The Continuity Equation and Bernoulli’s principle

BPT: 101: Mechanics and Relativity

Tutorial - 10

Banaras Hindu University 15/02/2022 Sterlin

Hydrodynamics or Fluid dynamics
Hydrodynamics deals with the behavior of fluids under motion or flow. The flow is of two types (i) Steady
flow/laminar flow/streamline flow and (ii) Turbulent flow

(i) Streamline flow (laminar flow): the velocity of the fluid at each point remains constant. i.e., the velocity of
fluid particles does not change with time.

(ii) Turbulent flow: The velocity of fluid particles changes with time. At sufficiently high flow rates, or when
boundary surfaces cause abrupt changes in velocity, the flow can become irregular. This type of flow is called
turbulent flow. In turbulent flow there is no steady-state pattern; the flow pattern changes continuously.

Streamline flow: In which adjacent layers

Turbulent flow: The flow of smoke rising from incense
of fluid slide smoothly past each other and
sticks is laminar up to a certain point, and then
the flow is steady
becomes turbulent.
Effect of temperature on viscosity of fluids (liquids and gases)

 Viscosity depends on cohesion forces and molecular momentum transfer.

 Cohesion forces are the force of attraction between the molecules.

 Molecular momentum transfer is the net momentum (mass x velocity) associated with the interacting
molecules.

 When temperature increases, then cohesion forces decreases (due to increase in molecular vibration) and
molecular momentum transfer increases (due to increase in velocity of the molecules)

 For liquids, when the temperature is increased cohesion forces decreases due to increase in thermal
vibrations this decreases the molecular momentum transfer so liquid viscosity decreases

 For gases, when the temperature is increased molecular momentum transfer increases due to increase in
molecular collision so viscosity of gases increases.
Flow rate of Fluid:
Flow rate of fluid is the volume of fluid flowing per unit time. It is also equal to the area of tube in which fluid is
flowing times the velocity of the fluid. Its unit is m3s-1. Flow rate is also called as volume flow rate.

Flow rate = Volume / time L

𝑉
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴 × 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝐿)
A
𝑡
Displacement (L)
𝐴𝐿 = velocity (v)
= 𝑡
= 𝐴𝜈 Time (t)

Flow rate = Area of pipe x velocity of fluid

The mass flow rate of fluid is the mass of fluid that passes through a given point per unit time.

𝑀 ρ𝑉 ρ𝐴𝐿
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑀) = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜌) × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑉)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑡 = =
𝑡 𝑡
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴 × 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝐿)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 Displacement (L)
= velocity (v)
Time (t)
The Continuity Equation (flow through a constriction)
The equation of continuity or continuity equation is the expression of the law of conservation of mass in fluid
mechanics. In other words the mass of a moving fluid (mass flow rate) doesn’t change as it flows. This leads to an
important quantitative relationship between velocity and area of cross-section of tube in which fluid flows is
called the continuity equation.

The mass flow rates of fluid at any two points

L1 L2
must be equal, as long as no fluid is being
added or taken away.
This gives us the equation of continuity:
Mass flow rates at two sizes of tube
A flow tube with changing cross-sectional area.
Velocity of fluid from one size pipe to another
𝝆𝟏 𝑨𝟏𝒗𝟏 = 𝝆𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐

Since the fluid is incompressible (ρ1= ρ2 = ρ)

𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐

This the continuity equation for incompressible fluid

Problem: 1
If the flow rate of the liquid is measured at 8 x10-3 m3s-1 going through a 2.0 cm radius pipe. What is the average fluid
velocity in the pipe?

Flow rate of fluid = Area of pipe x velocity of fluid

Velocity of fluid = Flow rate / Area

= (8 x10-3 m3s-1 )/ (3.14 x (2 x10-2)2 m2)

Velocity of fluid = 6.37 ms-1

Problem: 2
A water tunnel has a circular cross-section where the diameter diminishes from 3.6 m to 1.2 m. If the velocity of water flow
is 3.0 ms-1 in the larger part of the tunnel, what is the velocity of flow in the smaller part of the tunnel?.

