Chapter 7

CE413
GIS ANALYSIS FUNCTIONS

Prof. Dr. Zuhal Akyürek
zakyurek@metu.edu.tr
CHAPTER-7
12/4/2018 Middle East Technical University CE-413 1

7.1. Introduction
7.2. Managing Spatial Data
7.3. Managing Attribute Data
7. 4. Integrated Analysis of Spatial and Atrribute Data
7. 5. Data Integration
7. 6. Output Formatting

7.1. Introduction

7.1. Introduction
• GIS database is a model to imitate certain facts or
features of the real world
• Model
• Can be tested and manipulated at a faster or slower rate
• Alternatives can be changed
• Problem value judgement of humanbeings
(wants and goals)
• Good answers are given to good questions

7.1. Introduction
Answers provided by GIS
In order to get useful answers one must ask the right questions!
Questions Categories
Function Categories
Answers Categories
• These categories are not mutually
exclusive!
7.1. Introduction
Answers provided by GIS
Finding new What are the
Presenting Storing and Conditional What are the
patterns in patterns in
existing data Retrieving Query Data
existing data data
A B A B A B
Answer Function Question
Categories Categories Categories
C C C
Prediction of the data at
Predicting new different times and places
information
Modeling or under different
conditions
7.1. Introduction
• Strategy of using a specific GIS analysis depends on the
answers to be provided
• Success of using a GIS is a function of
– Knowing how to combine the available functions
– On a particular system
– To provide required information
– Using the available data
• Quality of produced information depends on the
intelligent use of a systematic analysis approach

7.1. Introduction
Management of geographic data for analysis
It depends on the:
Data Type
Types of analysis
Method used in data entry
paper map sheet

Classical data • (can be both input and output)
every thing can be very different

GIS
• (depending on the hardware and software)

7.1. Introduction
Organizing spatial data for analysis
• Data layers
• Partitioning the coverage (layer)

7.1. Introduction
Data layers
– Logically related geographic objects and their
attributes
– Ease in usage
– Different data types at different layers
• Point, line, polygon
• Raster, vector
– Management of layers
(a function of the software)

7.1. Introduction
Layers used in the GIS applications for natural resources

7.1. Introduction
Parcels Polygon and line (owner name, area, address, )
Streats Line (name, type, width, )
Environment (Land use) Polygon (type, crop, area, )
Topography Polygon (area, elvation)
Environment (Lakes) Polygon (name, area, depth, )
Buildings Poygon (type, area, )
Environment (Streams) Line (name, length, order, )
Facilities Line and point (type, characteristics )
Layers used in the urban GIS applications

7.1. Introduction
Partitioning the layers
• Ease in usage
• Better performance in the system
• No change in data bank while in use
• UTM  Lat., Long. Division
• Parts may be interest regions
• User can divide as desired
• Map Library Sofwarespecial software
(for automated management of tiling)
• Divided layers slow down the processing when
worked on the whole layer
7.1. Introduction
Dividing the data of large layers into tiles
T1 T2 T3 T4
T5 T6 T7 T8
T9 T10 T11 T12
All the data in one layer Tiles Data in tile system

7.1. Introduction
• GIS functions are grouped into four major
categories
• Differences between groups are not very distinct
• The use of functions depends on:
– Data type (raster or vector)
– Hardware
– Performance criteria

7.1. Introduction
Main groups of GIS functions
• Maintenance and analysis of spatial data
• Maintenance and analysis of attribute data
• Integrated analysis of spatial and attribute data
• Output formatting

7.1. Introduction

• Format transformation
• Geometric transformation
• Transformations between map projections
• Conflation
• Edge matching
• Editing of graphic elements
• Line coordinate thinning

Transformation of spatial data
• Correction
• Editing
• Assessing accuracy
Genereally not with attribute data
Mosaicing
• assembling files of adjacent areas into a single file
Coordinate thinning
Format Transformation
– Input data should be put into proper format
(data structure and file format) for the system
– Topology should be built (for vector data)
– If data do not come with a suitable format for the

system, it may be too expensive to transform!

