AI - Unit - 04

UNIT - 04
Human beings are good at understanding, reasoning and

interpreting knowledge. And using this knowledge, they are
able to perform various actions in the real world. But how do
machines perform the same? In this article, we will learn
about Knowledge Representation in AI and how it helps the
machines perform reasoning and interpretation
using Artificial Intelligence in the following sequence:
What is Knowledge Representation?
Knowledge Representation in AI describes the representation

of knowledge. Basically, it is a study of how the beliefs,
intentions, and judgments of an intelligent agent can be
expressed suitably for automated reasoning. One of the
primary purposes of Knowledge Representation includes
modeling intelligent behavior for an agent.
Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR, KRR)

represents information from the real world for a computer to
understand and then utilize this knowledge to solve complex
real-life problems like communicating with human beings in
natural language. Knowledge representation in AI is not just
about storing data in a database, it allows a machine to learn
from that knowledge and behave intelligently like a human
being.
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The different kinds of knowledge that need to be represented
in AI include:
 Objects
 Events
 Performance
 Facts
 Meta-Knowledge
 Knowledge-base
Now that you know about Knowledge representation in AI,

let’s move on and know about the different types of
Knowledge.

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Different Types of Knowledge
There are 5 types of Knowledge such as:
 Declarative Knowledge – It includes concepts, facts, and

objects and expressed in a declarative sentence.
 Structural Knowledge – It is a basic problem-solving

knowledge that describes the relationship between
concepts and objects.

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 Procedural Knowledge – This is responsible for knowing
how to do something and includes rules, strategies,
procedures, etc.
 Meta Knowledge – Meta Knowledge defines knowledge

about other types of Knowledge.
 Heuristic Knowledge – This represents some expert

knowledge in the field or subject.
These are the important types of Knowledge Representation

in AI. Now, let’s have a look at the cycle of knowledge
representation and how it works.

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Cycle of Knowledge Representation in AI
Artificial Intelligent Systems usually consist of various
components to display their intelligent behavior. Some of
these components include:
 Perception
 Learning
 Knowledge Representation & Reasoning
 Planning
 Execution
Here is an example to show the different components of the

system and how it works:
Example

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The above diagram shows the interaction of an AI system
with the real world and the components involved in showing
intelligence.
 The Perception component retrieves data or information

from the environment. with the help of this component,
you can retrieve data from the environment, find out the
source of noises and check if the AI was damaged by
anything. Also, it defines how to respond when any sense
has been detected.
 Then, there is the Learning Component that learns from

the captured data by the perception component. The
goal is to build computers that can be taught instead of
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programming them. Learning focuses on the process of
self-improvement. In order to learn new things, the
system requires knowledge acquisition, inference,
acquisition of heuristics, faster searches, etc.
 The main component in the cycle is Knowledge

Representation and Reasoning which shows the human-
like intelligence in the machines. Knowledge
representation is all about understanding intelligence.
Instead of trying to understand or build brains from the
bottom up, its goal is to understand and build intelligent
behavior from the top-down and focus on what an agent
needs to know in order to behave intelligently. Also, it
defines how automated reasoning procedures can make
this knowledge available as needed.
 The Planning and Execution components depend on the

analysis of knowledge representation and reasoning.
Here, planning includes giving an initial state, finding
their preconditions and effects, and a sequence of actions
to achieve a state in which a particular goal holds. Now
once the planning is completed, the final stage is the
execution of the entire process.
So, these are the different components of the cycle of

Knowledge Representation in AI. Now, let’s understand the
relationship between knowledge and intelligence.

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What is the Relation between Knowledge &
Intelligence?
In the real world, knowledge plays a vital role in intelligence as

well as creating artificial intelligence. It demonstrates the
intelligent behavior in AI agents or systems. It is possible for
an agent or system to act accurately on some input only when
it has the knowledge or experience about the input.
Let’s take an example to understand the relationship:
In this example, there is one decision-maker whose actions

are justified by sensing the environment and using knowledge.
But, if we remove the knowledge part here, it will not be able
to display any intelligent behavior.

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Now that you know the relationship between knowledge and
intelligence, let’s move on to the techniques of Knowledge
Representation in AI.
Techniques of Knowledge Representation in AI

There are four techniques of representing knowledge such
as:
Now, let’s discuss these techniques in detail.