From continuity equation, we have 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2

𝐴1
𝑣2 = 𝑣
𝐴2 1

3.14 × 1.8 2 𝑚2 -1
𝑣2 = 2 2 x 3.0 ms
3.14 × 0.6 𝑚

Velocity of flow in the smaller part of tunnel = 27 ms-1

Problem: 3
Water flow into a house at a velocity of 15 ms-1 through a pipe that has a radius of 0.4 m. The water then flows through a
smaller pipe at a velocity of 45 ms-1 . What is the radius of the smaller pipe?

From continuity equation, we have 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2

𝑣1
𝐴2 = 𝐴1
𝑣2
2 𝑣1 2
𝑟2 = 𝑟1
𝑣2

15 ms −1
𝑟2 2 = x 0.16 m 2
45ms−1

𝑟2 2 = 0.0533

Radius of the smaller pipe = 0.2309 m

Problem: 4
Incompressible oil of density 850 Kgm-3 is pumped through a cylindrical pipe at a rate of 9.5 liters per second. (a) The first
section of the pipe has a diameter of 8.0 cm. What is the flow speed of the oil? What is the mass flow rate? (b) The second
section of the pipe has a diameter of 4.0 cm. What are the flow speed and mass flow rate in that section?

ρ = 850 Kgm-3 r1 = 4 x 10-2 m

Flow rate = 9.5 L/s = 9.5 x 10-3 m3s-1 r2 = 2 x 10-2 m

Flow rate = A1v1

v1 = Flow rate / A1
Flow speed in the fist section of the pipe of diameter 8.0 cm is
v1 = (9.5 x 10-3 m3s-1)/ (3.14 x (4 x 10-2)2 m2)
Flow speed of oil in the first section of pipe of radius 4 cm = 1.891 ms-1
Mass flow speed of the oil in the first section of pipe = density x flow rate
= 850 Kgm-3x 9.5 x 10-3 m3s-1
= 8.075 Kgs-1

From continuity equation, we have 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2

−
𝐴1 3.14 ×(4×10 2)2 𝑚2
𝑣2 = 𝑣1 = 3.14 × 2×10 −2 2 𝑚2 x v1 = 4v1
𝐴2
Flow speed of oil in the second section of pipe of radius 2 cm = 7.564 ms-1
Mass flow speed of the oil in the second section of pipe is same as that of first section
Bernoulli’s Principle:
Bernoulli’s principle states that as the speed of a moving fluid increases (liquid or gas), the pressure within the
fluid decreases.
1
Pressure of a moving fluid α 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
(Greater the velocity of fluid less will be the pressure excreted by the fluid)
The fluid flowing from smaller cross-section area A1 to larger area A2 experience an decrease in velocity, so the
kinetic energy of fluid decreases as it flows from smaller area to larger area. But according to law of conservation
of energy, energy should be conserved. So this decrease in kinetic energy is balanced by the increase in pressure
energy and potential energy of the fluid. L 1

Kinetic Energy = ½ mv2 Work done = F.ds A1

Potential Energy = mgh P=F/A A2

Work done (Pressure Energy) = PV Work done = PA.L

h1
Work done = PV h2

P1V + ½ mv12 + mgh1 = P2V+ ½ mv22 + mgh2

m=ρV
P1 + ½ ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2+ ½ ρv22 + ρgh2
Bernoulli’s Theorem:
Bernoulli’s theorem states that the total energy per unit weight of an incompressible liquid flowing from one
point to another, without any friction remains constant throughout the motion.
𝑃𝑉 𝑃
Pressure energy per unit weight is pressure head 𝑚𝑔
= ρ𝑔 , kinetic energy per unit weight is velocity head
1 𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑣2 𝑚𝑔ℎ
= and potential energy per unit weight is gravitational head =ℎ .
2 𝑚𝑔 2 𝑔 𝑚𝑔

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 + 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 + 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝜌𝑉𝑔ℎ1 – 𝜌𝑉𝑔ℎ2 = 𝜌𝑉𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ2) m=ρV
P1
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝑃1𝑉 – 𝑃2𝑉 = 𝑉(𝑃1 − 𝑃2) P2
v1
v2
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = ½ 𝑉𝜌𝑣22 –½ 𝑉𝜌𝑣12 = ½ 𝑉𝜌(𝑣22 – 𝑣12) h1 h2
According to law of conservation of energy , Loss in energy = gain in energy
𝜌𝑉𝑔(ℎ1 − ℎ2) + 𝑉(𝑃1 − 𝑃2) = ½ 𝑉𝜌(𝑣22 – 𝑣12)
ℎ1𝑔 + 𝑃1/𝜌 + ½ 𝑣12 = ℎ2𝑔 + 𝑃2/𝜌 + ½ 𝑣22
i.e., 𝒉𝒈 + 𝑷/𝝆 + ½ 𝒗𝟐 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 This is Bernoulli’s equation
If we divide g in the above equation, we get

