1.

LANDFORMS O N THE EARTH

2. EARTHQUAKES
 LANDFORMS
ON THE EARTH

Source:
1. Yee, Sze Onn. (Gen Ed.) (2010). Earth: Our Home. (2nd ed.). Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Education. (pp. 78-101)
2. Guinness, Paul & Nagle, Garrett. (2018). Geography. (3rd ed.). UK: Hodder Education. (pp. 90-106)
 Features: Created by Crustal Tectonic plates
Mountains, movements • slide past
hills, plateau, • pull apart
Landforms • push towards
plains, Folding
valleys, Fold mountains
volcanoes. Modified by Vulcanicity
Land
Formation of a volcano
• The built-up pressure forces magma up
Weathering and
Water the Earth's crust to the surface
erosion
The physical • Ash and lava are released through an
• Changes in
environment opening in the Earth’s surface
temperature
• Layers of hardened lava make up the
Air • Acidic rainwater
cone of the volcano
• Alternate
freezing of water Types of volcano
Living Environment and melting of • Active volcano
ice • Dormant volcano
• Plant growth • Extinct volcano
• River erosion Case Study: Living with Volcanoes
• Wave erosion • Risks of living near volcanoes
• Wind erosion
• Benefits of living near volcanoes
(Yee, 2010, p.186-187)
1. Types of Landforms
2. Internal Structure of the Earth
3. Internal Forces that Create
Landforms
4. Volcanoes
5. Plateaux
6. External Forces that Modify
Landforms
7. How Do Landforms Affect Us?
8. Living with Volcanoes
9. Predicting Volcanoes
 La ndforms | The D r. B i nocs S how

Peekaboo Kidz. (Sept 4, 2020). LANDFORMS | Types Of Landforms | Landforms Of The Earth | The Dr Binocs Show.
(7:34 minutes). Retrieved December 26, 2021, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QLhKCr_qTJU
Types of
Landforms
1 of 9
(Yee, 2010, p. 80)
 Types of Landforms (1/2)

 Mountain
~ An area o f h igh ground, u sually mo re th an 600 metres
h igh.
~ Often h as steep slo pes, an d a n arrow to p o r peak.
~ Wh ere a few mountains are lo cated close to gether,
th ey form a mountain range.

 Hill
~ An area o f h igh ground, u sually less th an 600 metres
h igh.
~ Typically rounded in sh ape an d h as gentle slo pes.
 Types of Landforms ( 2 /2)

 Valley
~ A low area o f land between h ills o r mountains.

 Plain
~ A broad, flat an d lo w area o n th e Earth’s su rface.

 Plateau
~ Generally a raised area o f land with a fairly flat,
broad to p an d steep slopes.
Internal Structure of the Earth
2 of 9
(Yee, 2010, p. 81)
Internal Crust
S tructure
( Layers) Inner
Core
o f t he E arth:
Outer
• C rust Core

• Mantle
• C ore
o Inner C ore
o O uter C ore

Mantle
(Yee, 2010, p. 81)
S tructure of the E arth | The D r. B inocs S how

Peekaboo Kidz. (April 22, 2015). Structure Of The Earth | The Dr. Binocs Show. (3:12 minutes).
Retrieved December 26, 2021, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eXiVGEEPQ6c
CRUST
• Outermost layer of the earth
• Solid
• Thickness v aries 6 km to 70 km
• Made up of many separate pieces
of plates (different sizes; fit like a
jigsaw puzzle)
Crust
MANTLE
• Almost 2,900 km
thick
• Makes up nearly 80%
Earth’s total v olume
• Temperature can
reach more than
2,000 oC
• Upper part of this
layer often in a semi-
molten or semi-
liquid state

CORE
• At the center of the Earth
• Temperature as high as 5,000 oC I NTERNAL S TRUCTURE ( LAYERS)
• Innermost part of core is solid OF T HE E ARTH
Internal Forces
that Create Landforms
3 of 9
(Yee, 2010, pp. 82-84)
 In t ernal Fo rces t h at C reate L an dforms (1/3)

T he p lates w h ich m ake u p t h e E a r th’s c rust is a lways

m oving.
• M ovement o f p lates w h ich m ake u p t h e E a rth’s c rust
… c rustal m ovement
• P lates m ove v ery s l owly … b e tween 1 cm t o 5 cm p er
y ear
A s t h e p lates m ove, t h ey m ay s lide p ast, p u ll a part from
o r p ush t o wards e ach o t her.
T hese p rocesses – f o lding a n d v u lcanicity – o c curring
w ithin t h e E a r th a n d o n t h e E a r th’s s u rface c reates
la ndforms, s uch a s m o untains a nd v olcanoes.
 In t ernal Fo rces t h at C reate L an dforms (1a/3)

As the plates move, they may slide past , pull apart

from or push towards each other.

Ocean
Plate
Plate
Mantle

Fig 8.4 – Some plates

slide past each other.
(Yee, 2010, p. 82)
 In t ernal Fo rces t h at C reate L an dforms (1b/3)

As the plates move, they may slide past, pull apart

from or push towards each other.

Mountain
Ocean Volcano
Plate

Mantle
Ocean

Plate

Mantle Plate
Fig 8.5 – Some plates pull
apart from each other.

Fig 8.4 – Some plates

Plate
push towards e ach other.