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Logical Representation
Logical representation is a language with some definite
rules which deal with propositions and has no ambiguity in
representation. It represents a conclusion based on various
conditions and lays down some important communication
rules. Also, it consists of precisely defined syntax and
semantics which supports the sound inference. Each sentence
can be translated into logics using syntax and semantics.
Syntax Semantics
 It decides how we can
construct legal sentences in
 Semantics are the rules by
logic.
which we can interpret the
 It determines which symbol
sentence in the logic.
we can use in knowledge
 It assigns a meaning to
representation.
each sentence.
 Also, how to write those
symbols.
Advantages:
 Logical representation helps to perform logical
reasoning.
 This representation is the basis for the programming
languages.

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Disadvantages:
 Logical representations have some restrictions and are
challenging to work with.
 This technique may not be very natural, and inference
may not be very efficient.
Semantic Network Representation

Semantic networks work as an alternative of predicate
logic for knowledge representation. In Semantic networks,
you can represent your knowledge in the form of graphical
networks. This network consists of nodes representing objects
and arcs which describe the relationship between those
objects. Also, it categorizes the object in different forms and
links those objects.
This representation consist of two types of relations:

 IS-A relation (Inheritance)
 Kind-of-relation

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Advantages:
 Semantic networks are a natural representation of
knowledge.
 Also, it conveys meaning in a transparent manner.
 These networks are simple and easy to understand.
Disadvantages:
 Semantic networks take more computational time at
runtime.
 Also, these are inadequate as they do not have any
equivalent quantifiers.
 These networks are not intelligent and depend on the
creator of the system.

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Frame Representation
A frame is a record like structure that consists of a collection
of attributes and values to describe an entity in the world.
These are the AI data structure that divides knowledge into
substructures by representing stereotypes situations.
Basically, it consists of a collection of slots and slot values of
any type and size. Slots have names and values which are
called facets.
Advantages:
 It makes the programming easier by grouping the
related data.
 Frame representation is easy to understand and
visualize.
 It is very easy to add slots for new attributes and
relations.
 Also, it is easy to include default data and search for
missing values.
Disadvantages:
 In frame system inference, the mechanism cannot be
easily processed.
 The inference mechanism cannot be smoothly
proceeded by frame representation.
 It has a very generalized approach.

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Production Rules
In production rules, agent checks for the condition and if the
condition exists then production rule fires and corresponding
action is carried out. The condition part of the rule determines
which rule may be applied to a problem. Whereas, the action
part carries out the associated problem-solving steps. This
complete process is called a recognize-act cycle.
The production rules system consists of three main parts:

 The set of production rules
 Working Memory
 The recognize-act-cycle
Advantages:
 The production rules are expressed in natural language.
 The production rules are highly modular and can be easily
removed or modified.
Disadvantages:
 It does not exhibit any learning capabilities and does not
store the result of the problem for future uses.
 During the execution of the program, many rules may be
active. Thus, rule-based production systems are
inefficient.

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So, these were the important techniques for Knowledge
Representation in AI. Now, let’s have a look at the
requirements for these representations.
Approaches to Knowledge Representation in AI

There are different approaches to knowledge representation
such as:
1. Simple Relational Knowledge

It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses the relational
method. Here, all the facts about a set of the object are set out
systematically in columns. Also, this approach of knowledge
representation is famous in database systems where the
relationship between different entities is represented. Thus,
there is little opportunity for inference.
Example:
Name Age Emp ID

John 25 100071
Amanda 23 100056
Sam 27 100042
This is an example of representing simple relational
knowledge.

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2. Inheritable Knowledge
In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data must be stored
into a hierarchy of classes and should be arranged in a
generalized form or a hierarchal manner. Also, this approach
contains inheritable knowledge which shows a relation
between instance and class, and it is called instance relation.
In this approach, objects and values are represented in Boxed
nodes.
Example:

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3. Inferential Knowledge
The inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in
the form of formal logic. Thus, it can be used to derive more
facts. Also, it guarantees correctness.
Example:
Statement 1: John is a cricketer.
Statement 2: All cricketers are athletes.
Then it can be represented as;

Cricketer(John)
∀x = Cricketer (x) ———-> Athelete (x)s

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Representation of Knowledge
In AI systems, knowledge is represented in the following
manner.
Events:
Events are the occurrence of things in the real world.