Geometric Transformation
• Maps should be registered with actual location
(ground) coordinates
• All the layers should be registered in the same
way
• Two approaches of registration:
– Registration by relative position
Master, Slave (Rubber sheeting)
– Registration by absolute position
Each layer is registered separately

Transformations among geometric projections
• Mathematical expressions for (3D 2D) conversion

• There are many different types
– Latitude-Longitude coordinate systems
– Projection coordinate systems
– Transformations
• They differ in the degree of distortion introduced in
representing area, shape, distance and direction
• Data layers of a GIS project should be in the same
coordinate system

Conflation
Joining the boundaries of the same features in
different layers
– Very important for overlaying

– Manually possible (taking one layer as standard)
– Changing boudaries with time (lake, reservoir)

Conflation

Edge matching
Correcting the errors which occur at the borders of

combining map sheets
– Seemless map
– Possible manually
– Possible with some softwares

Edge matching
Sheet A Sheet B Edgematched sheets

(seemless)

• Editing functions
– Adding
– Deleting
– Changing geographic position
– Correcting
• Sliver, splinter correction
– Some softwares can do
– Be careful for real thin long features!
• Line snapping
• Over or under shoots

Sliver
Small problem areas A
(sliver)
C
D
A
B
While digitizing While edgematching

Unsnapped node
Line snapping can solve some of the problems

Over shoots

Line coordinate thinning

Decreasing the coordinate data to be stored
– Can be obtained without losing information

– Operators should be very careful

Line(Coordinate) thinning

7.1. Introduction

Attribute management functions
- Many GIS functions can be used without touching graphic data

- In some Raster GIS, Graphic and Attribute data are together
- In advanced GIS, attribute data are as a separate database
– Attribute Editing Functions

– Attribute Query Functions

Attribute Editing Functions
– Retreiving the data from storage
– Controlling the data
– Correcting if necessary
– Erasing (deleting) and adding
Many systems provide a function to match

corresponding records in two attribute data
sets using a common data field (file matching,
address matching)
Attribute Query Functions
• Retreiving the data from storage

• Querying
• Preparing report
• Processing can be very fast since spatial data are

not used

ATTRIBUTE TABLE 1
Polygon Area (ha) Stand
ID Number
157 30 7
158 20 8 Finding the area where there are
159 50 3
160 180 1 trees more than 30 years old
161 30 5
162 60 4
163
164
90
100
2
6
Relational-join
ATTRIBUTE TABLE 2 REPORT
Stand Dominant Age (yrs) Forest Areas
Number Species Older Than 30 years
1 Spruce 60+ Dominant Area
2 Maple 30 Species (ha)
3 Spruce 20 Cedar 130
4 Spruce 60+ Hemlock 30
5 Hemlock 40 Maple 110
6 Cedar 30 Spruce 240
7 Cedar 30
8 Maple 30

7.1. Introduction

A GIS links attribute and spatial data
Attribute Data Map Data

• Flat File • Point File
• Relations • Line File
• Area File
• Topology
• Theme

• Power of GIS is in dealing with Spatial and

Attribute data together (distinguish GIS from CAD/CAM)
• Range of functions in this group is very large
• They are grouped into four categories

• Retrieval, classification, and measurement

functions
• (Both spatial and attribute data are retrieved but

only attribute data are modified or created.)
– Overlay operations
– Neighbourhood operations
– Connectivity (or network) functions

Retrieval operations
They involve:
– Selective search
– Manipulation
– Output of data
Without the need to modify the geographic location of

features or to create new spatial entities.

• Commonly used retrieval functions are:

– browsing
– query window generation
• Attribute retrieval functions provide the

capabilities to specific various criteria for
extracting information based on the attributes
– Eg:“select all polygons of a certain type of soil within 20km diameter radius of a specified
location”

Classification and generalization
• Classification: grouping the features with the

same characteristics
– Some softwares do themselves
– Cell values are used in Raster GIS (recoding)
– Important since it shows the patterns
– Obtained by using single data layer
• Generalization (map dissolve): Decreasing detail
by joining classes

Classification in raster GIS (Recoding)
OR

Generalization
Urban Urban
Urban
industry
Rural Rural Rural

forest farms
Original classification Generalized classification
One technical difficulty related to dissolving and merging is the fact

that process requires the manipulation of the graphic file.

