized justice system.
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVf5kZA0HtQ

These are just some of the contributions of early civilization to what we have in science and our society at present. More of these
will be discussed in this module.

Lesson Proper for Week 1

History of Science and Technology in Ancient Cultures

The study of protoscience in ancient history refers to the history of science in early cultures, which was before the development
of science in the Middle Ages. In prehistoric times, advice and knowledge were passed from generation to generation in an oral
tradition. The development of writing systems allowed various societies to store and communicate knowledge. Currently, we are
still reaping the benefits of recorded knowledge as we are still discovering ancient evidence of scientific advances.

Writing coexisted with the development of agriculture. It allowed for a surplus of food, which made it possible for early
civilizations to develop. They were able to dedicate more time to do tasks other than survival, such as searching for knowledge
for knowledge’s sake.

Mesopotamia

The Mesopotamian civilization developed around 3500 BC in Sumer, now known as the country Iraq. The Mesopotamian people
recorded some observations about the world using extremely detailed numerical data. An example would be the records of
Pythagoras’ law on the Mesopotamian cuneiform tablet, which dates back to as early as the 18th century BC.

Astronomy is a science that focuses on recording and studying observations on the heavenly bodies. The Mesopotamian scribes
left vigorous notes on the motions of the stars, planets, and the moon in thousands of clay tablets.

Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt developed their scientific knowledge in astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Geometry developed when there
was a need to layout the beginning and end of certain privately-owned farmland. Marking the perimeter of farmlands was also
necessary to prepare these lands for the Nile River’s annual flood. Rules of geometry such as the 3-4-5 right triangle and other
rules of thumb were developed to represent rectangular structures, including reinforcing structural posts and openings. Egypt
also became a center of alchemical research in the ancient western world.

The phonetic writing system known as the Egyptian hieroglyphs served as the basis for the Egyptian Phoenician alphabet. Later
on, the Egyptian Phoenician alphabet evolved into Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Cyrillic alphabets. The city of Alexandria
retained superiority with its library, which was entirely destroyed by fire when it fell under Roman rule before 642. With it, a
great amount of antique literature and knowledge was lost.
One of the first medical documents still surviving is the Edwin Smith papyrus. It is perhaps the earliest record that attempts to
describe and analyze the brain: it might be seen as the beginning of modern neuroscience.

Persia

In the Sassanid period (226 to 652 AD), the Persians gave great attention to mathematics and astronomy. A prominent example
is the Academy of Gundishapur. Astronomical tables, such as the Shahryar Tables, are still used to this period. On the other
hand, Muslim astronomers and astrologers of the Islamic period later imitated the Sassanid observatory. In the mid-Sassanid
era, in the form of views and traditions of Greece, an influx of knowledge came to Persia from the West. Following the spread of
Christianity, it accompanied Syriac, the official language of Christians and the Iranian Nestorians. The Christian schools in Iran
produced great scientists such as Nersi, Farhad, and Marabai. Paulus Persa, head of the Iranian Department of Logic and
Philosophy of Aristotle, also left a book written in Syriac and dictated to Sassanid King Anushiravan. Persia became a stronghold
of Islamic science in the Early Middle Ages.

Greco-Roman World
Scientific thought in Classical Antiquity became more practical from the 6th century BC in pre-Socratic philosophy, headlined by
Thales and Pythagoras. In 385 BC, Plato founded the Academy, where his students participated in the “scientific revolution” of
the Hellenistic period using discourse. Scholars would discuss some practical issues by using a conversational and reasoning
process. These scholars include Eratosthenes, Euclid, Aristarchus of Samos, Hipparchus, and Archimedes. (3rd to 2nd centuries)

In Classical Antiquity, a reliable calendar, cures for various illnesses, and abstract thought experiments known as natural
philosophy were developed. These developments resulted from wondering how the universe works while practicing a skilled
profession (for example, physicians), generating rational thinking through discourse, or following religious traditions (temple
healers).

There are important legacies from this period. First are advances in factual knowledge, specifically in anatomy, zoology, botany,
mineralogy, geography, mathematics, and astronomy. Second is the awareness of the importance of some scientific issues,
especially those related to the problem of change and its causes. Finally, a recognition of the methodological significance of
applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical research.