Anything which happens in real time are considered as the
events. It is an important element as it is the initial thing to
be considered in knowledge representation.
Object
Objects are nothing but the facts that are actually true.
Such facts can be habitual or a universal truth such as ‘The
Sun rises in the East’, ‘Dogs are faithful’ or any facts which
holds true in any events.
 Meta-Knowledge: It is those knowledges which are

already been acquired either by human brain or
machine.
 Knowledge base: It is the core component of the
agents acquiring knowledge.
 Performance: It describes about how good the

knowledge is acquired and it can be applied to
machines.
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Categories of knowledge
Knowledge can be categorized into two major types:
 Tacit knowledge
 Explicit knowledge
Tacit knowledge is the knowledge which exists within a

human being. It does correspond to informal or implicit
type of knowledge. It is quite difficult to articulate formally
and is also difficult to communicate and share.
Explicit knowledge is the knowledge which exists outside a

human being. It corresponds to formal type of knowledge.
It is easier to articulate compared to tacit knowledge and is
easier to share, store or even process.

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Types of Knowledge Representation
 Declarative Knowledge
 Procedural Knowledge
 Meta Knowledge
 Heuristic Knowledge
 Structural Knowledge
Below is the all types of Knowledge Representation with

Examples
Declarative Knowledge
It is the segment of knowledge which stores factual
information in a memory and it seem to be static in nature.
These can be things or events or processes and the domain
of such knowledge find the relation between events or
things.
Procedural Knowledge
This knowledge is less general compared to declarative
knowledge and is also known called imperative knowledge.
It can have the potential to declare the accomplishment of
a particular thing. It is generally used by modern mobile
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robots where they can be planned to attack into a building
or perform navigation in a room. If we consider declarative
knowledge implanted into a modern robot, they it will be
assigned just a map instead of detailed plan of attack into a
building.
Meta Knowledge
In the field of AI, the knowledge of pre-defined knowledge
is known as meta knowledge. A study of planning, tagging
and learning are some of the examples of meta knowledge.
This model tends to change with time and utilize a different
specification. A knowledge engineer may utilize different
forms of meta-knowledge given below:
Accuracy, Applicability, Assessment, Consistency,

Completeness, Disambiguation, Justification, Life Span,
Purpose, Source, Reliability.
Heuristic Knowledge
This knowledge is also known as Shallow knowledge and it
follows the principle of thumb rule. It is very efficient in
reasoning process as it solves the problems based on the
records of past problems or the problems which are
compiled by experts. It provides knowledge based on the

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experiences it gathered during the past problems.
Structural Knowledge
This is the most basic knowledge used and applied in
problem solving. It tries to find out a relationship between
concepts and objects.
Let us describe a relationship of the knowledge along with a

flowchart.
As we can see, declarative knowledge is represented as

describing one and procedural knowledge is represented as
doing one. Now one more inference is, declarative
knowledge is termed as explicit while procedural
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knowledge is termed as tacit. If the knowledge can be
articulated, it is a declarative knowledge and if cannot be
articulated, it is known as procedural knowledge.
Schemas
Knowledge representation often provides information
about those things which occur very common and make a
pattern. Such patterned description is known as schemas.
There are various types of schema which are
1. Frames– They contain information of all the

attributes present in a given object. As for example,
the description of a girl includes hair, facial pattern,
eyes, etc. are considered as the frames. They
represent knowledge of concepts and objects.
2. Scripts- They are often used to explain series of

events which follow a sequence. For example, a
hotel scene. They represent knowledge of events.
3. Stereotypes– They used to describe the

characteristics present in a people.

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4. Rule models- In a production system, they describe
features which are shared commonly among a set of
rules.
Requirements of knowledge Representation

A knowledge representation has the following
requirements
1. It should have the adequacy or fulfillment to

represent all types of knowledge present in the
domain. It is also known as representational
adequacy.
2. It should be capable enough to manipulate the

representational structure in order to derive new
structures which also should be corresponding to the
new knowledge extracted from the old. It is also
referred as inferential adequacy.
3. It should be able to indulge the additional

information into the knowledge structure which can
be further used to focus on inference mechanisms in
the best possible direction. It is sometimes known as
inferential efficiency.

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4. It should acquire new knowledge with the help of
automatic methods rather than relying on human
source. This process is known as acquisitional
efficiency.
Components of knowledge Representation system

The knowledge representation function contains the
following components.
 Perception
 Learning
 KR and Reasoning
 Planning and Execution
Perception helps in extracting the information and can be

helpful in telling us the status of AI system. It can detect
any irregularity in the system and make us ready to decide
whether an AI system has the potentiality of damage or
not.
Learning component captures the data which are already

sensed by the perception component. Learning component
tries to enable the computer to learn just like human
instead of always programming it. This component solely
tries to focus on how to self-improve the AI system.
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KR and reasoning are used in AI to acquire knowledge in the
smartest way. It focuses on the behavior of an AI agent and
make sure that it more or less behaves like human. It is
used to formalize the knowledge in the knowledge base.
Planning and execution try to find the optimal solution of

the current state and tries to understand the impact of the
same. Now it tries to seek out the solution that the final
state holds and then it will try to terminate the entire
process with a solution here itself.
The below diagram shows how the process of knowledge

representation works.

