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Molecular structures of cell

membranes and assembly
Instructor: Dr. Shah Nawaz
Chapter-6 of Life, the science of biology- Episode-1
Membranes and memory!
The story of James and his grandfather John,
who had a memory loss problem!

Frau Auguste D., who died in 1906, was the

first patient described with progressive
dementia by Dr. Alois Alzheimer.
 Structure of a biological
membrane
• Lipids, Carbohydrates and proteins-
constituents of membranes
• Lipids are effective barrier and offer
liquidity.
• It is a phosphlipid bilayer- a lake where
protein floats
• Fluid mosaic model: Where proteins are
non-covalently embedded with
hydrophobic membrane and
hydrophilic in the water
Hydrophilic regions: The
phosphorus-containing “head”
of the phospholipid is
electrically charged and
therefore associates with polar
water molecules.
• Hydrophobic regions: The
long, nonpolar fatty acid “tails”
of the phospholipid associate
with other nonpolar materials,
but they do not dissolve in
water or associate with
hydrophilic substances.

It is a bilayer, where fatty acid “tail” interact with each other and polar
“heads” face the outside aqueous environment.

8nm thick, 8000 times thinner than a piece of paper!!

 Cholesterol in membrane is not
bad
• Membranes can be organized in the
laboratory
Palmitic: C14, no double bonds,
• Lipids fluidity helps in vesicle formationsaturated- close packing
for process like phagocytosis • Palmitoleic: C16, 1 double
bond
• All membranes have same structure, but•Stearic: C ,no-double bonds,
18
they vary in lipid, protein and cholesterolsaturated
• Animals membrane-more cholesterol ••Linoleic:Oleic: C18, 1 double bond
C18, 2 double bonds
(25%)-offers fluidity (Light machine oil)• Linolenic: C18, 3 double bonds
• Fatty acids chain length, the degree of
saturation and polar groups may vary.
• Kinks in unsaturated more fluid and
cholesterol molecules
• Saturated fatty acids hard and packed. So
some animals or plants change their
 Membrane proteins are
asymmetrically distributed
• All biological membranes have proteins
• Average, 25:1 (phopholipids : Protein)
• Mitochondria 15:1
• Nerve cells 70:1
• Phosphlipids can move from one part of the
cell to the other in a second! However,
inversion is not possible
• Peripheral proteins (with polar heads only)
• Integral proteins (across both sides)
• Hydrophilic domains
• Hydrophobic domains
 Go to: https://www.socrative.com/#login
Which statement about membrane phospholipids is not true?
a. They associate to form bilayers.
b. They have hydrophobic “tails.”
c. They have hydrophilic “heads.”
d. They give the membrane fluidity.
e. They flip-flop readily from one side of the membrane to the other.

When a hormone molecule binds to a specific protein on the plasma

membrane, the protein it binds to is called a
a. ligand.
b. clathrin.
c.Receptor protein.
d. hydrophobic protein.
e. cell adhesion molecule.
Which statement about membrane proteins is not true?
a. They all extend from one side of the membrane to the other.
b. Some serve as channels for ions to cross the membrane.
c. Many are free to migrate laterally within the membrane.
d. Their position in the membrane is determined by their tertiary structure.
e. Some play roles in photosynthesis.
 Which statement about membrane carbohydrates is not true?
a. Some are bound to proteins.
b. Some are bound to lipids.
c. They are added to proteins in the Golgi apparatus.
d. They show little diversity.
e. They are important in recognition reactions at the cell surface.

