Diffraction

The phenomenon of spreading or bending of light around the edge of an aperture or obstacle placed in
the path of light is called diffraction of light. This phenomenon is possible for all waves. For the
diffraction phenomenon to occur, the size of obstacle must be comparable to the wavelength of wave.
For example:- Due to diffraction of sound through doors and windows, we can hear sound of a person in
a room from a side. But, the diffraction of light is not seen as the size of them is extremely l arge
compared to the wavelength of light.

Types of diffraction

There are two types of diffraction of light. They are

(i) Fresnel diffraction: The diffraction produced when source of light and screen are at finite
distances from the diffracting obstacle is called Fresnel diffraction. In Fresnel diffraction, the
incident wave front is either spherical or cylindrical. In this case, no lenses are used for
making the rays parallel or convergent. This diffraction was developed by Augustine Jean
Fresnel.

Figure: Fresnel diffraction

(ii) Fraunhofer diffraction: The diffraction produced when source of light and screen are placed
at infinitely long distance from diffracting obstacle is called Fraunhofer diffraction. In this
diffraction, a convex lens is placed between source and obstacle and another convex lens is
placed between obstacle and screen. Therefore, the incident wavefront is plane in this
diffraction. This diffraction was developed by Joseph Van Fraunhofer.
 Fraunhofer Diffraction at Single Slit

The experimental setup for the Fraunhofer diffraction of light through a single slit is shown in the figure.

A plane wavefront is incident on the narrow slit AB of width d. According to Huygen’s principle, each
point on wavefront AB is a source of secondary disturbance. This disturbance travels in all direction and
towards the screen as shown in the figure.

Central Maximum: The secondary waves from point equidistance from C reach the point O in the same
phase. Therefore, maximum intensity of light is formed at point O called central maximum.

Consider all the wavelets travelling in the direction making an angle θ with the normal to the
aperture. They cover unequal distance in reaching point P from A and B of the slit and so they have path
difference BN.

In ∆ABN,

Sinθ = =

 BN = dsinθ

Condition for secondary minima

If the path difference BN is λ and we divide AB into two equal parts CA and CB then the wavelets from
the corresponding points of each part which are separated by a distance d/2 and reaching at P have
path difference λ/2. Hence, for first dark fringe (first secondary minima) at P,

Path difference (BN) = λ

Or, dsinθ1 = λ ………………… (i) (θ = θ1)

Similarly, If path difference is 2λ and we divide AB into four equal parts then second dark fringe (second
secondary minima) occurs at P. For this case,
Path difference (BN) = 2λ

Or, dsinθ2 = 2λ ………….. (ii) (θ = θ2 )

In general, for nth dark fringe,

dsinθn = nλ

Sinθn = …………………. (iii)

This is the condition for n th dark fringe. Here, θn gives the direction of n th dark fringe.

Condition for secondary maxima

If the path difference BN is 3λ/2 and we divide AB into three equal part, then the wavelets from the first
two parts will reach P in opposite phase and cancel each other whereas wavelets from the third part
remains un cancelled and first maximum is formed at point P.

Thus, for first secondary maximum,

Path difference (BN) = 3λ/2

Or, dsinθl1 = 3λ/2

Similarly, for second secondary maximum,

Path difference (BN) = 5λ/2

Or, dsinθl2 = 5λ/2

Similarly, for nth secondary maxima,

( )
Path difference (BN) =

( )
Or, dsinθln =

( )
 sinθln =

This is the condition for n th bright fringe (nth secondary maxima). θln gives the direction of n th bright
fringe.

Angular width of central maxima

We know two first minima lies on two sides of the central maxima. Therefore, the angular width of the
central maxima is the angle between the first secondary minima on either sides of the screen. For first
secondary minima,
Sinθ1 = λ/d

For small angle, sin θ1 ≈ θ1

 θ1 = λ/d

Now, angular width of central maxima = angular width between first secondary minima on either side

= θ1 + θ1

= 2 θ1

= 2λ/d

Fringe width for secondary maxima, secondary minima and central maxima

We know, for secondary minima,

Sin =

For small , Sin ≈ then

= ……… (i)

Let x n be the distance of n th minima from the centre of screen and D be the distance between screen and
the slit then,

tan =

for small , tan ≈

= ……….. (ii)

Combining (i) and (ii)

 =

Here, = , = , = are distance of first, second, third secondary minima from the centre.