Measurement
• Spatial measurements
• Measures of shapes, farthest, shortest distances
• In Raster GIS
(called as neighborhood operations)
• 3-D measurements are needed in eng. appl.

Measurement
B B B
4 4.5 5 5.7
3 3.6 4.2 5
2 2.8 3.6 4.5
1 2 3 4
A C A A
2 2
AB = AC + CB AB = 8 units AB = 5.7 units
AB = 5.7 units
Area = 31 units
Perimeter = 28 units

Overlay operations
Different for raster and vector data models
Easier for raster data models
• Arithmetic overlay
– Summation
– Subtraction
– Division
– Multiplication
• Logical overlay
Finding areas with specific conditions

Arithmetic operations in raster data

In vector GIS, the operation of finding precipitation is made by

using attribute tables
St. Precip. Precip.

A B (in) (mm)
A 2.0 50.8
C D B 1.7 43.1
C 2.1 53.3
Input data layer D 1.8 45.7

Arithmetic Overlay in vector data
M Input layer A
Polygon Value
A
A 1
M 3
N Input layer B
Polygon Value
B
B 7
N 12 Polygon Joined Value
P M-N 15
C A-N 13
P D M-B 10
Output layer D E A-N 13
E G
F F M-B 10
C
G A-B 8
Subdivision of polygons (clipping) is necessary

Logical overlay (Boolean Operators)
A AND B A OR B
Which hotels are in luxury Which hotels are in luxury

category and have more than category or have more than 40
40 bedrooms? bedrooms?
A NOT B A XOR B
Which hotels are in luxury Which hotels are in either

category but do not have more luxury category or have more
than 40 bedrooms? than 40 bedrooms?

A GIS can perform spatial joins:

– Eg, The locations where pine and soil type A occurs.
F-ID Forest type Timber $ Age

F-1 F-2
F-1 Pine Low 15
F-2 Blue oak High 78
S-ID Soil type pH Texture

S-1 S-2 S-1 5.7 SL
A
S-2 Ch 7.2 C

F-ID Forest type Timber $ Age

F-1 F-2 F-1 Pine Low 15
F-2 Blue oak High 78
S-ID Soil type pH Texture

S-1 S-2 S-1 A 5.7 SL
S-2 Ch 7.2 C
ID F-ID S-ID F. type Timber $ Age S. type pH Texture

S-1 2 F-2 1 F-1 S-1 Pine Low 15 A 5.7 SL
2 F-2 S-1 B Oak High 78 A 5.7 SL
1 3
F-1 S-2 3 F-2 S-2 B. Oak High 78 Ch 7.2 C
4 4 F-1 S-2 Pine Low 15 Ch 7.2 C

What cells are both A and 7?
A A B 6 7 7
A A B 6 7 7
C C B 8 8 7
RECLASSIFY RECLASSIFY
1 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 1
MULTIPLY
1X0 1X1 0X1 0 1 0
1X0 1X1 0X1 0 1 0
Logical AND
0X0 0X0 0X1 0 0 0

What cells are both A or 7?
A A B 6 7 7
A A B 6 7 7
C C B 8 8 7
RECLASSIFY RECLASSIFY
1 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 1
ADD
1+0 1+1 0+1 1 1 1
1+0 1+1 0+1 1 1 1 Logical OR
0+0 0+0 0+1 0 0 1

Neighborhood Operations
• Evaluation of the characteristics of the area
surrounding a specified location
• Every neighbourhood function requires the
specification of at least three basic parameters
– One or more target locations
– A specification of the neighbourhood aroud each target
– A function to be performed on the elements within
neighbourhood
• All GIS packages provide some neighbourhood
operations
Neighborhood Operations
• Search
• Line-in polygon and polygon-in-polygon
• Topographic Functions
• Thiessen polygons
• Interpolation
• Contour generation

Search operation
• Most common neighbourhood operation
• May have different names in different GISs
• Search functions are two types
– Ones operating on numerical data
– Ones operating on thematic data
• Operators may define an equation for the search
• Three basic parameters of search
– Targets
– Neighbourhood
– Applied function

Search
7 km
Search area with 7 km radius
Eg: “Counting the number of residental buildings within a 7 km

radius of a fire station”

Search
Ambulance service area for 30 min.