𝒉 + 𝑷/𝝆𝒈 + 𝒗𝟐/𝟐𝒈 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

When an incompressible fluid flows in streamline motion, the sum of the pressure head, velocity head and gravitational head
remains constant throughout the motion.
Application of Bernoulli’s Principle in Aerodynamics
Altitude vs. air pressure
Air pressure above sea level can be calculated as
p = 101325 (1 - 2.25577 10-5 h)5.25588
where , p = air pressure (Pa), h = altitude above sea level (m)
Problem: 5
Water enters a house through a pipe with an inside diameter of 2.0 cm at an absolute pressure of 4 x105 Pa (about 4 atm). A
1.0 cm diameter pipe leads to the second-floor bathroom 5.0 m above. When the flow speed at the inlet pipe is 1.5 ms-1 find
the flow speed, pressure, and volume flow rate in the bathroom.

From continuity equation, we have 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2

𝐴1
𝑣2 = 𝑣
𝐴2 1
−
2 2
3.14 × 1×10 𝑚2 -1 -1
𝑣2 = −
2 2 2 x 1.5 ms = 6 ms
3.14 × 0.5×10 𝑚

Volume flow rate in the bathroom = A2v2 = 3.14 x (0.5 x 10-2)2 m2 x 6 ms-1 = 4.71 x 10-4 m3s-1

From Bernoulli’s principle, P1 + ½ ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2+ ½ ρv22 + ρgh2

P2 = P1 - ½ ρ(v22 – v12) - ρg(h2-h1)
P2 = 4 x105 Pa – [0.5 x 1000 kgm-3 ((6)2 –(1.5)2m2s-2)] – [1000 kgm-3 x 9.8 ms-2 x 5 m]
P2 = 4 x 105 Pa - 16.875 x 103 Kgm-1s-2 - 4.9 x 104 Kgm-1s-2
P2 = 4 x 105 Nm-2 – 0.16875 x 105 Nm-2 - 0. 49 x 105 Nm-2
= 3.341 Nm-2 or 3.341 Pa
Problem: 6
Water flows along a horizontal tube of which the cross-section is not constant. Calculate the change in pressure when the
velocity of flow changes from 0.1 ms-1 to 0.2 ms-1.

P1 + ½ ρv12 = P2 + ½ ρv22

P2 = P1 - ½ ρ(v22 – v12)

= (1000/2) Kgm-3 x [(0.1)2 – (0.2)2] m2s-2

= -15 Kgm-1s-2 = -15 Nm-2

The negative sign indicates that there is a decrease in pressure when the velocity increases
Problem: 7
Water flows through a horizontal pipe of varying cross-section. At a point where the pressure of water is 0.05 m of mercury
the velocity of flow is 0.25 ms-1. Calculate the pressure at the another point where velocity of flow is 0.4 ms-1 . Density of
mercury is 13.6 x 103 Kgm-3.

P1 = 0.05 m of Hg = 0.05 m x 13.6 x103 kgm-3 x 9.8 ms-2 = 6664 Nm-2 (or) Pa
Density of water (ρ) = 1000 Kgm-3
v1 = 0.25 ms-1
v2 = 0.4 ms-1

According to Bernoulli’s equation, h1 + P1/ρg + v12/2g = h2 + P2/ρg + v22/2g

Since the water flowing tube is horizontal, h1 = h2,
Therefore, P1/ρg + v12/2g = P2/ρg + v22/2g
P2 = P1 + [(ρ/2)x (v12 – v22)]
P2 = 6664 Pa + [500 Kgm-3 x [(0.25)2 – (0.4)2 m2s-2]]
P2 = 6664 Pa - 48.75 Pa
P2 = 6615.25 Pa
P2 = 6615.25 / (13.6 x103 x 9.8) m of Hg
= 0.0496 m of Hg