(Yee, 2010, p. 82)

 In t ernal Fo rces t h at C reate L an dforms (2a/3)

▪ Folding
• W h en t w o p l ates collide
w i th each o t her, s o me
o f t h e l ayers o f rock
w h ich m ake u p t h e
E ar th’s crust b u ckle
an d f o rm f o lds. This
Fig 8.7 – When you push one end of a
p rocess i s k n own as stack of paper towards the other, the
pressure from both ends causes the stack
f o lding. to bend upwards.

(Yee, 2010, p. 83)

 In t ernal Fo rces t h at C reate L an dforms (2b/3)

▪ ( con’ t ) Folding
• T h e am ount o f f o lding t h at t a kes p l a ce ca n b e s o
s m all t h at i t i s h ardly n o ticeable, o r i t can b e s o
l arge t h at m o untains are f ormed as a result.
T h ese m o untains are called f o ld m o untains.
• A n e x a m p le of a n a re a wit h fold m ount a ins is t he
H im a la ya s in N e p a l . Som e of t he world ’s hig he st
m ount a ins, such a s Mount Eve re st , a re loc at e d in t he
H im a la ya s. A lt houg h t he H im a la ya s we re first form e d
a round 4 0 t o 5 0 m illion ye a rs a go, t hey a re st ill g rowing
t od a y.
 In t ernal Fo rces t h at C reate L an dforms (2c/3)

▪ ( con’ t ) Folding
• T h ere are m any f old m o untains i n t h e w o rld.
A p a rt from t he H im a la ya s, ot he r m a jor fold m ount a in
ra nge s includ e t he A p p a la chian Mount a ins in N ort h
A m e ric a , t he A nd e s in Sout h A m e ric a a nd t he A lp s in
Europ e.
 Alps

Appalachian
Tropic of Cancer Mts
PACIFIC
OCEAN
Equator

ATLANTIC INDIAN
OCEAN OCEAN
Tropic of Capricorn

Andes Mts
Great Dividing Range

Antarctic Circle SOUTHERN OCEAN

 In t ernal Fo rces t h at C reate L an dforms (2b/3)

▪ Vu lcanicity
• S o metimes t h e t em perature b en eath t h e E ar th’s
c rust i s s o g reat t h at i t ca u ses p a r ts o f t h e m a ntle
t o m elt. M olten m an tle i s cal led m agma . T his
m a g m a p ushe s it s wa y int o t he c rust of t he Ea rt h a nd
re a che s t he Ea rt h’s surfa c e t hroug h c ra cks which a re of t e n
f ound a long b ound a rie s of p lat e s. W h en m agma
reaches t h e E ar th’s s u rface, i t i s cal led l ava .
Ma g m a a nd lava a re t he re fore t he sa m e sub st a nc e. T his
p rocess b y w h ich m agma an d o t her m at erials
reach t h e E ar th’s s u rface i s cal led vulcanicity .
 In t ernal Fo rces t h at C reate L an dforms (2b/3)

▪ Vu lcanicity
( con’ t )

• W h en m agma reaches t h e E ar th’s s u rface, i t f l ows

o u t o nto t h e s urrounding areas. This o u tpouring
o f t h is l ava i s cal led eruption . T hink of a c a n of sof t
d rink b e ing op e ne d a ft e r it ha s b e e n sha ke n vigourously –
a n ‘e x p losion’ t a ke s p la c e a s t he soft d rink sp e ws out of
t he c a n! T his ha p p e ns d ue t o re le a se of b uilt - up p re ssure.
Likewise the build-up of pressure
caused by gases below the Earth’s
surface results in a volcanic eruption.
 In t ernal Fo rces t h at C reate L an dforms (2c/3)

▪ ( con’ t ) Vu lcanicity
• The magma may flow out onto the Earth’s surface
quietly, or it may be accompanied by a series of
violent eruptions. A t t h e E a r th’s s urface, t h e l ava
h ardens as t h e t emperature i s co oler t h an t h e
t emperature i n t h e m antle.
When m agma es capes t o t h e E ar th’s s u rface
t hrough a s ingle h o le, the h ardened l ava b uilt u p
f rom m any eruptions results in a co ne-shaped
m o untain called a vo lcano .
Volcanoes
4 of 9
 1. Volcano | The Dr. Binocs Show
2. Volcanoes 101 | National Geographic

Source:
1. Peekaboo Kidz. (March 19, 2015). Volcano | The Dr. Binocs Show. (2:50 minutes). Retrieved December 26, 2021,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lAmqsMQG3RM
2. National Geographic. (January 15, 2020). Volcanoes 101. (4:58 minutes). Retrieved December 20, 2021,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VNGUdObDoLk
 Basic S t ructure o f a Vo lcano (Yee, 2010, p. 85 ) ( 1 / 3 )

• C o nsists of …
• Ve nt – an o p ening in the Earth’s surface
• P i pe – ch annel which allows the magma to rise to
the top of the volcano during an eruption
• C rater – a b o wl-shaped o p ening at the top of the
volcano w h ere v olcanic m at erials (ash, lava) are
rel eased
• C o ne – simply refers to the s h ape o f t h e v olcano ;
b uilt u p b y as h an d l ava released f rom a n u mber o f
eruptions.
 2 1 The built-up
pre ssure forces
m agma up the
Earth’s crust to the
surface.

Crate r Ash and lava are

2 re leased through the
crater into the air.