Which statement about animal cell junctions is not true?

a. Tight junctions are barriers to the passage of molecules between cells.
b. Desmosomes allow cells to adhere firmly to one another.
c. Gap junctions block communication between adjacent cells.
d. Connexons are made of protein.
e. The fibers associated with desmosomes are made of protein.
Plasma membrane
carbohydrates
 Three types of cell
junctions connect adjacent
cells
Cells like epithelial cells must maintain their
integrity and also bear the pressure from
external environment
A- Tight junctions: They seal the epithelial cells together and form a thread
like structure enciecling the cells.
Tight junctions are found in the lining of lumens (cavities) in organs such as
the stomach and intestine. They have two major functions:
1- They prevent substances from moving from the lumen through the
spaces between cells. The bladder cells will not allow urine to pass into
body. Thus, tight junctions help to establish cellular control over what enters
and leaves the body.
2- They define specific functional regions of membranes by restricting the
migration of membrane proteins and phospholipids from one region of the
cell to another. Tips and bottom differ in lipids and proteins composition
 Three types of cell
junctions connect adjacent
cells
B- DESMOSOMES HOLD CELLS
TOGETHER: They connect the adjacent molecules,
like a welded part. Run through cytoplasm to plasma
membrane of adjacent cell.
They are extremely strong fibers and connected with
keratin like fibre
C-Gap junctions: For communication of
molecules.
They are made up of proteins called connexins.
Allow the ions and water to pass. They are part
of cell signalling
Tight junctions (A) and desmosomes (B) are abundant in
epithelial tis- sues. Gap junctions (C) are also found in some
muscle and nerve tissues, in which rapid communication between
cells is important. Although all three junction types are shown in
the cell at the right, all three are not necessarily seen at the same
time in actual cells.
Cell membrane adheres to
extracellular matrix

• The extracellular matrix of animal

cells, which is composed of collagen
protein arranged in fibers.

• Integrity and movement of cells is

mediated through extracellular matrix
and interaction with Integrin proteins

• The binding of integrin is non-covalent

and reversible

• Important for developing embryo and

cancer cells movement
 Membrane transport
• Can anything just past through cells?
• What is selective permeability?
• Passive transport
• Passive transport processes include two types of diffusion:
simple diffusion through the phospholipid bilayer, and
facilitated diffusion through channel proteins or by
means of carrier proteins.
• Active transport
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Mechanism of protein sorting

and transport across
membranes
Instructor: Dr. Shah Nawaz
Chapter-6 of Life, the science of biology- Episode-2
 Membrane transport
• Can anything just past through cells?
• What is selective permeability?
• Passive transport (The energy is due to
concentration difference)
• Passive transport processes include two types of diffusion:
simple diffusion through the phospholipid bilayer, and
facilitated diffusion through channel proteins or by
means of carrier proteins.
• Active transport
 What is diffusion?

• Diffusion is a random movement of

molecules in a state of equilibrium
• Molecules are never at rest-
Nonetheless, their movement can be
slow. Equilibrium is the equal
distribution of molecules
• Three factors. A- Diameter, B-
Temperature and C- Concentration
gradient
 Diffusion in the cells
• Within a cell-very rapid diffusion. Within a
millisecond from one end to other end of
organelles
• However, it may take years if more distance is
there
• Diffusion across membranes: Permeable vs
Impermeable
• Individual molecules continue to pass through
the membrane after equilibrium is
established, but equal numbers of molecules
move in each direction, so at equilibrium there
 Diffusion of nonpolar molecules is
possible through cell membranes

• Small molecules can pass through membrane-simple

diffusion
• Hydrophobic and lipid soluble molecule can easily pass.
• What about charged, sugar, amino acids, ions or hydrophilic
molecules?
• Charged molecules may form the hydrogen bond with water
• If a membrane separates through concentration gradient the
polar amino acids and a cholesterol based steroid of equal
size will separate with different rates
 Osmosis is the movement of
water across the membranes
• Osmosis- a passive process; Water molecules pass through specialized channels
in membranes by a diffusion process called osmosis. Osmosis depends on the
number of solute particles present, not on the kinds of particles.
• Red blood cells or lettuce cells: They can take up water and swell
• the difference in solute concentration between a cell and its surrounding
environment determines whether water will move from the environment into the
cell or out of the cell into the environment.
• if two different solutions are separated by a membrane that allows water, but not
solutes, to pass through, water molecules will move across the membrane toward
the solution with a higher solute concentration. In other words, water will diffuse
from a region of its higher concentration (with a lower concentration of solutes)
to a region of its lower concentration (with a higher concentration of solutes)
 Facilitated diffusion (diffusion aided by
channels)

