Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
 The word "philosophy" comes from the Greek philos (love) + sophia (wisdom) meaning literally love
of wisdom.
 The most general definition of philosophy is that it is the pursuit of wisdom, truth, and knowledge.
 It is the science that by natural light of reason studies the first causes or highest principles of all
things.
ORIGIN OF PHILOSOPHY
Greece is the birthplace of Philosophy in the West - Ancient Greek City of Miletus which is now known as
Turkey.
THALES
624 - 546 BCE
He is the first philosopher of the West thus known as the Father of Philosophy in the
Western civilization.
What made him a philosopher is his desire to know the ultimate stuff that makes up the
different things we perceived.
His explanation of the natural phenomena devoid of gods and goddesses of Old Religions of Greece.
For him Religion rests on faith while Philosophy rests on reason.
What is the ultimate stuff of the universe?
BUDDHA
It is a Sanskrit word which means "a person who is awake"
Life is a series of challenges we have to overcome.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A PHILOSOPHICAL ACTIVITY

FIRST - Philosophy involves widest generalizations. Philosophers concern themselves with big issues
pertaining to the truth, the good, the just, the beautifuk and existence of practically all things.
SECOND - Philosophy is all about fundamentals.
A fundamental is the root cause that explains almost everything in a given context.
THIRD - Philosophy is driven by desire to integrate things in to a one coherent whole.
COGNITIVE BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
LOGIC- The branch of Philosophy that deals with the nature of thinking and reasoning. It is the so-called
science of thinking

 DEDUCTIVE REASONING- From a General Truth to a Specific Truth. From a universal truth to
particular.
 INDUCTIVE REASONING- From a Specific Truth to a General Truth. From a particular to universal.
EPISTEMOLOGY
The theory of knowledge, especially with regard to its methods, validity, and scope. Epistemology is the
investigation of what distinguishes justified belief from opinion.

 RATIONAL SCHOOL- The main source if knowledge is deductive reasoning based on self-evident
principles or actions.
 EMPIRICAL SCHOOL- The source of knowledge is sense perception.
METAPHYSICS
From the Greek words "meta" meaning beyond and "physikon" meaning nature. Branch of philosophy that
is concerned with the nature of ultimate reality.
NORMATIVE BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
ETHICS- It is from the Greek word "ethos" which means character. Therefore, ethics or morality is a branch
of philosophy that provides a human being with a code of values to guide man's choices and actions - the
choices and actions that determine the course of his life.
POLITICS- It is a body of knowledge which defines the principles of a proper social system.
AESTHETICS- Derived from the Greek word "aisthetikos" which means the perception of senses. It is the
branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and appreciation of art, beauty and good taste.