Line-in polygon and polygon-in-polygon
• A special search function

• In raster GIS it is an overlay analysis
• Different softwares have different capabilities for
this function

Point and line in polygon
D2
D1
E7
M12
E3
0 D3
M4
City boundary

Point-in-polygon Analysis
the Jordan Algorithm
Simple Case
Problem Case
Complex Case

Topographic functions
• Surface characteristics
• Defined by elevation of each location in the area
• Represented by digital elevation data
• An alternative representation is Triangulated
irregular network (TIN)
• Topography is used to determine slope, aspect,
gradient, ...

DEM (Digital Elevation Model)

3
TIN 2
Tables C
D
4
1 A B
7
E
F
6
Coordinate table Node table Edge table

Node Coordinate Triangle Node Triangle Neighbor triangles
1 x1, y1, z1 A 1, 2, 6 A B
2 x2, y2, z2 B 2, 7, 6 B A, C, F
7 x7, y7, z7 F 6, 7, 5 F B, E

max. slope gradient = slope in the

direction direction of max.
inclination
ct ope
aspect = direction, the
n
ire sl
io
surface looks at
-d y-
Slope is given as degree or %

y
x - slope
x - direction

Thiessen (Voronoi) Polygons

• Define influence areas around a set of points
• Polygon boundaries are equidistant to the
neighbouring points
• Good for meteorologic data
(e.g. precipitation)

Thiessen Polygons
Thiessen Polygons with irregular and regular sample point searching

Thiessen Polygons
used to analyze
rain gauge data

Interpolation
• Predicting the unknown values using the known ones
in the neighbourhood
• There are different methods
– Polynomial regression
– Fourier Series
– Splines
– Moving averages
– Kriging
• Quality of interpolation depends on the accuracy,
number and distribution of known points as well as
the method
• Best results are obtained with mathematical
functions behaving similar to the phenomenon

Interpolation

Interpolation

Contour generation
• Lines joining point of equal value

– Elevation
– Climatic data
– Crime rates
– Housing values
• May require value prediction for some points

• Softwares may change in this prediction
(A cartographer’s judgement may be necessary)

Contour generation

Connectivity functions
• They accumulate values over the area being

traversed
• They require one or more attributes be evaluated
and running total is retained step by step
• Running total can be quantitative (distance) or
qualitative (visibility)
• Connectivity functions must include
– Specification of the way spatial elements are
interconnected (cells,lines)
– Set of rules for movement along
interconnections(rules for shortest path)
– Unit of measurement(time, length etc)
Connectivity functions
• Contiguity measures
• Proximity
• Network functions
• Spread functions
• Seak or stream functions
• Intervisibility functions
• Illimunation
• Perspective view

Contiguity measures
• Evaluation of characteristics of spatial units that

are connected
• A contiguous area is a group of spatial units
having one or more specific characteristics
• Commomly used measures
– Size of the area
– Shortest or longest straigth line distances across the
area

Contiguity
Adjecency situations

Proximity
• Measure of distance between features

• May be measured in length, travel time, noise level, ...
• Four parameters must be specified
– Target location (e.g. Road, school)
– Unit of measure(e.g.distance in meters)
– Function to calculate proximity(e.g. straight line distance)
– Area to be analized(the entire study area, the specific part of a
study area)
• Buffer zone: area of specified width around one or more
map elements
• Some proximity functions may require complex analyses

Buffer in Vector Data:

Buffer in raster data:
+1

Proximity
House hunting case study: distance from Distance from office adjusted for
office calculated using proximity method road network

Network functions
• Network is a set of interconnected linear features
• Used for moving resources from one point to another
• Components of network analysis
– A set of resources (goods)
– Locations of resources(warehouses)
– Objective to deliver resources to destinations
– Constraints (max. Speed)
• Types of network analysis
– Prediction of network loading (sediment, flood)
– Route optimization (emergency: fire, police)
– Resource allocation (zoning for better service)

Spread functions
• Used to evaluate transportation time or cost
• Used to define drainage basins
• Has characteristics of both network and proximity
functions
• Running totals are kept as values of cells or
contours

Shortest Path Analysis
-The linkage is given by topologically structured

networks
-The movement along the network is determined by
the traversability of the segment of the network.
The rules used should produce the shortest path.
-The unit of measurement could be :
-length for the shortest path in length
-the travel time for the shortest path in time
-The data must be up-to-date.