• polar or charged substances such as water, amino acids,

sugars and ions do not readily diffuse across membranes.
But they can cross the hydrophobic phospholipid bilayer
passively
• 1- Channel proteins, 2- Carrier proteins
• ION channels: Pores to maintain the electrical activity
• Gated Channels and ligand gated channels, voltage gated
channels
 The membrane potential
• The imbalance concentration is maintained across
the membrane and as a result the voltage difference
is created, resulting into membrane potential
• The potassium ion pump (K+) inside the cell
maintains equilibrium
• The concentration gradient and distribution of
charge, K+ Cl-
• Aquaporins are specific water channels in kidney or
red blood cells and can rapidly diffuse water along
with Na+
• Glucose molecules are transported through carrier
proteins
 Active transport
• Against the normal flow and requires
energy
• Many molecules need to be maintained
across the concentration gradient.
Energy is used in the form of ATP
Active transport is
directional
Different energy sources
distinguish the types of
active transport
• Primary active transport: direct use of
energy
Secondary active transport: does not use ATP
directly. Instead, its energy is supplied by an ion concentration and
electrical gradient established by primary active transport.
This transport system uses the energy of ATP indirectly to
set up the gradient.
 Movement of large
molecules across the
membranes
• Macromolecules such as proteins,
polysaccharides, and nucleic acids are simply
too large and too charged or polar to pass
through biological membranes.
• Interior of the cell must be separated from
the exterior
• Cells must take up (endocytosis) and secrete
(exocytosis)
• Phagocytosis: Engulfing the molecules
 Macromolecules and
particles enter through
•
endocytosis
Endocytosis is a general term for a group of processes that bring small
molecules, macromolecules, large particles, and even small cells into the
eukaryotic cell. There are three types of endocytosis: phagocytosis,
pinocytosis, and receptor mediated endocytosis.
• In all three types plasma membrane folds inward-Invaginates to form vesicles
• Phagocytosis: “Cellular eating” part of the plasma membrane engulfs large
particles or even entire cells.
• White blood cells and protists use phagocytosis
• Pinocytosis: Relative small vesicles are formed-cellular drinking
• In receptor-mediated endocytosis, molecules at the cell surface
• recognize and trigger the uptake of specific materials.
• It is used by animal cells to engulf foreign particles
• The integral proteins attach with membrane and are coated with clathrin
protein
Cell Structure
& Function
Episode-I &2
Instructor: Dr. Shah Nawaz
 Go to: https://www.socrative.com
What is Cell biology?
• Cell biology is a branch of biology that studies
the structure, function, and behavior of cells.
• All living organisms are made of cells. A cell is
the basic unit of life that is responsible for the
living and functioning of organisms.
• Cell biology is the study of structural and
functional units of cells.
 Cells are basic units of
lifewith microscope back in the
The ultimate discover of cell is linked
1600s

Postulates of cell theory: • Cells are the basic structural and

physiological units of all living organisms.
• Cells are both distinct entities and building blocks of more complex
organisms.
-A wrong concept- cells emerged by the self-assembly of nonliving
materials,
-life can arise from non-life by spontaneous generation—mice from
dirty clothes, maggots from dead meat, or insects from pond water
modern cell theory has additional elements:
• All cells come from preexisting cells.
• All cells are similar in chemical composition.
• Most of the chemical reactions of life occur in aqueous
solution within cells.
• Complete sets of genetic information are replicated and
passed on during cell division.
• Viruses lack cellular structure but remain dependent on cellular
 Examples of Cells
Prokaryotic vs eukaryotic