3 Layers of hardened
lav a m ake up the
3 cone of the volcano.
Lav a
Pipe

Ve nt
Crust

1
(Yee, 2010,
p. 85)
Magma
THE STRUCTURE
OF VOLCANO
Crust Crust
→→ 

Rising magma
 W h ere are vo l canoes fo und? (Yee, 2010, p. 86) ( 2 / 3 )

• Most commonly occur at boundaries of plates; where

the impact of the plate movements is the greatest.
• Large number of the world’s volcanoes lie in a belt
around the Pacific Ocean; widely known as the
Pacific Ring of Fire.
EURASIAN
PLATE
EURASIAN
PLAT E

“RING OF FIRE”

PHILIPPINE COCOS AFRICAN

PLATE PLATE PLATE

NAZCA
PACIFIC PLATE
PLATE

Earthquake activity
SCOTIA
ANTARCTIC PLATE PLATE
Ring of Fire
 Types o f vo l canoes (Yee, 2010, pp. 86-87) ( 3 a / 3 )

1. Active volcano
▪ One which has erupted from time to time and is likely
to do so again in the future.
E.g. Ijen Volcano & Mount Merapi (Indonesia), Mayon volcano
(Luzon, Philippines)

2. Dormant (sleeping) volcano

▪ Presently inactive but which may erupt again.
E.g. Mount Rainier (USA)

3. Extinct volcano
▪ One which scientists consider unlikely to erupt again.
E.g. Mount Kilimanjaro (Tanzania), Ben Navis (UK)
 Types o f vo l canoes (Guinness & Nagle, 2018, p. 90) ( 3 b / 3 )

4. Shield volcanoes
▪ The shape of a volcano depends on the type of lava it
contains. Very hot, runny lava produces gently sloping
shield volcanoes.
5. Cone volcanoes
▪ The shape of a volcano depends on the type of lava it
contains. Very hot, runny lava produces gently sloping
shield volcanoes, while thick material produces cone
volcanoes.
 14 January 2022 Hunga Tonga eruption and tsunami:
1. Many in Tonga had no time to flee as tsunami struck
after volcano eruption

A v e ry large e ruption on Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai, an uninhabited v olcanic island

of the Tongan archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean. Hunga Tonga is 65 km north
of Tongatapu, the country’s m ain island, and is part of the highly active Tonga–
Ke rmadec Islands v olcanic arc, a subduction zone e xtending from New Ze aland
north-northeast to Fiji. The eruption caused tsunamis in Tonga, Fiji, American
Sam oa, Vanuatu, and along the rim of the Pacific Ocean, including damaging
tsunamis in New Ze aland, Japan, the United States, the Russian Far East, Chile, and
Pe ru. … Tsunami waves up to 15 m (49 ft) high. … Preliminary data indicated that the
e vent was probably the largest v olcanic eruption in the 21st century and the largest
since the 1991 e ruption of Mount Pinatubo.
[source: Wikipedia. (23 January 2022, 07:26 UTC. 2022 Hunga Tonga eruption and tsunami. Retrieved January
23, 2022, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Hunga_Tonga_eruption_and_tsunami ]

Source:
1. 1News. (January 16, 2022). M any i n Tonga had no time to flee as tsunami struck after volcano eruption. (3:32 minutes). Retrieved
January 22, 2022, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dUGBtp7jHKc (Note: 1 News is the news division of New Zealand television
network TVNZ)
Plateaux
The Columbia Plateau in the USA
is an example of a plateau formed through vulcanicity.

5 of 9
(Yee, 2010, p. 87)
 P l ateaux

• Another type of landform associated with vulcanicity.

• A plateau is generally a raised area of land with a
fairly flat, broad top and steep slopes.
• It is formed when a large quantity of magma escapes from
a long crack or fault in the Earth’s crust and spreads over
a very large area. This lava then solidifies on the Earth’s
surface, and after numerous eruptions, these layers of
hardened lava result in a plateau. Plateaux formed as a
result of vulcanicity can be found in Iceland and
Greenland.
External Forces
that Modify Landforms
6 of 9
(Yee, 2010, pp. 92-95)
External Forces that Modify Landforms: Weathering
• Weathering
• A p rocess b y w h i ch ro cks are p rogressively
b roken d o wn i n to f ragments w h ere t h ey are.
• C an b e cau sed b y :
1) L arge ch anges i n t emperature
2) A ction o f w ater
3) A ction o f f reezing w at er
4) P l ant g rowth
External Forces that Modify Landforms: Weathering (1a/4)

Weathering – (1) Large changes in temperature

• For example, in the desert, the hot sun heats up the surface of a rock
during the day and causes the surface layer to expand. However, the
inside of the rock remains cool as rocks are poor conductors of heat.
At night, the air temperature drops. The surface layer cools and
contracts faster than the inside of the rock. This constant expansion
and contraction weakens the rock’s surface layer. If water is present,
the rock will crack and the surface layer will
break off in layers or into small pieces.
External Forces that Modify Landforms: Weathering (1b/4)

Weathering – (1) Large changes in temperature

Water collects Ice thaws, contracts

in rock crack and water gets deeper
Water freezes and Repeated expansion
into cracks again
expands, forcing and contraction
crack to widen causes further cracks
till rock splits
External Forces that Modify Landforms: Weathering (2/4)

Weathering – (2) Action of water

• Water is also an important agent in weathering. Rainwater combines
with carbon dioxide in the air to form carbonic acid which dissolves
certain types of rocks, such as limestone. When acidic rainwater seeps
into cracks in the limestone, it dissolves parts of the rocks. Over time,
the acid can wear down enough limestone rocks to form landforms such
as caves.
External Forces that Modify Landforms: Weathering (3/4)

Weathering – (3) Action of freezing water

• On a high mountain, water from melting snow or rain may enter cracks in
rocks. At night, when the temperature falls below O degree Celsius, the water
turns into ice. When the water freezes, it expands and causes the cracks in
the rocks to widen. During the day, when the temperature rises, the ice melts
and turns back into liquid water. This alternate freezing of water and melting
of ice causes the cracks to become wider, eventually breaking the rocks apart.
When water freezes, it expands.
Water enters the cracks The cracks are enlarged
of the rocks. due to pressure exerted by ice.