India

Excavations at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and other sites in the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) have uncovered evidence of the use
of practical mathematics. To develop building blocks that would make dwellings more durable, the people of the IVC
manufactured bricks whose dimensions were in proportion 4:2:1. This meant that they found a way to compute bricks'
dimensions to support a given weight by developing standard ratios. They mass-produced weights in regular geometrical
shapes, including hexahedra, barrels, cones, and cylinders, thereby demonstrating basic knowledge of geometry.
The inhabitants of the Indus civilization also tried to standardize the measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They
designed a ruler — the Mohenjo-daro ruler — whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimeters) was divided
into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit
of length.

Alchemy (Rasaśāstra in Sanskrit) was popular in India. The Indian alchemist and philosopher Kanada introduced the concept of
‘anu’, which he defined as matter that cannot be subdivided. This thinking is analogous to the concept of the atom in modern
science.

China

The first recorded observations of solar eclipses and supernovae were discovered in China. Chinese astronomers observed a
supernova guest star, the remnant now known as the Crab Nebula on July 4, 1054. There are similar records from Korean
contributions, including records of meteor showers and eclipses, particularly from 1500-1750 in the Annals of the Joseon
Dynasty. Traditional Chinese Medicine, acupuncture, and herbal medicine were also practiced, with similar medicine practiced in
Korea.

The abacus, the public toilet, and the “shadow clock” were few of the earliest inventions. However, Joseph Needham noted the
“Four Great Inventions” of China — the compass, gunpowder, papermaking, and printing — as among the most critical
technological advances. In particular, the Chinese developed many innovations in the Tang dynasty (AD 618 - 906). Later, up to
the Qing Dynasty, an exchange of ideas occurred between Europeans and Chinese. These inventions were adopted in Europe at
the end of the Middle Ages.

History of Science and Technology in Medieval Ages

The Middle Ages (500 to 1400) is now considered a period with limited scientific advances in Europe. Still, modern scholars
regard this period as the Golden Age of Islam and the enlightenment of the Byzantine Empire.

When the civilization of Rome became powerless, Europe had to adjust by keeping peace and empire-building. Europeans did
not have enough time and resources to develop scientific learning. Despite this, Charlemagne tried to establish a learning
tradition by assigning scribes to record known knowledge. The later Middle Ages saw advancements in the philosophy of science
and the development of the scientific method.

After the fall of the Roman Empire, many historians and scientists regard Western Europe as entirely devoid of interest in
scientific discovery. Contemptuously, the Romans caused medieval Europe to fall into the Dark Ages, a period when there was a
rise of many unhealthy and illiterate peasants and rulers. Superstition reemerged in Western Europe, regressing from the
scientific progress brought about by the Greek and Roman ages of reason and high philosophy.

The Dark Ages

Some historians believe that Europe regressed into war and barbarism during the Dark Ages because of the severe inequality
and lack of scientific advancement in the previous period. To keep the peace, the Christian Church became more controlling,
further stifling scientific development.

Some historians have the opposing view because the lack of written records on scientific development from the Dark Ages does
not mean that there were no scientific advancements. The Dark Ages were only relatively slow in progress compared to the
Roman Empire’s focus on meticulous record-keeping. Developments in science can be seen in the Middle East instead of Europe.
Modern scholars now regard this period as the Golden Age of Islam and the enlightenment of the Byzantine Empire outside of
Europe.

Early Medieval Society - The Dark Ages after the Collapse of Rome

The Early Medieval period (about AD 500 to 1000) in Europe is regarded as the real Dark Ages. In this period, medieval society fell
into barbarism and ignorance. As records show, Norse sailors could not develop the compass as early as the Chinese did. Still,
they were master navigators and could use the stars and a few instruments to navigate to Iceland, Greenland, and Vinland.

However, monastic study was able to keep some of the scientific processes alive, even if records were confined to the Bible’s
content. To cure the sick, the monks of Western Europe studied medicine. To set dates for church holidays such as Easter, the
monks observed the stars and developed the discipline of astronomy. Monks and scribes preserved the rules of mathematics
and geometry when analyzing the movements of the heavenly bodies.