Amoeba Proteus

Plant Stem

Bacteria

Red Blood Cell

Nerve Cell
 The origin of life on earth
Life is separation of internal environment of the cell from outer one through a barrier
called membrane
 Genetic language common to
all organisms
Cells are the basic building blocks of
organisms, but even a single cell is complex
—the “blue- print” for existence—is contained
in the cell’s genome.
- DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
nucleotides.
Genes are specific segments of DNA
encoding
By analogy with athe
book,information thearecell
the nucleotides of DNA uses
like the lettersto
of an
make proteins
alphabet. Protein molecules are the sentences. Combinations of proteins
that form structures and control bio- chemical processes are the
paragraphs. The structures and processes that are organized into
different systems with specific tasks (such as digestion or transport) are
the chapters of the book, and the complete book is the organism.
 Cells use nutrients to supply energy
and to build new structures
The sum total of all the chemical transformations and other work done in all
the cells of an organism is its metabolism, or metabolic rate.

Living organisms regulate their internal environment

Eukaryotic cells evolved
from prokaryotes
Some organelles are
hypothesized to have originated
by endosymbiosis when cells
ingested smaller cells. The
mitochondria that generate a
cell’s energy probably evolved
from engulfed prokaryotic
organisms. And chloroplasts—
organelles specialized to
conduct photosynthesis—could
have originated when pho-
tosynthetic prokaryotes were
ingested by larger eukaryotes.
 Assignment! Must be submitted
electronically

Atoms, Elements, Atomic number, isotopes,

Types of bonds: Chemical, ionic, covalent, hydrogen
 Water is an excellent solvent in a cell
A human body is over 70 percent water by weight, excluding the minerals
contained in bones.

Why water is important for cell?

It is water's chemical composition and physical attributes that make it

such an excellent solvent. Water molecules have a polar arrangement
of oxygen and hydrogen atoms—one side (hydrogen) has a positive
electrical charge and the other side (oxygen) had a negative charge.
This allows the water molecule to become attracted to many other
different types of molecules. Water can become so heavily attracted to
a different compound, like salt (NaCl), that it can disrupt the attractive
forces that hold the sodium and chloride in the salt compound together
and, thus, dissolve it.
 Structure and chemical
composition: Important
molecules of the cell
Proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids and nucleic acids
 Chemical composition of
the cell
• Four kinds of molecules are characteristic of living things: pro-
teins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. With the ex-
ception of the lipids, these biological molecules are polymers
(poly, “many”; mer, “unit”) constructed by the covalent bonding of smaller molecules called
monomers. The monomers that make up each kind of biological molecule have similar chemical
structures:
• • Proteins are formed from different combinations of 20 amino
acids, all of which share chemical similarities.
• • Carbohydrates can form giant molecules by linking together
chemically similar sugar monomers (monosaccharides) to form
polysaccharides.
• • Nucleic acids are formed from four kinds of nucleotide
monomers linked together in long chains.
• • Lipids also form large structures from a limited set of smaller
molecules, but in this case noncovalent forces maintain the
interactions between the lipid monomers.
 Proteins
The amino acids are building blocks of proteins
The amino acids have both a carboxyl functional group and an amino functional
group) attached to the same carbon atom, called the α (alpha) carbon. Also attached
to the α carbon atom are a hydrogen atom and a side chain, or R group, designated
by the letter R.
Enzymes are catalytic proteins that speed up biochemical
reactions.
• Defensive proteins such as antibodies recognize and respond
to non-self substances that invade the organism from the
environment.
• Hormonal and regulatory proteins such as insulin control
physiological processes.
• Receptor proteins receive and respond to molecular signals
from inside and outside the organism.
Storage proteins store chemical building blocks—amino
acids—for later use.
• Structural proteins such as collagen provide physical stabil-
ity and movement. Primary, secondary, tertiary
• Transport proteins such as hemoglobin carry substances and quaternary protein
within the organism. structures, HSP
• Genetic regulatory proteins regulate when, how, and to what Chaperones
extent a gene is expressed.
 Chemical structures of carbohydrates