Fig 8.26 – On a
mountain, repeated
freezing of water and
melting of ice cause
cracks in the rocks to
widen and shatter
eventually.
(Yee, 2010, p. 93)
Day Night
External Forces that Modify Landforms: Weathering (4/4)

Weathering – (4) Plant growth

• Weathering can also be caused by plants.
For example, the wind may deposit seeds into the cracks of rocks. As
the seeds grow into plants, the roots grow into the rocks and force the
cracks in the rocks to widen. Over time, an entire rock can fall apart if
the force is strong enough. In Malaysia and other cities, it is not
uncommon for the roots of trees to penetrate concrete and cause
cracks in pavements.
 E x ternal Fo rces t h at M o dify L andforms – E rosion

• E rosion
• T h e p rocess o f w earing d o wn s u rface m aterials
an d m o ving t h em f rom o n e p l ace t o an o ther.
• C aused m ainly b y:
1) A ction o f ru nning w at er
2) A ction o f w aves
3) A ction o f w i nd
 External Forces that Modify Landforms: Erosion (1a/3)

Erosion – (1) A c tion o f ru nning water

• Water in streams and rivers carries a lot of sediments, or small particles
such as silt, fine sand and mud. As this water flows over rocks, it wears
down the rocks in its path. The sediments in the water act like sandpaper,
scraping and wearing away the rocks. Over time, the action of the water
and the sediments it carries gradually erodes the Earth’s surface. For
example, a river flowing down a mountain can erode so deeply into the
land that a canyon is formed. A canyon is a deep valley with steep sides.
 External Forces that Modify Landforms: Erosion (1b/3)

Erosion – (1) A c tion o f ru nning w ater

 External Forces that Modify Landforms: Erosion (2/3)

Erosion – (2) A c tion o f w aves

• Waves are powerful
agents of erosion.
The constant
breaking of waves
against the shore,
together with the
grinding action of
sand and stones
carried in the
waves, erodes the
seashore to produce
sandy beaches,
caves and cliffs.
12 Apostles
(Melbourne, Australia)
 External Forces that Modify Landforms: Erosion (3/3)

Erosion – (3) A c tion o f w ind

• Wind erosion is common in dry areas where there are few plants to hold
the soil or other loose weathered materials in place. In deserts, strong
winds can carry large amounts of sand and wear away the surfaces of
rocks in their path. The sand polishes and smoothens the surface of these
rocks. As sand is heavy, it cannot be blown very high into the air. Hence,
wind erosion tends to take place mainly at the base of rocks.
E xternal Forces t hat Mo dify L andforms
• Weathering
• A p rocess b y w h i ch ro cks are p rogressively
b roken d o wn i n to f ragments w h ere t h ey are.
• I t can b e cau sed b y ch anges i n t e mperature,
act ion o f w at er an d act ion o f p l ants.
• E rosion
• T h e p rocess o f w earing d o wn s u rface m aterials
a n d m o ving t h em f rom o n e p l ace t o an o ther.
• E rosion i s cau sed m ainly b y ru nning w at er, w aves
an d w i nd.
How Do Landforms Af fect Us?
7 of 9
(Yee, 2010, pp. 96-97)
 H ow D o L andforms A f fect U s?

1. Location of homes
➢ Where settlements are build … flat valley floor?
steep slopes? near volcanoes? by the coast?
➢ Losing of lives? Losing of property?

2. Human Activities
➢ Farming
➢ Recreational activities, such as trekking, mountain
climbing, skiing
➢ Tourism
Living with Volcanoes
8 of 9
(Yee, 2010, pp. 88-91)
 R i sks o f L iving n ear Volcanoes (1 of 3)

a) Volcanic ash fallout and Diseases … A huge quantity of

volcanic ash is released into the atmosphere. The ash may hit areas as
far as 100 kilometres away, af fecting even people living far away from
the volcano. The ash in the air can cause breathing dif ficulties, skin
diseases, diarrhoea and serious eye infections.

b) Dangerous volcanic gases and volcanic bombs

(projectiles)
c) Lava flows and fires
d) Landslides, avalanches, mudflows (lahars),
tsunamis, floods and earthquakes.
[Note: Lahar is an Indonesian word describing a mudflow or debris flow that originates on the
slopes of a volcano.]
 R i sks o f L iving n ear Volcanoes (2 of 3)

e) Destruction of land used for farming and a loss of

livelihood for the farmers
f) Loss of farmland (animals and crops) and forests
(wildlife and vegetation)
g) Destruction of settlements
h) Loss of life
i) People live in fear
 R i sks o f L iving n ear Volcanoes (3 of 3)

j) Destruction of infrastructure, e.g. buildings, roads,

airstrips, port facilities.