KNOWLEDGE AND TRUTH

ACCORDING TO PHILOSOPHY… ...if you want to know the truth you have to use, not emotions, but
thinking. To think however is an act of choice which is not always done properly. Sometimes we need
guidance to straighten our thoughts.
EPISTEMOLOGY
 It is on the recognition of the supreme importance of knowledge that gave rise to the branch of
philosophy known as epistemology.
 “Epistemology is a science devoted to the discovery of the proper method of acquiring and
validating knowledge” (Rand 1990).
THE PURPOSE OF EPISTEMOLOGY THEREFORE IS TWO FOLD:
 To show how we can acquire knowledge.
 To give us a method of demonstrating whether the knowledge we acquired is really knowledge
(i.e., true).
THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE
According to Ayn Rand knowledge is a “mental grasp of reality reached either by perceptual observation or
by a process of reason based on perceptual observation”.
When you know something you understand its nature. You identify what it is. And it stays with you.
Knowledge is a retained form of awareness.
HOW DO WE ACQUIRE KNOWLEDGE?
 First, we can acquire knowledge using our senses: seeing, hearing, tasting, feeling, smelling. This
method of acquiring knowledge is called empiricism and it has many adherents in the history of
philosophy such as John Locke, George Berkley, David Hume.
  Second, we can acquire knowledge by thinking with the use of our minds (what philosophers call
the rational faculty). This is what rationalism advocates. (Some well-known rationalists in history
are Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz).
However thinking is just half of the story of knowing (in fact the second half). The reason is that thinking
involves content. To think is to think of something. You cannot think about nothing. This is where sense
perception enters the picture by feeding our minds with data coming from the outside world so that we
can have something to think about.
PROCESS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE
1. REALITY
To know is to know something. This “something” is what philosophers call reality, existence, being. Let us
employ the term existence. Existence is everything there is (another name for it is the Universe. Existence
is really all there is to know. If nothing exists knowledge is impossible.
2. PERCEPTION
Our first and only contact with reality is through our senses. Knowledge begins with perceptual knowledge.
3. CONCEPT
After we perceive things we began to notice that some of the things we perceive are similar to other
things. It is an abstract or generic idea generalized from particular instances.
4. PROPOSITION
When we use concepts in order to classify or describe an “existent” (a particular that exist be it an object, a
person, an action or event, etc) we use what philosophers call a proposition. A proposition is a statement
that expresses either an assertion or a denial that an existent belongs to a class or possess certain
attribute.
Proposition is usually expressed in a declarative sentence.
 Affirmative Proposition
 Negative Proposition
An affirmative proposition therefore has the following structure: “S is P” (where S is the subject, P is the
predicate and “is” is the copula stating the logical relationship of S and P) while the negative proposition
has the structure “S is not P” (“is not” is the copula expressing denial).
 “Truth and falsity are called the two possible truth values of the statement”
5. INFERENCE
How do we demonstrate that the statement is true? By providing an argument. According to Hurley an
argument “is a group of statements, one or more of which (the premises) are claimed to provide support
for, or reason to believe one of the others (the conclusion).
 All men are mortals. Socrates is a man. Therefore Socrates is mortal.
 A conclusion is a statement that we want to prove. The first two statements are what we call
premises (singular form: premise). A premise provides justification, evidence, and proof to the
conclusion.
 An argument expresses a reasoning process which logicians call inference. Arguments however is
not the only form of inference but logicians usually used “argument” and “inference”
interchangeably.
THE NATURE OF TRUTH
 “A belief is true if it can be justified or proven through the use of one’s senses”. I am alive. I have a
body. I can breathe.
 Not all statements however can be validated directly by the senses. Some beliefs or ideas need a
“multi-step process of validation called 'proof’.
 Nevertheless proof rests ultimately on sense perception.
 A third way to determine if the statement is true is through a consensus. If the majority agrees that
a statement is true then it is true.
 A fourth way to determine whether a statement is true is to test it by means of action.
TRUTH VS. OPINION
 Identifying truth however can sometimes be tricky. The reason is that there are times when we
strongly held an idea that we feel “deep down” to be true.
 However we must not confused strongly held beliefs with truth. Truth is knowledge validated and
when we say validated we mean they are based on the facts of reality.
 The facts of reality are independent of your thoughts, feelings or preferences (the primacy of
existence) That is the characteristic of truth.
An opinion has the following characteristics:
1. Based on emotions
2. Open to interpretation
3. Cannot be confirmed
4. Inherently biased
While truth is:
1. Based on the facts of reality
2. Can be confirmed with other sources
3. Independent of one’s interpretation, preferences and biases

METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING
KNOWLEDGE- It is a mental grasp of reality reached either by perceptual observation or by a process of
reason based on perceptual observation.
EPISTEMOLOGY- This is a science devoted to the discovery of the proper method of acquiring and
validating knowledge.
CONCEPT- It is an abstract or generic idea generalized from particular instances.
TRUTH- This knowledge is validated which means that it is highly based on the facts of reality.
ARGUMENT- It is a group of statements, one or more of which (the premises) is claimed to provide support
for, or reason to believe one of the others (the conclusion).
DIALECTIC METHOD
 This method of philosophizing was conceived by the Greek philosopher Socrates, (born 470 BCE)
one of the great philosophers of the ancient world.
  Socrates’ aim was to achieve what he called the good life which is based on the proper care of one’s
soul (psyche in Greek).
 Since by its very nature the soul’s activity is to know, the soul can only be good if we employ it in
the activity of having a clear awareness of the meaning of some words .
 However, how can we achieve a clear understanding of words? We can achieve this by an act of
“disciplined conversation” (Stumpf 2008) which Socrates compared to an intellectual midwife.
Socrates called this method dialectic.
 The method, however, does not sit well with the ruling elites of Athens (the city where Socrates
lived). They accused him of not worshiping the Greek gods and corrupting the youth. His defense
(which was dramatically recorded in Plato’s dialogue the Apology) was a model of “forceful
argument” but it fell on deaf ears. In the end, he was forced to drink poison. Socrates was the first
philosopher to die fighting for truth.
George Wilhelm Hegel
He believed that the ideas of the human minds have access of what the world is like. People are social
beings and could be completely influenced by other people’s ideas. An individual’s mind is influenced by
means of a common language, customs of one’s society, and the cultural institutions that one belongs to.
He refers this to “Spirit” as the collective consciousness of a society which is responsible for honing one’s
consciousness and ideas.
Thesis - an idea about the world
Antithesis - the ideas about the world has a natural characteristic of having errors
Synthesis - a new idea comprised of the essentials of both the thesis and the antithesis
PRAGMATIC METHOD
 It was started by Charles S. Pierce (1839-1914), popularized by William James (1842-1910) and
institutionalized in American culture by John Dewey (1859-1952).
 What pragmatism aims is to test the dogma of science, religion and philosophy by determining their
practical results. The pragmatic test is: if I practice this belief, will it bring success or failure? Will I
solve problems or create problems? Successful experience is the verification process of truth for the
pragmatists.
PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD
 The phenomenological method was conceived by Edmund Husserl (born in 1859), one of the
greatest intellects of of the 19th century.
 Naturalism in this context is the idea that everything can be explained in terms of matter or the
physical. Since man is not only physical (i.e. body) but also spiritual, this naturalistic attitude brings
a distorted view of man by banishing the spiritual from the world which includes the banishment of
ideas, values, and cultures.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REFLECTIONS
 This was identified by Gabriel Marcel. It had its roots in the 19th century ideas of Søren Kierkegaard
(1813-1855) and Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) was existentialism.
 Reflection arise when there is a disruption from your normal routine. It emerged when something
valuable is at stake.
2 levels of reflection
  Primary Reflection
 Secondary Reflection
The result of secondary reflection is a more expansive view of the self until it embraces the world.
ANALYTIC METHOD
Initiated by philosophers at Cambridge University (England): George Edward Moore (1873-1958), Bertrand
Russell (1872-1970) and Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951).
Wittgenstein said that ‘the object of philosophy is the logical clarification of thought’ so that ‘the result of
philosophy is not a number of philosophical propositions, but to make propositions clear”. Analytic
philosophers employed various methods of linguistic analysis such as the principle of verification and
logical analysis.

THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT

MAN - It is generally and commonly define to represent the entire human race
HUMAN - A term used to refer for various classifications and species. For a living man, human is under the
classification of Mamalia
HUMAN BEING - A term used to separate man from other human classifications like animals
Today’s journey will help us identify and understand the human person as an embodied spirit has
something to do with defining man, human, human being, person, personhood and human nature.
PERSON - Refers to an individual who possess self-awareness, self-determination, rational mind, and the
capacity to interact with other and with himself/herself
PERSONHOOD - A general term refers to the state of being a person with unique, sacred and ethical status
within him/herself
HUMAN NATURE - A general term refers to the deepest and natural behaviour of a person that distinguish
human from animals. A collective traits that formed and considered the very essence of humanity. Nobody
can be considered man without human nature.
WHAT IS A HUMAN PERSON?
Human person is someone with an exact origin of his/her classification. From the biblical perspective, we
came from Adam and Eve. For Science, we came from an Ape under the Class: Mamallia.
Human person is typically with a body which is tangible and has a three components composed of SOUL,
MIND and SPIRIT. Also, he or she is entitled and granted rights and privileges by the state which he or she
legally belong.
2 GENERAL KINDS TO DISTINGUISH A HUMAN PERSON
COGNITIVE SELF (something within and cannot be physically seen) is the essential components of a human
persons that deals with THE WHAT OF A PERSON which includes human persons’ belief, desire, dreams,
and intentions.
PHYSICAL SELF (something can be seen in his/her physical appearance) which deals with the essential
features of the human way of life or THE WHO OF A PERSON which includes his/her body type, strength
and appearances.
WHAT IS EMBODIED SPIRIT?
Embodied spirit is an animating core living within each of us. It is known to be the driving force behind
what we actually think, do and say. It is indeed the reflections of our total being by which our sensations
lead to our human feelings, emotions and decision.
WHAT IS A HUMAN PERSON WITH AN EMBODIED SPIRIT?
As an embodied spirit human beings demonstrate the following qualities:
Self- awareness refers to person having a clear perception of oneself, including his or her thoughts,
emotions, identity, and actions.” It is the ability of one’s consciousness to look inward thus discovering the
presence of a self.
A human person is able to connect and interact with another person, an animal or an inanimate object. We
call this externality.
We are not determined by others. Because we have interiority; we can direct the course of our own life.
This is what we call self-determination which is “the capability of persons to make choices and decisions
based on their own preferences, monitor and regulate their actions, and be goal oriented and self-
directed” Thus human beings are free.
Finally a human person has an inherent value and importance. This is what we call dignity.
HUMAN TRANSCENDENCE - OUR ABILITY TO SURPASS OUR LIMITS
St. Thomas Aquinas, a philosopher and one of the greatest theologian in the catholic church in the 13th
century, said that “of all creatures, human beings have the unique power to change themselves and things
for the better.”
THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS AND EIGHTFOLD PATHS.
Buddha realized that all people suffers. This reality ignited his curiosity to examine and understand the
word suffering. He left his royal life in the palace and spent his life for 6 years in the wilderness to find
answers for his questions. And when he sat under the tree of enlightenment for 40 days, voila he finds the
answers.
RIGHT VIEW - a correct understanding of the nature of things, specifically the Four Noble Truths
RIGHT INTENTION - eliminating thoughts of attachment, detestation, and harmful intent
RIGHT SPEECH - abstaining from verbal offenses such as lying, divisive speech, unforgiving speech, and
irrational speech
RIGHT ACTION - refraining from physical offenses such as murdering, thieving, and sexual misbehavior
RIGHT LIVELIHOOD - evading trades that directly or indirectly damage others, such as trading slaves,
weapons, animals for butchery, intoxicants, or poisons
RIGHT EFFORT - forsaking undesirable states of mind that have already arisen, preventing undesirable
states that have yet to arise, and sustaining positive states that have already arisen.
RIGHT CONCENTRATION - single-mindedness.
RIGHT MINDFULNESS - consciousness of body, feelings, thought, and phenomena
If you can do the eightfold path even if you are not a buddhist, you can transform yourselves from your
present situation and transcend to what you desire you would be. Just believe in yourselves. As the star
struck of gma7 adheres: dream, believe and survive.
 THE HUMAN PERSON IN THE ENVIRONMENT QUARTER 1-MODULE 4
Human beings as stewards must show care for the environment and not destroy it. The earth's future is
our responsibility, so let's find out how to take care of it!
ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHY - Environment philosophy is the discipline that studies the moral
relationship of human beings with the environment and its non-human contents. Philosophers believe that
the human person has the ability to change the environment to suit his purposes.

3 VIEWS OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL ENVIRONMENT

1. Anthropocentrism -focuses on the significant role of humankind in the world and considers nature as the
means by which humans are able to meet their needs and survive This view believes that humans are the
most Important species on the planet and they are free to transform nature and use its resources
2. Biocentrism - belleves that humans are not the only significant species on the planet, and that all other
organisms have inherent value and should be protected. This view advocates ethical treatment of animals
3.Ecocentrism - places great value on ecosystems and biological communities. This view believes that
humankind is a part of a greater biological system or community and that we have a significant role as
stewards or guardians of nature. This view promotes the idea that order and balance in nature brings
about stability and beauty
ENVIRONMENTAL AESTHETICS
A philosophical view that believes in maintaining order in the environment will bring out the natural
beauty of surroundings and contribute to the well being of the people and other organisms living in it.
ANCIENT THINKERS
ANAXIMANDER - According to his "Creation Destruction", the sketch of the genesis of the world
(cosmogony) the evolution of the world begins with the generation of opposites in a certain region Nature.
Nature is indeterminate boundless in the sense that no boundaries between the warm and or the moist
and dry regions are originally present within.
PYTHAGORAS- He described the universe as living embodiment of nature's order. harmony, and beauty. He
sees our relationship with the universe involving biophilia (love of other living things) and cosmophilia love
of other living beings)