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CYC
CYC, a project begun in 1984 under the auspices of the

Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation,
a consortium of American computer, semiconductor, and
electronics manufacturers, to advance work on artificial
intelligence (AI). In 1995 Douglas Lenat, the CYC project
director, spun off the project as Cycorp, Inc., based in Austin,
Texas. The most ambitious goal of Cycorp was to build a
knowledge base (KB) containing a significant percentage of
the commonsense knowledge of a human being. A projected
100 million commonsense assertions, or rules, were to be
coded into CYC, in an approach known as symbolic AI. The
expectation was that this “critical mass” would allow the
system itself to extract further rules directly from ordinary
prose and eventually serve as the foundation for future
generations of expert systems.
With only a fraction of its commonsense KB compiled, CYC
could draw inferences that would defeat simpler systems. For
example, CYC could infer “Garcia is wet” from the statement
“Garcia is finishing a marathon run,” by employing its rules
that running a marathon entails high exertion, that people
sweat at high levels of exertion, and that when something
sweats it is wet. Among the outstanding remaining problems
are issues in searching and problem solving—for example,
how to search the KB automatically for information that is
relevant to a given problem. AI researchers call the problem
of updating, searching, and otherwise manipulating a large
structure of symbols in realistic amounts of time the frame
problem. Some critics of symbolic AI believe that the frame
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problem is largely unsolvable and so maintain that the
symbolic approach will never yield genuinely intelligent
systems. It is possible that CYC, for example, will succumb to
the frame problem long before the system achieves human
levels of knowledge.

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UNIT - 04

Human beings are good at understanding, reasoning and

What is Knowledge Representation?

Knowledge Representation in AI describes the representation

Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR, KRR)

Now that you know about Knowledge representation in AI,

©Talentio Solutions India Private Limited

 Declarative Knowledge – It includes concepts, facts, and

 Structural Knowledge – It is a basic problem-solving

©Talentio Solutions India Private Limited

 Meta Knowledge – Meta Knowledge defines knowledge

 Heuristic Knowledge – This represents some expert

These are the important types of Knowledge Representation

©Talentio Solutions India Private Limited

Here is an example to show the different components of the

©Talentio Solutions India Private Limited

 The Perception component retrieves data or information

 Then, there is the Learning Component that learns from

 The main component in the cycle is Knowledge

 The Planning and Execution components depend on the

So, these are the different components of the cycle of

©Talentio Solutions India Private Limited

In the real world, knowledge plays a vital role in intelligence as

Let’s take an example to understand the relationship:

In this example, there is one decision-maker whose actions

©Talentio Solutions India Private Limited

Techniques of Knowledge Representation in AI

Now, let’s discuss these techniques in detail.

©Talentio Solutions India Private Limited

©Talentio Solutions India Private Limited

Semantic Network Representation

This representation consist of two types of relations:

©Talentio Solutions India Private Limited

©Talentio Solutions India Private Limited

©Talentio Solutions India Private Limited

The production rules system consists of three main parts:

©Talentio Solutions India Private Limited

Approaches to Knowledge Representation in AI

1. Simple Relational Knowledge

Name Age Emp ID

©Talentio Solutions India Private Limited

©Talentio Solutions India Private Limited

Statement 2: All cricketers are athletes.

Then it can be represented as;

©Talentio Solutions India Private Limited

Events are the occurrence of things in the real world.

 Meta-Knowledge: It is those knowledges which are

 Performance: It describes about how good the

Tacit knowledge is the knowledge which exists within a

Explicit knowledge is the knowledge which exists outside a

©Talentio Solutions India Private Limited

Below is the all types of Knowledge Representation with

Accuracy, Applicability, Assessment, Consistency,

©Talentio Solutions India Private Limited

Let us describe a relationship of the knowledge along with a

As we can see, declarative knowledge is represented as

1. Frames– They contain information of all the

2. Scripts- They are often used to explain series of

3. Stereotypes– They used to describe the

©Talentio Solutions India Private Limited

Requirements of knowledge Representation

1. It should have the adequacy or fulfillment to

2. It should be capable enough to manipulate the