k) Disruption of communications
l) Sea … During a volcanic eruption, earthquakes happen and
tsunamis may be created. Also, if it is a volcanic island, the
island may be destroyed, and there is no escape.
 B enefits o f L iving n ear Volcanoes (1 of 3)

a) Rich, deep and fertile volcanic soil that is good

which allow intensive agriculture to take place.
… Each time a volcano erupts, a big amount of volcanic ash
is released. This ash contains many minerals which make the
soil very fertile and help crops to grow well. E.g. Indonesia,
Philippines.

b) Tourism – bringing in more tourists and more

tourism related jobs are made available.
… Locals earn money from providing services, such as
accommodation, conducting guided tours and/or or trekking
trips up the volcano. E.g. Yellowstone National Park (USA), Mount
Merapi (Indonesia)
 B enefits o f L iving n ear Volcanoes (2 of 3)

c) Precious stones and minerals

… e.g. diamonds, sapphires, gold, silver, sulphur.
... e.g. In Java, Indonesia, sulphur is mined to make matches and
fertilisers.
… e.g. In Kimberly, South Africa, diamond is mined to make industrial
tools, to use in scientific research and to make jewellery.

d) Generating income for the local community …. from

harvesting m inerals

e) Volcanic hot springs for bathing and great for skin

and believed to have medicinal value.
… e.g. Iceland, Japan
 B enefits o f L iving n ear Volcanoes (3 of 3)

f) Volcanic mud used for skin care … e.g. N ew Z ealand

g) Heat used to generate electricity … e.g. geothermal power

(Iceland, USA)

h) New land … e.g. Surtsey (Iceland)

[ Note: Surtsey is a volcanic island located in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago off the southern
coast of Iceland. At 63.303°N 20.605°W, Surtsey is the southernmost point of Iceland. It was
formed in a volcanic eruption which began 130 metres below sea level, and reached the surface on
14 November 1963. ]
Predicting Volcanoes
9 of 9
(Guinness & Nagle, 2018, p. 100)
 P redicting Volcanoes
The main methods include:
• Seismometers – to record swarms of tiny earthqu akes
that occur as the magma rises
• Chemical sensors – to measure increas ed sulfur levels
• Lasers – to detect the physical swellin g of the volcano
• Measurement of small -scale uplift or subsidence –
changes in rock stress and changes in radon gas
concentration
• Ultrasound – to monitor low-frequ en cy waves in the
magma, resultin g from the surge of gas and molten rock,
a s h a p p en ed w i t h M t P i n at ub o, E l C h i ch on a n d M t S t H e l e n s.
Recap …
An active volcano is one which has erupted from time to time and
is likely to do so again in the future.
Crustal movement refers to the movement of the plates which
make up the Earth’s crust.
A dormant volcano is a volcano which is presently inactive but
which may erupt again.
Erosion is the process of wearing down surface materials and
moving them from one place to another.
An extinct volcano is one which is unlikely to erupt again.
…2/-
Recap …
Folding is the process by which layers of rock which make up the
Earth's crust buckle and form folds.
A hill is an area of high ground, usually less than 600 metres high.
A mountain is an area of high ground, usually more than 600
metres high.
A plain is a broad, flat and low area on the Earth’s surface.
A plateau is generally a raised area of land with a fairly flat, broad
top and steep slopes.
…3/-
Recap …
A valley is a low area of land between hills or mountains.
Vulcanicity is the process by which magma and other materials
reach the Earth’s surface.
Weathering is the process by which rocks are progressively broken
down into fragments where they are.

***
(Yee, 2010, p. 99)
 1. Types of Landforms
2. Internal Structure of the Earth
3. Internal Forces that Create
Landforms
4. Volcanoes
5. Plateaux
6. External Forces that Modify
Landforms
Landforms 7. How Do Landforms Affect Us?
on the Earth
8. Living with Volcanoes
9. Predicting Volcanoes
 EARTHQUAKES

Source:
1. Guinness, Paul & Nagle, Garrett. (2018). Geography. (3rd ed.). UK: Hodder Education. (pp. 90-106)
❖ What are earthquakes?
❖ Earthquake Intensity
❖ Dealing with Earthquakes
❖ Natural Hazards
What are earthquakes?
1 of 4
(Guinness & Nagle, 2018, p. 91)
E arthquakes 1 01 | National G eographic

National Geographic. (January 23, 2020). Earthquakes 101. (5:01 minutes).

Retrieved December 20, 2021, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_r_nFT2m-Vg
EARTHQUAKES (1 of 3)

• Involve sudden, violent shaking of the Earth’s surface.

• Occur after a build-up of pressure causes rocks and
other materials to give way. Most of this pressure
occurs at plate boundaries when one plate is moving
against another.
• Associated with all types of plate boundary.
• The focus refers to the place beneath the ground
where the earthquake takes place.
EARTHQUAKES (2a of 3)

• The focus refers to the place beneath the ground

where the earthquake takes place.
~ Deep-focus earthquakes are associated with
subduction zones.
[ Note: The subduction zone i s the pl ace where two
l i thospheric pl ates come together, one ri ding over the other.
M ost vol canoes on l and occur parallel to and i nl and from the
boundary between the two pl ates.
(source:
https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=subduction%20zone ;
retrieved Dec 20, 2021) ]
EARTHQUAKES (2b of 3)