MODERN THINKERS
IMMANUEL KANT - The orderliness of nature and the harmony of nature with our faculties guide us toward
a deeper religious perspective
GEORGE HERBERT MEAD - "Man have duties and responsibilities in nature"
HERBERT- "Human have power over nature
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
"Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs."
To put it simply, the idea of sustainable development is any environmental economic and social advances
can be realized within the carrying capacity of earth's natural resources.
PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABILITY
Environmental Integrity- means that any human activities or economic advances should not unduly disrupt
the environment and human communities located in the area. The environment should not be drastically
impacted by human activities
Economic efficiency- this is to ensure that there is minimum to zero waste in using our natural resources
Equity - it refers to conserving our natural resources so that the future generations will still be able to use it
THEORIES IN RADICAL ECOLOGICAL PHILOSOPHY
Deep Ecology - Arne Naess, proponent of Deep ecology, assumes that all living things possess equal value
and intrinsic worth regardless of their usefulness or utility to other beings. This is experiencing ourselves as
part of the living earth and finding our role in protecting the planet. It highlights the shifting away of
approaches to environment from anthropocentrism to ecocentrism
Social Ecology - Murray Bookchin. proponent of Social ecology, believes that ecological problems can be
traced to social problems. Societies that are structured around hierarchies as well as economic classes use
their authority to dominate natural resources and exploit the environment for profit and self-interest.
Ecofeminism - It assumes that male-centered view of nature is the root cause of ecological problems. To
address environmental problems humanity has to remove the superior vs. Inferior in human relations.
Ecofemimism also belleves that a society that tolerates the oppression of women is directly linked with its
tendency to tolerate the abuse of the environment and the degradation of nature.
PRUDENCE - the capacity to direct and discipline one's activities and behavior using reason. It is the
behavior that is cautious and, as much as possible, keeps away from any risks.
FRUGALITY - the quality of being thrifty. It is the careful supervision of one's resources. This includes the
cautious management of material resources, especially money. Furthermore, a frugal person usually lives
out the idea of "reduce reuse.recycle" just to minimize expenses
 POINTERS IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