Now, fringe separation between two consecutive minima and fringe width for minima is

= - = - = ………………. (iii)

Hence, all secondary minima are equally spaced.

Similarly, For nth secondary maxima
( )
= ……… (iv)

Let be the distance of n th maxima from the centre of screen and D be the distance between screen
and the slit then,

= ……………… (v)

Combining (iv) and (v)

( )
=

( )
 =

Here, = , = , = are distance of first, second, third secondary maxima from the
centre.

Now, fringe separation between two consecutive maxima and fringe width for maxima is

’ = - = - = ………………. (vi)

Hence, all secondary maxima are equally spaced. Also from (iii) and (vi), it is seen that secondary minima
and maxima have same width.

The width of central maxima is the distance between the first secondary minima on it’s either side. Thus,

Width of central maxima = + =2 =

The intensity distribution graph of diffraction pattern for a single slit as a function of θ is given below.
Diffraction grating

An arrangement of a large number of very narrow equidistant slits is called a diffraction grating or a
transmission grating. A transmission grating is made by drawing a large number of straight and
equidistant parallel lines or scratches over a thin glass plate or polished metal plate. These lines are
called rulings and they act as opaque. The transparent region between rulings serve as slits.

If a be the width of slit and b be the width of opaque line then the sum (a+b) = d is called grating
element. If there are N numbers of lines per cm in the diffraction grating then,

Grating element (a+b) or d = cm

Diffraction grating is used for producing spectra and for measuring wavelength of light.

Theory of diffraction grating

Diffraction grating Screen

A
a P

b θ E
C θ O

Consider a portion of a diffraction grating XY in which plane wavefront is incident normally as shown in
the figure. All the secondary wavelets from XY reach to the centre O of screen in the same phase and
hence central maxima appears at O.

Now suppose all wavelets from XY are diffracted at an angle θ to the direction of incident light.
The path difference between two wavelets from two successive slits at point A and C meeting at P is ,

Path difference (CE) = (a+b) sinθ

It is same for all successive pairs of slits in the grating.

Now, first secondary maxima appears at P due to all wavelets from slit if

CE = λ
Or, (a+b)sinθ1 = λ ………… (i)

Similarly, second secondary maxima appears at P if

CE = 2λ

Or, (a+b)sinθ2 = 2λ ……………….. (ii)

In general, for nth secondary maxima,

(a+b)sinθn = nλ

Or, sinθn =
( )

Or, sinθn = ……………. (iii)

This is an expression for n th maxima in diffraction grating. Where, θn gives the direction of n th secondary
maxima.

Resolving Power

The ability of an optical instrument to produce distinctly separate images of two very close object is
called resolving power. According to Rayleigh two images are just resolved when the central maximum
of the diffraction pattern of one object just coincides with the first minimum of the other. This criterion
for the resolution of two objects is called Rayleigh criterion.

Resolving Power of a telescope

The angular or linear separation between two point objects at which they can just be seen as separate
object by a telescope is called limit of resolution of telescope. It is denoted by dθ or d and is given as
.
dθ =

The reciprocal of limit of resolution is called resolving power. Thus,

Resolving power of telescope = = ………….. (i)

.

Where λ is wavelength of light used and D is diameter of objective lens. From (i) it is seen that the
resolving power of telescope increases by increasing the diameter of objective lens and decreasing the
wavelength of light.

Resolving power of microscope

Same as telescope, the resolving power of microscope is reciprocal of it’s limit of resolution. The limit of
resolution of microscope is denoted by d and is given by
dθ =

The resolving power of microscope = =

Where μ is refractive index of medium enclosed between objective lens and point objects, λ is
wavelength of light and θ is half the angle of cone of light from each point object on the objective lens.