• The focus refers to the place beneath the ground

where the earthquake takes place.
~ Shallow-focus earthquakes are generally located
along constructive boundaries and along
conservative boundaries.
[ Note-1: At constructive pl ate boundaries, the tectonic pl ates are movi ng away from one another. The Earth’s crust i s pulled
apart to create a new pathway for ri sing hot magma to fl ow on to the surface. Vol canoes can sometimes form i n these
setti ng; one example i s Icel and. (source: https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering -geology/earth-hazards/volcanoes/how-volcanoes-form-2/; retrieved
Dec 20, 2021)

Note-2: A conservative pl ate boundary, sometimes called a transform pl ate margin, occurs where pl ates sl ide past each
other i n opposite di rections, or i n the same di rection but at di fferent speeds. Friction i s eventually overcome and the pl ate s
sl i p past i n a sudden movement. (source: https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zyhv4wx/revision/2 ; retrieved Dec 20, 2021) ]
EARTHQUAKES (2c of 3)

• The focus refers to the place beneath the ground

where the earthquake takes place.
~ Deep-focus ear thquakes are as s ociated with s u bduction zo nes.
~ S h allow-focus ear thquakes are gen erally lo cated alo n g
co n structive bo undaries an d alo n g co n servative bo u ndaries.

• The epicentre is the

point on the ground
surface immediately
above the focus. Epicentre

Focus
EARTHQUAKES (3 of 3)

• Some are caused by human activity, such as:

~ nuclear testing
~ building of large dams
~ drilling for oil/natural gas (fracking)
~ coal mining
 A diagram showing
Epicentre how tectonic
processes result in
earthquake

Fault
Seismic
Waves
(energy released
during an
earthquake)

Focus

Source:
1. Ministry of Education, Government of Singapore. (Curriculum Planning and Development Division). (2022). Geography: Tectonics. Singapore: Curriculum
Planning and Development Division. (p. 24)
Source:
1. US Dept of Commerce - National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (n.a.). Tsunami Safety. Retrieved January 15, 2023,
https://www.weather.gov/media/owlie/Tsmi_Brochure10.pdf
Earthquake Intensity
2 of 4
(Guinness & Nagle, 2018, pp. 91-92, 98-99)
 1 of 4
EARTHQUAKE I NTENSITY ( p p. 9 1 - 9 2 )

• T he Richter s cale

• T he M ercalli s cale ( Tabl e 2 . 2 – p . 9 2 )

• T he M oment Magnitude Scale

( c o n t i n ua t i on ) E ART HQUAKE I N T ENSITY 2 of 4

• The Richter Scale (ML) .

~ Measure the magnitu de (strength or force) of earthqu akes
( Ta ble 2 . 1 – p. 9 1 )

~ Measured on a seismometer (a machine that detects seismic waves caused by

and shown on a
earthquakes)

seismograph (an instrument that makes a

record of seismic waves caused by an earthquake,
explosion, or other Earth-shaking phenomenon).
(Figure 2.3 – p. 91)

~ Logarith mic. This means that

an earthquake of 6.0 is ten
times greater than one of 5.0,
and one hundred times greater
than one of 4.0.
( c o n t i n ua t i on ) E ART HQUAKE I N T ENSITY 3 of 4

• The Mercalli Scale . ( Ta ble 2 . 2 – p. 9 2 )

~ Relates ground movemen t to things that you would notice

happen in g around you.
~ Its advantage is that it allows ordinary eyewitn ess es to
provide information on the strength of the earthqu ake.
 Source:
( c o n t i n ua t i on ) E ART HQUAKE I N T ENSITY 1. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
(2022). Moment Magnitude.
4 of 4
Retrieved February 19, 2022,
https://www.britannica.com/science/
• The Moment Magnitude Scale (Mw) . moment-magnitude

~ Th e mo s t u p to date s cale for measurin g earthqu akes.

~ T h e m o m e nt m a g nit ude s c a le i s t h e o n l y s c a le c a p able o f re l iably
m e a su ring t h e m a g nit udes o f t h e l a rgest , m o s t d e st ruc tive e a r t hquakes
( t h at i s, g re ater t h a n m a g n itude 8 ) . T h e m o m e n t m a g n itude p ro vides a n
e s t imate o f e a r t hqua ke s i z e t h at i s v a l id o v e r t h e c o m plet e ra n ge o f
m a g nit udes, a ch a ra cteristic t h at w a s l a ckin g i n o t h e r m a g nitu de s c a les.
The ma in re a son why the moment magnitude scale is the most reliable method of
c a lc ulating the relative size of large earthquakes is that its underlying calculation
proc e ss avoids the problem of magnitude saturation, because it is based on
me a sure ments of an earthquake’s total energy. For large earthquake events,
gove rnme nt e a rthquake monitoring agencies, such as the United States Geological
Survey a nd the Japan Meteorological A gency, often provide initial earthquake
ma gnitude s to the public by using the body - wave and surface-wave scales first.
Ea rthqua ke ma gnitude calculations using these methods are less complicated than
de te rmining the moment magnitude, and they allow these agencies to report an
e a rthqua ke’s re lative size to the public rapidly. A s time and resources allow,
e a rthqua ke ma gnitudes are adjusted later by using the moment magnitude scale.
* Fa c t ors t hat a f fect e xtent o f e a rthquake d a mage (1 of 5)

▪ S t rength o f e arthquake ( its m agnitude) and n u mber o f

a ftershocks
~ T he s t ronger t he e a rthquake the m o re d a mage it c a n d o.