 One of the weaknesses of a quantitative research is that the responses of the participants are
limited to what has been asked and the choices given.
 Correlational research seeks to determine relationship of one characteristic to the other
characteristic.
 In-text citation is a reference done within the text/paragraph in the paper.
 Importance of quantitative research helps educators identify ways to improve learning, helps
improve crop production using safe organic fertilizers, and helps pharmaceutical companies explore
safe and effective medicines.
 Conclusion is a part of literature review which summarizes and synthesizes the different ideas from
the different sources.
 IPO (Input, Process, Output) is conceptual framework to be used in a research study wherein there
is an intervention being made by the researcher.
 The characteristics of quantitative research include that the results taken from a sample can be
generalized to the population, provides a more credible and reliable result, and statistical analysis
of numerical data.
 Research problem is the starting point of any research.
 In the significant of the study, the researcher defines who will benefit out of the findings of the
study.
 Null hypotheses show no relationship between variables.
 Methodological review is a specialized type of literature review in which the researcher gathers and
compares and contrasts other studies to the current research. It basically summarizes and
evaluates the strengths and gaps in the methodological aspects of various studies.
 Preliminary research helps trim down a broad topic to a more manageable question in the
development process for a research question.
 An attempt to confirm the researcher’s hypothesis describes the quantitative research.
 One of the examples of quantitative variable is a plant variety while IQ is an example of a
qualitative variable.
 The strength of quantitative research includes speedy data analysis, replicable, and objective.
 A good research title has short but accurate description of the content of the study.
 IPO (Input, Process, Output) is conceptual framework to be used in a research study wherein there
is an intervention being made by the researcher.
 Complex hypothesis expresses the connection between two or more independent variables and
two or more dependent variables.
 A group of students would like to know if spending time with a cat or dog decreases the amount of
stress and allows students to perform better on tests. An extraneous variable in this sentence is
their feelings toward the cat or the dog.
 Conceptual definition defines the word according to its meaning from the dictionary.
 A famous vlogger wanted to know if changing the content of his vlogs (food review, travel, study
tips, etc.) will affect the number of views per uploaded video. The number of views per uploaded
video is the continuous variable here.
 Direct to the point is a guideline/characteristic of a good definition of terms.
 Scope and delimitation is part of the research study that states what is included and not in the
research study.
 Bibliography is generally a list of all the sources you used to generate your ideas about your
research even if you have not mentioned or cited them in your paper.
 Phrase is the most common form of the research title.
  Mediating variable is also called as intervening variable.
 A research question becomes significant when it contributes to a bigger body of knowledge.
 Relationship between time spent on texting and spelling ability is an example of correlational
research.
 Review of related literature is the most reliable source you are going to consider if you are going to
look for a topic idea for your research study.
 Background of the study expresses the context of the problem that will support the validity and
rationale of the study.
 Telling participants that they must continue until the study has been completed is not an ethical
guideline for conducting research with humans.
 Correlational research is a systematic investigation of the nature of relationships, or associations
between and among variables without necessarily investigating into causal reasons underlying
them.
 A research variable that is considered as the presumed effect of the study is the dependent
variable.
 Conceptual framework refers to the actual ideas, beliefs, and tentative theories that specifically
support the study.
 Hypothesis refers to the assumption about the relationship between the variables.
Study the different kinds of quantitative research: Descriptive, correlational, evaluation, survey, causal
comparative, and experimental research.
 Topics to review in UCSP
Sociology- logos "science or study", socius "group or partners". Systematic study of groups, organizations,
and societies, and how people interact within these contexts. Sociologists is concerned with how groups
are formed, how groups affect their members, and how members affect their group.
• Auguste Comte - Father of Sociology
Anthropology- logos- "study", anthropos "man". The study of human beings and their ancestors through
time and space in relation to physical character, environmental, social relations, and culture.
• Franz Boas - Father of Modern anthropology
BRANCHES OF ANTHROPOLOGY
1. Physical Anthropology (inherited traits, genetics)
2. Cultural Anthropology (human society and culture).
3. Linguistic Anthropology (language)
4. Archeology (artifacts)
Political Science- polis "city", scire "study" focuses on the theory and practice of government and politics at
the local, state, national, and international levels.
Goals of Sociology
1. Study the nature of humanity
2. Appreciate society
-Study the nature of humanity to further examine our roles within a society.
Goals of Anthropology
1. Observe the common things among people (traditions, language, and others).
2. Discover what make people different from each other.
3. Create new knowledge through researches about humankind and behavior.
Look at one's own culture more objectively.
Goals of political science
1. Make people better citizens.
3. Protect the rights of an individual.
2. Keep social order and harmony among different groups of people.
4. Avoid conflict and promote cooperation
Cultural Relativism- Cultural relativism is a belief that cultures are equally complex. There is no such thing
as superior or inferior culture. "What is unacceptable and bad in a group of people" may be good and
acceptable in another group of people"
Ethnocentrism- They regard their own culture as the best and superior to others. They consider their ways
as right and normal while those of others as wrong
Culture Shock- inability to read meaning in one’s surroundings, feeling of lost and isolation, unsure to act
as a consequence of beingoutside the symbolic web of culture that binds others.
Characteristics of Culture
1.Culture is social. It is the product of behavior. It is a product of society. It develops through social
interaction..
2. Culture has variety. Every society has a culture of its own that differs from other societies. The culture of
every society is unique by itself.
3. Culture is shared. Culture is not something that an individual alone can possess. For example, people of
a society share all customs, traditions, beliefs, ideas, values, morals, etc.
4. Culture is learned. Culture is not instinctive or innate in human beings; it is not a part of the biological
equipment of human species.
5. Culture is transmitted. Cultural ways are learned by people from others. Many of these ways are handed
down from generation to generation.
6. Culture is continuous and cumulative. No culture ever remains constant or permanent. It is subject to
slow but constant variation.
7. Culture is gratifying and idealistic. Culture provides proper opportunities for the satisfaction of our needs
and desires.
Ethnography- is a branch of anthropology and the systematic study of individual cultures. In contrast with
ethnology, ethnography explores cultural phenomena from the point of view of the subject of the study.
Edward Tylor described culture as complex whole. Culture is comprised of all the facets and work of
humankind
Stages of human cultural evolution
HOMINIDS