Shortest Path Analysis

An Example: A 2
5
B
C
DIJKSTRA ALGORITHM 4
3
7
4
D
E
3
3 6
2
J F
1
5 K
The shortest path is through the
nodes A,B;D;J;F and K with
a total cost of 11.
Spread function
For distance calculation
2.8 2.4 2 2.4 2.8
2.4 1.4 1 1.4 2.4
Target
cell
1 A
2 1 2
1 unit
1.4 its
un
2.4 1 1.4 2.4
4
1.
2.8 2.4 2 2.4 2.8
Distance calculation
Spread function for finding flow accumulation
100 90 110 120 2 2 4 8 1

1
1 1
80 70 60 70 2 2 4 8 2 4
1 1
50 40 30 40 2 4 8 8 2 8
1 1
50 0 10 50 1 16 16
1 16 3 1
Flow accumulation

Seak or stream functions

• Performs a directed search outward in step by
step manner
• Applied to a DEM to find water path
• May be used to evaluate erosion hazard
• Used with spread function to provide automated
route selection capability

4.8 4 4.8 4.2 4.8 5.8
2.8 2 2.8 3.4 4.4 5.4
0 2 3
2 4 5
A
4.4
2.8 2 2.8 3.4 5.4
5.8
4.8 4 4.8 4.2 4.8
B
Using search function in finding the best route


Directions
2 2 2 2
Elevations 2 2 2 2
4 directions
1 2 2 3
100 90 110 120
1 0 3 3
80 70 60 70
50 40 30 40
2 2 4 8
50 0 10 50
2 2 4 8
8 directions
2 4 8 8
1 16 16

Siting Criteria for a nuclear waste repository
Geology: chosen site must be in an

area of suitable geology
Accessibility: chosen site must be
easily accessible
Population: chosen site must be
away from areas of high population
Conservation: chosen site must be
outside of areas like National Parks,
Site of Special Scientific Interest

Intervisibility functions
(Viewshed modelling or viewshed mapping)
• It is also cumulative type operation

• Good for landscape planning, military planning,
communications, ...
• Some GIS softwares have Intervisibility functions
• Used to map area
– Visible from a scenic lookout
– Detected by a radar antenna

Intervisibility

Illumination
• Portray the effect of shining onto a 3D surface
• Output is termed shaded relief image or shaded
relief model
• Controlling factors
– Nature and position of the illumination source
– Topography and reflectance of the surface
– Position and direction from which the model is viewed

Illumination
– Shaded relief

Perspective view
• A surface portrayed from a viewing position other
vertical
• It is a presentation tool
• Good for showing 3D context of features
• Best examples are flying sequences in films

Perspective view
Drape (applying another data

set on shaded relief image)

7.1. Introduction

• Data for GIS applications come from different sources
• It is necessary to share data among users
• Changes in tha data structure of one system or migration
from one system to another require old data to be
integrated with new ones.
• Changes in user requirements often require old data to
be integrated with new ones.

Factors Affecting Data Integration:
-Data quality
-Coordinate System
-Data Organization

• Data Quality:
- Positional accuracy
- Thematic accuracy
- Logical consistency
- Completeness
- Lineage

Positional Accuracy:
It is affected by
-Precision of the data conversion devices used
-Accuracy of the surveying and mapping methods used
-Scale of the original documents and stereo models used
-Resolution of the coordinates in digital storage

• Coordinates are represented as either integers or
real numbers
• Each type of number is stored with a fixed
number of digits
• Integers are as long as 32 bits where real numbers
canbe as long as 128 bits on most computers
• Each type of number with certain length is
associated with a range and a number of
significant digits