▪ D epth o f f ocus
~ D e ep f ocus c a uses m inimal i mpact a nd d a mage be cause
s e ismic w aves t a ke a l onger t ime t o re a ch s u rface, e nergy
i s l ost i n t ra nsit, he nce minimal vib rations.
~ Conversely, s ha llow f ocus c a uses g re at i mpact a nd
d a mage b e cause s e ismic waves re ach s urface f a st, e nergy
i s i ntact, he nce violent vib rations.
*Source:
1. Guinness, Paul & Nagle, Garrett. (2018). Geography. (3rd ed.). UK: Hodder Education. (pp. 90-106)
2. Zhang, Beetee. (2019). A Comprehensive and Systematic Approach to Learning Geography. Singapore: Spot Excel Publishers Pte Ltd. (pp. 38-39)
* Fa c t ors t hat a f fect e xtent o f e a rthquake d a mage (2 of 5)

▪ Po pulation d ensity
~ An e a rt hquake that hits a n a re a o f h igh p opulation de nsity
c ould inflict f a r m o re d a mage tha n one that hits a n a re a of
low p op ulation a nd low b uilding d e nsity.

▪ T ime o f d ay ( o ccurrence)
~ An e a rt hquake d uring a b usy t ime ( such a s rush h our) ma y
c a use m ore d e aths tha n one at a quiet time.

*Source:
1. Guinness, Paul & Nagle, Garrett. (2018). Geography. (3rd ed.). UK: Hodder Education. (pp. 90-106)
2. Zhang, Beetee. (2019). A Comprehensive and Systematic Approach to Learning Geography. Singapore: Spot Excel Publishers Pte Ltd. (pp. 38-39)
* Fa c t ors t hat a f fect e xtent o f e a rthquake d a mage (3 of 5)

▪ L evel o f p reparedness
~ If p e ople m e ntally w e ll-prepared ( e. g. p ra c t i ce d r i l ls, ev a c uati on
p l a n s, t ra i n ed re s c u e w o rke rs i n p l a c e) , fe wer d e aths.
~ However, if n ot m e ntally p repared, g reater d e aths a s
p e ople p a nicked instead of re sp onding c a lmly to
eva cuation p rocedures.

▪ T he d istance f rom t he c e ntre ( epicentre) o f t h e

e a rthquake
~ T he c loser a p la ce is t o t he e p icentre, the g reater the
d a mage.
*Source:
1. Guinness, Paul & Nagle, Garrett. (2018). Geography. (3rd ed.). UK: Hodder Education. (pp. 90-106)
2. Zhang, Beetee. (2019). A Comprehensive and Systematic Approach to Learning Geography. Singapore: Spot Excel Publishers Pte Ltd. (pp. 38-39)
* Fa c t ors t hat a f fect e xtent o f e a rthquake d a mage (4 of 5)

▪ T he t y pe o f s o il ( rocks a n d s ediments)
~ L oose m aterials c a n a c t l ike l iq uid w hen s haken; solid rock
is much sa fer a nd b uildings should b e b uilt on level a re as
formed of solid rock.

▪ T he t y pe o f b u ildings
~ D eveloped c ountries g e nerally h ave b e tter-quality
b uildings, more e me rgency se rvices a nd the funds to c op e
with d isasters. Pe ople in d eveloped c ountries a re more
likely t o have i nsurance c over tha n those in d eveloping
c ountries.
*Source:
1. Guinness, Paul & Nagle, Garrett. (2018). Geography. (3rd ed.). UK: Hodder Education. (pp. 90-106)
2. Zhang, Beetee. (2019). A Comprehensive and Systematic Approach to Learning Geography. Singapore: Spot Excel Publishers Pte Ltd. (pp. 38-39)
* Fa c t ors t hat a f fect e xtent o f e a rthquake d a mage (5 of 5)

▪ S econdary h a zards
~ T hese i nclude mud slides, tsunamis ( l a rge s e a w av e s ) , fire s,
c ontaminated water, interruption of water supplies, loss of
p ublic ut ilities, floods from c ollapse d a ms/reservoirs,
re le ase of ha zardous mate rials, sp read of d iseases,
hunger a nd hyp othermia, a mongst othe rs. (Table 2.7 - Earthquake
ha za rds a nd impa c ts – Guinne ss & Na gle, p. 9 9 )

*Source:
1. Guinness, Paul & Nagle, Garrett. (2018). Geography. (3rd ed.). UK: Hodder Education. (pp. 90-106)
2. Zhang, Beetee. (2019). A Comprehensive and Systematic Approach to Learning Geography. Singapore: Spot Excel Publishers Pte Ltd. (pp. 38-39)
** Ris ks associated w ith l i ving in e a rthquake z one (1 of 2)

1) T hreat o f t s unami
- - Ca n t rave l m a ny kilom e t re s inla nd
-- Swe e p awa y a nd d e st roy eve ryt hing in it s p at hs
-- Sub m e rge low -lying a re a s

2) D isruption o f s ervices
- - G a s, e le c t ricity, wat e r sup p ly m a y b e c ut of f d ue t o rup t ure
of ga s p ip e s, e le c t ricity c a b le s, se wa ge syst e m a nd wat e r
p ip e s which m a y c a use fire s, wat e r c ont a mination a nd wat e r -
b orne d ise a se s.