 • "Manlike Primates"
 Australopithecus afarensis nicknamed "Lucy". It possessed the ability to climb trees
 Australopithecus africanus retained the last kin of the ape, but its dental features were similar to
those of modern humans
 Australopithecus robustus - it was first found in South Africa. Characterized by gorilla-like cranial
crests
HOMO HABILIS

 "Handy man".
 The apelike men who first to used stone tools as weapons and protection of their enemies.
HOMO ERECTUS

 "The Upright Man"

 This manlike species could walk straight with almost the same brain with modern man.
 They were omnivores
 Learned the use of fire
HOMO SAPIENS
  "The thinking man"
 They had similar physical descriptions with modern man. They originated as the primitive men
whose activities were largely dependent on hunting, fishing and agriculture.

Paleolithic

 Palaios - old
 Lithos- stone
 also known as "Old Stone Age"
 In the Palaeolithic period, the Earth was extremely cold and ocean levels were much lower than
they are now. Due to the cold climate, much of the Stone Age is the Ice Age.
 Food collecting stage.Characterized by hunting and collecting of wild fruits, nuts and berries.
 Labor was divided according to sex
 Men - hunted, fished and protected the group
 Women - gathered wild plants, fruits and nuts, Prepared the food for eating, Cared for the children
Mesolithic

 mesos- middle
 Lithos-stone
 Middle stone age
 Transition period between the paleolithic and neolithic period
 They lived along the coast, fishing and gathering shell fish.
 Other live in inland where they made bows and arrows
 Men developed tools and weapons made of microliths
 Domesticated dogs
Neolithic

 also called the New Stone Age

 neos - new
 lithos-stone
 Shift from food gathering to food producing
 Characterized by the development of agriculture, domestication of animals, dwellings and invention
of pottery
Age of metals
NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION
The term was popularized by an Australian archaeologist named Gordon Childe in 1940s. also called as the
First Agricultural Revolution. Settlement kind of society which eventually led to population increase.
Human began to develop a sedentary type of society of which they built-up villages and towns. Harvesting
and cultivation of plant as crops.They developed boat as means of transportation and for fishing as well.
This period was known as Age of Metals. The Copper Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age
Early civilization
CIVILIZATION - defined as an advanced state of human society containing highly developed forms of
government, culture, industry, and common social norms.
CRADLES OF CIVILIZATION. Term that refers to civilization that emerged independently. Developed around
rivers
TRIGRIS-EUPHRATES RIVER CIVILIZATION OF MESOPOTAMIA. Most civilization ancient known
Mesopotamia is a Greek word for "Land between two rivers" Sometimes called the Fertile Crescent. The
rivers made possible the large-scale agriculture which allowed people first to settle and farm. Trade
commodities and form cities. It was united by trade, cuneiform script and by shared religion with its
characteristic ziggurat temples
Cuneiform is a system of writing first developed by the ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia
The ziggurat was a religious structure in Mesopotamia commonly built in the center of the city.
THE NILE VALLEY CIVILIZATION OF EGYPT. Egypt was known as the Gift of the Nile. Known for its
architectural achievement famous pyramid hieroglyphic system of writing
Religion - emphasized life after death and led to the development of mummification.
Pharaohs- were both the heads of state and the religious leaders of their people.
The Egyptian hieroglyphic script- was one of the writing systems used by ancient Egyptians to represent
their language.
The methods of embalming, or treating the dead body, that the ancient Egyptians used is called
mummification.
THE YELLOW RIVER CIVILIZATION OF CHINA. The civilization of ancient China developed in the Yellow River
region (Huang He) It was here that the earliest Chinese dynasties were based. Developed a religion that
emphasized ancestor worship and a unique and complex writing system. four great inventions
papermaking, printing, gunpowder and the compass
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION OF INDIA. Also known as the Harappan civilization. Harappa and Mohenjo-
Daro were thought to be the two great cities of the Indus Valley Civilization
DEMOCRATIZATION. The transition to a more democratic political regime, including substantive political
changes moving in a democratic direction.
DEMOCRACY. Greek words demokratia: demos(people) kratia(government). Government of the people.
Form of government where the citizens of the nation have the power to vote.
TYPES OF DEMOCRACY
1. Representative democracy is a system where citizens choose government representatives among their
citizens
2. Direct democracy is when the citizens form a governing body and vote directly on issues 3.
Constitutional democracy limits the powers of government through the nation's constitution.
Essential Ingredients of Democracy
1. Popular Support of Government
2. Political competition
3. Alternation in power
4. Popular representation
5. Majority rule
River valleys in ancient civilizations provided rich soil to grow crops
Accomplishments of human in neolithic and paleolithic period
Socialization. It is the process of learning one's society and its culture. Through socialization, one learns the
culture's language, their roles in life, and what is expected from them.
AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION. These are people and/or groups that influence self-concepts, emotions,
attitudes, and behavior.