• Computer Numbers are discrete
-Both integer and real numbers are discrete
-They do not cover all the possible numbers
-For integers, no decimal numbers are allowed
-For real numbers, only a certain number of significant
digits are allowed

Effects of Resolution
• Some points cannot be represented
• If the original data contains more significant digits than
can be supported by the computer’s number system,
then a truncation occurs and the accuracy of the data is
reduced
• Editing of lines can cause lines to change in shape
• This might in turn cause topological problems
• Some lines never meet

Differences in Data Organization

Differences in entities
Differences in attributes
Differences in relationships
Differences in geometrical representations
Differences in data and file structure

7.1. Introduction

Preparation of analysis results for output as:
Tabular data or Maps in
Hardcopy or Softcopy form
– Map annotation
– Text labels
– Texture patterns and line styles
– Graphic symbols

Map design elements:
• The frame of reference
• The projection used
• The features to be mapped
• The level of generalization
• Annotation used
• Symbolism employed

Map annotation
• Titles
• Legends
• Scale bars
• North arrows

Visual Layout
Title Here
Title Here
Eye expects (1) balance and (2) allignment

Visual center
5% of height
5% of height
Landscape Portrait

Text labels
• Font
• Size
• Spacing
• Placement

Text placement
Ankara
Ankara P
Ankara
a
t
Ankara h
D
o
L a g o o n
Path right w
n

Texture patterns and line styles
• Line widths and colours depend on output device

• They show the attributes of the lines (railroad,
highway, etc.)

Colour, Texture, Pattern
Colour
Texture
Pattern

Dimensions of Color
HUE
Wavelength of light
INTENSITY
Illumination effect or
brightness of colour
SATURATION
Amount of colour
per unit display area

Line styles

Graphic symbols
• Represent map objects
• Systems may have their standard symbols only
• Some may have capability to create other symbols
also
• Symbol library

Symbol “weight”
Line weight Pattern Shading Hue

Examples of class interval systems
• Equal Interval: splits data into user specified

number of classes
• Percentile: equal number of observation fall into
each class
• Nested means: divides data on the basis of mean
values to give 2,4,8,16 etc.
• Natural breaks:Splits data into classes based on
natural breaks

Typical Map Symbolization Errors

Geometric
Network
Analysis
Analysis
GIS
Data
Model
Cartographic
Output Raster Analysis
(GRID)
Visualization
Modeling Interfaces Figure © ESRI
4.12.2018 Middle East Technical University CE-413 128

Stand Alone
GIS
Networked Networked
GIS GIS
(Local) (Global)
Figure © ESRI
4.12.2018 Middle East Technical University CE-413 129

Societal
GIS
Enterprise
GIS Data Access/Data Publishing
Departmental
GIS Network/Cooperation
Projects
Data Management
Cartography/Analysis
Figure © ESRI
Higher
Education
Special
General
Interest Groups
Education
National
Agencies
Local
Government
Agencies
Business
International
Organization The Public Figure © ESRI

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CE413

GIS ANALYSIS FUNCTIONS

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Method used in data entry

paper map sheet

every thing can be very different

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Layers used in the GIS applications for natural resources

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Parcels Polygon and line (owner name, area, address, )

Streats Line (name, type, width, )

Environment (Land use) Polygon (type, crop, area, )

Topography Polygon (area, elvation)

Environment (Lakes) Polygon (name, area, depth, )

Buildings Poygon (type, area, )

Environment (Streams) Line (name, length, order, )

Facilities Line and point (type, characteristics )

Layers used in the urban GIS applications

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Dividing the data of large layers into tiles

T9 T10 T11 T12

All the data in one layer Tiles Data in tile system

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– If data do not come with a suitable format for the

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• Mathematical expressions for (3D 2D) conversion

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– Very important for overlaying

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Correcting the errors which occur at the borders of

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Sheet A Sheet B Edgematched sheets

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While digitizing While edgematching

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Line snapping can solve some of the problems

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Line coordinate thinning

– Can be obtained without losing information

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- Many GIS functions can be used without touching graphic data

– Attribute Editing Functions

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