3) L andslides or ra p id d ownwa rd m ove me nt of soil,

rock a nd ve ge tation d e b ris is d e st ructive.
**Source:
1. Zhang, Beetee. (2019). A Comprehensive and Systematic Approach to Learning Geography. Singapore: Spot Excel Publishers Pte Ltd. (p. 41 & 48)
** Ris ks associated w ith l i ving in e a rthquake z one (2 of 2)

4) D estruction o f p roperties c ausing h omelessness

-- B uild ing s t op p le a nd c olla pse c a using p e op le t o eva c uate
e lse where.
-- Ca n c a use ove rc rowding in t e m porary she lt ers which le a d s
t o p e op le oft e n suf fe ring from e f fe cts of p oor sa nit ation.

5) D estruction o f i n frastructure
-- E.g. c olla p se or c ra cks in roa d s, ra ilways a nd b rid ges
d isrup t t ra nsp ortation c a using ina c c e ssibility.

6) L o ss o f l i ves
-- T his b ring s g rie f a nd sorrow.
**Source:
1. Zhang, Beetee. (2019). A Comprehensive and Systematic Approach to Learning Geography. Singapore: Spot Excel Publishers Pte Ltd. (p. 41 & 48)
Dealing with Earthquake
3 of 4
(Guinness & Nagle, 2018, p. 100)
 DEALING WITH EARTHQUAKES ( p. 1 0 0 )

• The three basic options from which people can choose

are:
~ do nothing and accept the hazard
~ adjust to living in a hazardous environment
~ leave the area

• The main ways of dealing with earthquakes include:

✓ Better forecasting, monitoring and warning systems
✓ Building/infrastructure design
✓ Building location
✓ Land use regulations
✓ Emergency drills/procedures
 R ESPONSES
to restoring a place destroyed by e arthquakes
a nd ma king i t l i veable again
Short-term responses Long-term responses:
1. Search and rescue 1. Rebuilding of
o Rescuers (local/international infrastructure
teams) rush to affected areas
2. Provision of healthcare
to locate and free trapped
victims) 3. Compensating people who
2. Emergency aid – food, lose their land and
water and medical property
supplies 4. Ensuring the af fected
Source:
region recover
1. Zhang, Beetee. (2019). A Comprehensive and Systematic Approach
to Learning Geography. Singapore: Spot Excel Publishers Pte Ltd.
economically
(pp. 46-47, 49)
 R E SPONSES t o restoring a p lace
d estroyed b y e a rthquakes a n d m aking it liveable a gain

Long-term responses that help victims to live their lives

in the immediate future:
1. Rebuilding of infrastructure
o It is rebuilding and improving infrastructure and amenities using
advanced earthquake-resistant technology and enforcing stricter
building designs.
2. Provision of he althcare
o It is long-term counselling for survivors mentally traumatized by loss
of loved ones, homes and jobs.
3. Compensating p e ople who lose their la nd a nd p roperty
o It refers to direct payments given to victims who lost land and
property.
4. Ensuring t he a f fected re gion re cover e c onomically
Predicting and Monitoring Earthquakes ( p. 1 0 0 )

• There are a number of ways and these include:

~ measuring crustal movement
– sm a ll-sca le m ove ment of p lat e s

~ recording changes in electrical conductivity

~ noting strange and unusual animal behaviour
~ checking historical evidence
– t he re a re p ossib ly t re nd s in t he t im ing of e a rt hquakes in
som e re g ions
Natural Hazards
4 of 4
(Guinness & Nagle, 2018, pp. 97-99)
Natural Hazard ( p p. 9 7 - 9 8 )

• Is a natural event that causes damage to property

and/or disruption to normal life, and may cause loss of
life.
• Involve hydrological, atmospheric and geological
events.
• Caused by the impact of natural events on the social
and economic environment in which people live.
Hazard ( p p. 9 8 - 9 9 )

• Refers to a potentially dangerous event or process.

It becomes a disaster when it af fects people and their
property.
( Ta ble 2 . 6 – H a z a rds a s s o c iated w i t h v o l c an ic a c t i v ity – p. 9 8 ;
Table 2.7 – Earthquake hazards and impacts – p. 99)

• Risk suggests that there is a possibility of loss of life

or damage.
• Risk assessment is the study of the costs and benefits
of living in a particular environment.
T he C h ristchurch e a rthquakes, 2 010-12
(Guinness & Nagle, 2018, pp. 104-105)
 2010 earthquake – 7.1 magnitude earthquake @ 4.35 am
• Impacts
o Relatively few casualties – partly due to the fact it happened in
the early hours when people were asleep, and many of them with
timber-framed homes (high building standards in New Zealand)
o Ground shaking in populated areas were generally less strong
than the Haiti earthquake
o Sewers damaged, water lines broken, power disrupted
o Christchurch International Airport closed – flights cancelled

• Emergency response and relief ef forts

o Emergency services activated – search and rescue
personnel, and sniffer dogs
 2011 earthquake – 6.3 magnitude earthquake @ 12.51 pm
• Impact
o 185 people killed

• Infrastructure and support

o Power supply restored to over 80% of household within 5 days,
and 95% within 2 weeks
o Emergency latrines (as wastewater and sewerage systems
were severely damaged)

• Emergency management
o A full emergency management programme was in place
within 2 hours
o The government response was immediate and significant,
and a national emergency was declared.
 ❖ What are earthquakes?
❖ Earthquake Intensity
❖ Dealing with Earthquakes
❖ Natural Hazards
Earthquakes