• They are a source of There are four categories of biologically

stored
Carbohydrates are a
importantincarbo- hydrates:
energy that can be released
large group of molecules
• Monosaccharides (mono, “one”;
a form usable by organisms.
that all have a similar
saccharide, “sugar”), such as glucose,
• They are used to transport
atomic composition but
differ greatly in size, stored energy within ribose,
complexand fructose, are simple sugars.
organisms. They are the monomers from which the
chemical properties, and
• They serve as carbon larger carbohydrates are con- structed.
biological functions.
Carbohydrates have the skeletons that can be• Disaccharides (di, “two”) consist of two
rearranged to form new monosaccharides linked together by
general formula
molecules. covalent bonds. The most familiar is su-
Cn(H2O)n, which makes
them appear as hy- Some carbohydratescrose, are which is made up of covalently
drates of carbon relatively small, with bonded glucose and fructose molecules.
molecular
(association between weights of less than •100Oligosaccharides
Da. (oligo, “several”) are
Others are true made up of several (3–20)
water molecules and car-
macromolecules, with monosaccharides.
bon in the ratio C1H2O1),
hence their name. molecular weights in•the Polysaccharides (poly, “many”), such
hundreds of thousands. as starch, glycogen, and cellulose, are
polymers made up of hundreds or thou-
sands of monosaccharides.
 Chemical structure of lipids
Lipids—colloquially called fats—are hydrocarbons that are insoluble in water
because of their many nonpolar covalent bonds.

Fats and oils store energy.
• Phospholipids play important
structural roles in cell
membranes.
• Carotenoids and chlorophylls
help plants capture light energy.
• Steroids and modified fatty
acids play regulatory roles as
hormones and vitamins.
• Fat in animal bodies serves
as thermal insulation.
• A lipid coating around nerves
provides electrical insulation.
• Oil or wax on the surfaces of
skin, fur, and feathers repels
water.
Chemically, fats and oils are triglycerides,
also known as simple lipids.
Triglycerides that are solid at room
temperature (around 20°C) are called
fats; those that are liquid at room
temperature are called oils. Triglycerides
are composed of two types of building
blocks: fatty acids and glycerol. Glycerol
is a small molecule with three hydroxyl
(—OH) groups (thus it is an alcohol). A
fatty acid is made up of a long nonpolar
hydrocarbon chain and a polar carboxyl
group (—COOH). These chains are very
hydrophobic, with their abundant C—H
and C—C bonds, which have low
electronegativity and are nonpolar
 Nucleotides

Nucleotides; ring shaped structures composed of:

§ Nitrogenous base; these bases are classified based on
their chemical structures into two groups:
q Purine; double ringed structure (Adenine and Guanine).
q Pyrimidine; single ring structures (cytosine and thymine).

§ Sugar
§ Phosphate group
 Nucleotides

n DNA: Four different types of nucleotides differ in

nitrogenous base:
q A is for adenine;
q G is for guanine;
q C is for cytosine and
q T is for thymine.

§ RNA: thymine base replaced by uracil base.

 Nucleotides

Jypx35. Source: Wikipedia

 The DNA

§ Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA); the genetic material

of all cellular organisms and most viruses.
§ DNA; the gigantic molecule which is used to encode
genetic information for all life on Earth.
§ A human cell contains about 2 meters of DNA. DNA
in the body could stretch to the sun and back almost 100
times. So it is tightly packed.
§ DNA responsible for preserving, copying and
transmitting information within cells and from
generation to generation.
 DNA Double Helix

§Linked as a twisted ladder.

§The curving sides of the ladder represent the
sugar-phosphate backbone of the two DNA
strands; the rungs are the base pairs.
§Possess antiparallel polarity.
§Stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the
bases.
DNA Double Helix

Madprime. Source: Wikipedia