 FAMILY - most important socializing agent Most of the habits, manners, beliefs and the way we
think are develop in the family. A huge part of your personality molded by your family because this
where you spent your childhood.
 SCHOOL - It designs formal curriculum of academic knowledge and skills. Your socialization with
your teachers, classmates, administrators and others has made a lot of experiences in you. It is in
the school that your behavior and attitude are shape to become a better member of society.
 PEER GROUP - Your circle of friends is also an agent of socialization. It teaches individuals to be
independent from adult authorities. Social skills and group loyalties. It influences you on the way
you can accept yourself and you find yourself belonged.
 MASS MEDIA This include social media, books, magazines, newspapers,movies, television and radio.
Enculturation. process by which people learn the requirements of their surrounding culture and acquire
values and behaviors appropriate or necessary in that culture. Manner in which an individual is being
educated in or socialized to a specific culture.
In the process of enculturation two major aspects exist:
1. Informal enculturation process or the "child-training"
2. Formal education which is implemented in the learning institutions
Social Group
Types and example of group
Primary Group - intimate, personal, face to-face relationship found among the members of the family,
friend, and associates. Example: family, neighborhood and the classroom group
Secondary Group interaction among the members is impersonal, business-like, contractual and casual.
Example: Nation, Church Hierarchy, Professional Association, Corporation, University classes
In-Group the individual identifies himself and gives him a sense of belonging. Solidarity, camaraderie, spirit
de corps and a protective attitude towards the members prevail within the group. "We feeling".Example:
Sports team, Unions and Sororities
The Out- Group commonly referred to as the "other group" or the outsiders. This is a group toward which
one has a feeling of indifference, strangeness, dislike, antagonism and even hatred. "They feeling"
Reference group collection of people that we use as a standard of comparison for ourselves regardless of
whether we are part of that group. Example: parents, siblings, teachers, peers, associates and friends. Pop
idols, sports team, favorite fashion style
Peer Group - small kind of grouping whose members have the same level, interests and economic standing
in the community.
Formal Group (explicit) - large social group deliberately constructed and organized to achieve certain
specific, clearly stated goals. It has structures that facilitate its goal seeking efforts (bureaucracy)
Informal Group (implicit) - it arises spontaneously out of the interaction of two or more persons. they are
unplanned, have no explicit rules for membership and do not have specific objectives to be attained.
Example: friends, family
Gemeinschaft (often translated as community) is a traditional society in which social relationships are
based on personal bonds of friendship, kinship and intergenerational stability. It is characterized by strong
personal relationship, strong division of labor families and division of labor
Gesselschaft - (often translated as society or civil society) is a large, urban society in which social bonds are
based on impersonal and specialized relationships. Example: workers, managers, and owners
NETWORK. It is a collection of people tied together by a specific pattern of connections. • Nowadays, the
giving of information and establishing of connections and various relationships can be done through social
networking sites.
Importance of group

 The group as transmitter of culture

 The group as means of social control
 The group socializes the individual
 The group as sources of fundamental social ideas
 The group trains the individual to communicate