The Middle Ages - Charlemagne, Science, and Learning

During the 9th Century, these small embers of preserved knowledge leaped to life. As Western Europeans tried to systemize
education, rulers and church leaders realized that education was the key to maintaining unity and peace. This period, known as
the Carolingian Renaissance, was when Charles the Great, often known as Charlemagne, tried to reestablish knowledge as a
cornerstone of medieval society. Although he is often depicted as the Golden Hero of the Church, he was a brutal man of war.
More importantly, he was a great believer in the power of learning. While using the Catholic Church to transmit knowledge and
education, he instigated a revival in art, culture, and learning. He ordered the translation of many Latin texts to Middle English.
Charlemagne also promoted astronomy, a field that he loved to study, despite his inability to read. As medieval society
transitioned into the High Middle Ages, the teaching of logic, philosophy, and theology enhanced the thinking process of some
Christian thinkers in Western Europe.

The High Middle Ages - The Rebirth of Science and Scholasticism

From 1000 until 1300, this era saw Western Europe, from Ireland to Italy and from Denmark to Spain, begin to slowly crawl out of
the endless warring as populations grew and the shared Christian identity gave some unity of purpose. Because trading and
sharing ideas were common, ideas from Moorish Spain, the Holy Land, and Byzantiumwere were brought back by merchants
and mercenaries. Many of the Ancient Greek texts were translated into Arabic by the Muslims. In the middle of the 11th Century,
these books were translated from Arabic to Latin by scholars from all around Europe who flocked to Spain. This translation
process provided a conduit for the Greeks' knowledge to pass into Europe, where the schools set up by Charlemagne were now
growing into universities. Gerard of Cremona (c. 1114-1187), and many other scholars learned Arabic so that they may complete
their task.

Centers of learning, known as the Studium Generale, sprang up across Western Europe by the 12th Century. This drew scholars
away from the Ancient Greeks' knowledge and combining Classical Antiquity’s discoveries with the great Muslim philosophers'
and scientists' findings. This period did not see the Greeks, Romans, Chinese, Persians, or Muslims' significant technological
advances. Still, the contribution of great thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, Grosseteste, Francis Bacon, and William of Ockham to
the creation of the Scientific Method cannot be underestimated.

Aquinas and Grosseteste are considered to be the Fathers of Scholasticism and the Scientific Method. While they were more
interested in using philosophy to prove the existence of God, Thomas Aquinas oversaw a shift from Platonic reasoning towards
Aristotelian empiricism. Meaning, Aquinas became an expert in reasoning by citing evidence using the senses. One of the
significant contributors to the scientific method, Robert Grosseteste, founded the Oxford Franciscan School. He also began to
promote the dualistic scientific method, which was first proposed by Aristotle.
Grosseteste’s idea of resolution and composition involved experimentation and prediction. He firmly believed that to propose a
universal law, observations should be used. It is this universal law that should be used to predict outcomes. This idea was very
similar to the concept of ancient astronomers. They used observations to discern trends, and then used these trends to create
predictive models for astronomical events.

Roger Bacon, also known as the Shining Light of Science in Medieval Society, is one of the great minds behind the development
of the scientific method. The scientific method was also improved through the learnings of Aristotle, Avicenna, Galileo, and
Newton. Bacon took the work of Grosseteste, Aristotle, and the Islamic alchemists to propose the idea of induction as the
cornerstone of empiricism. Empiricism is the philosophy that conclusions should be made with evidence. Bacon described the
method of observation, prediction (hypothesis), and experimentation. He also explained that the results should be
independently verified, documenting his results in sufficient detail so that others might repeat the experiment.

The Late Middle Ages - Scholasticism and the Scientific Method

As thinkers continued the work of scholasticism, adding to the philosophy underpinning science, the Late Middle Ages (from
1300 until 1500) saw progress speed up. This period made sophisticated observations and theories that were sadly superseded
by works of later scientists. Finally, the removal of divine intervention from the process of explaining natural phenomena was
sought out by many of the scholastic philosophers. They believed that scholars should look for a more direct and natural cause
rather than stating that it must be the work of divine providence.

The Black Death - The Destroyer of Medieval Society and Scholasticism

In favor of the later thinkers that drove the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment, the advances of many of these
philosophers and scholars were forgotten and underplayed. The first Renaissance of the Middle Ages was halted by a natural
phenomenon, the Black Death. This phenomenon killed over a third of Europeans, especially in the growing urban areas.

It is the mass disruption to medieval society, which was caused by the plague, that set the progress of science and discovery
back. These knowledge would not reemerge until the Renaissance.