Earth and Life Science upon the first life-form that existed on Earth

over two billion years ago.

Module 4: Looking at Life: An Introduction
to Life Science All forms of life share common
characteristics. These characteristics of life
Life Science – This is a collection of
include the following:
disciplines that is made up of theories and
principles that tackles the structure and 1. The use of chemical energy to help
function of organism. organisms perform activities and carry out
chemical reactions (energy processing)
H1N1
2. The ability of individuals to adapt to their
- A novel influenza virus; was first detected in
environment (evolutionary processing)
the United States. The virus spread quickly
across the world as it was transmitted through 3. The consistent growth and development
contact with respiratory droplets. controlled by the inherited gene.
- The new viral strain was originally referred to 4. The systematic and highly ordered structure
as “swine flu” since laboratory analysis showed of organisms
that its gene segments were similar to
5. The ability of organisms to control their
influenza viruses present among pigs.
internal environment (regulation)
Gene Reassortment – a process by which
6. The ability of organisms to respond to
influenza viruses swap gene segments.
environmental stimuli
Pandemic – refers to the outbreak of a disease
7. The ability of every organism to reproduce
that occurs over a wide geographic area that
its own kind.
an exceptionally high proportion of the
population. Biosphere – the highest level in hierarchy. It
supports all ecosystems including all terrestrial
Evolution – is considered the core theme of
(e.g. forest, desert, grassland) and aquatic
biology. It is focused on how life forms adapts
ecosystems (e.g. river, lake, marine, estuarine)
to a constantly changing environment in order
that harbor organisms and the physical
to survive.
components of the environment with which
Paleontologists – are scientists who collect, they interact.
identify, and study pieces of evidence about
Growth – this refers to the ability of organism
earlier life-forms and try to determine how
to increase in size, weight, and height
these have evolved into the organisms of
today. Development – this refers to the differentiation
of cells to form highly specialized structures in
Fossil - is a remnant or trace of a plant,
an organism’s body.
animal, or another organism that may have
been replaced by rock material or left imprinted Community – different organisms living in a
on a sedimentary rock deposited in riverbeds particular ecosystem
or on ocean floor.
Population – several groups of organisms of
Microfossils – very small fossils and can be the same species
seen only with the aid of a microscope
Organ System – is made up of several tissues
Stramatolites – the fossils that are considered and other related structures which perform a
the oldest in the earth. These are sheetlike specific function.
sedimentary rocks that were created by layers
Cell – this is the fundamental and most basic
structure in an organism
Tissue – this structure is form when the basic
of unit of organism aggregated.
Unifying Themes of Life
3 major fields in biology cover the unifying
themes of life:
o Genetics o Biochemistry
o Evolution
Genetics
- is the branch of biology that studies heredity
and variation.
- this shows how the characteristics of the
parents are transmitted to their offspring
through the reproductive process.
- is a unifying theme of biology because it
allows humans to understand the complexities
of the existence in life.
DNA
- chemically known as genetic makeup or
deoxyribonucleic acid
- contains biological information that is passed
on from one generation to the next and
ensures the continuity of species.
Biology classify into three categories called
domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya
Prokaryotic Cell or Prokaryote – is a simple,
single-celled organism that lacks a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles.
Bacteria – are the most diverse, ubiquitous,
and widespread prokaryotes
Archaea – live only in extreme environments,
such as salty lakes and boiling hot springs.
Eukaryotic Cells or Eukaryotes – are
grouped under domain eukarya. This possess
true nuclei and membrane-bound organelles.
Charles Darwin – published the book “On the
Origin of Species” by means of Natural
Selection in 1859.
Darwin also inferred the following:
1. Individuals with traits suited to the
environment are more likely to survive than
less suited individuals
2. Survival for existence depends on the
hereditary constitution of survivors, and that
this is part of the process of natural selection.
3. The process of natural selection from one
generation to another will lead to a continuing
gradual change which may result in
evolutionary adaptions or productions of new
species.
Cells – are composed of chemical substances.
Compounds – all organisms are made up of
this element or a combination of this element.
Organisms – are made up of matter that
occupies space and has mass.
Metabolism – this refers to the differentiation
of cells to from highly specialized structures in
an organism’s body.
Homeostasis – this refers to the state of
equilibrium in the body of an organism
Anaerobic Organism - are living organisms
that can survive and grow where there is no
oxygen.
o About 25 elements are essential to
organisms. Four of these elements make up
about 96% of the weight of most organisms.
These elements are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
and nitrogen.
Evidence of Life
Historical Development of the Concept of
Life
LUCA – stands for Last Universal Common
Ancestor
Experiments on the Evolution of Life
Spontaneous Generation – states that vital
forces or organic matter can create organisms
from inanimate object. This describes that life
comes from lifeless and nonliving material
through a mysterious process.
Redi’s Experiment
Among the scientists who challenged the
theory of Spontaneous Generation was
Francesco Redi (1626-1697). In 1668, Redi
designed a scientific experiment to
demonstrate that maggots do not just appear
spontaneously but are produced from the eggs
of flies.
Needham’s Test
In 1750, John Turberville Needham (1713-
1781), an English biologist attempted to test
the relevance of Redi’s experiment and prove
that spontaneous generation can occur under
the right conditions. At that time, it was
believed that heat could kill even the tiniest
organisms.
Spallanzani’s Experiments
Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799) was an
Italian scholar who sought to verify Needham’s
test in 1767. Spallanzani believed that
Needham had not heatedthe broth enough to
kill the organisms in it. He then repeated
Needham’s experiment by boiling equal
amounts of chicken broth in two containers.
Pasteur’s Test
Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) opposed the
concept of spontaneous generation. He
believed that microorganisms that decay or
spoil are present in the air or might have been
existing on the surface where decaying
materials are found.
Module 6: The Perpetuation of Life
Reproduction – is the process by which an
organism produces its own kind to ensure that
its breed lives on. This involves the creation of
offspring. This is also important to prevent
extinction.
Sexual Reproduction
- two parents are required to produce offspring
whose traits come from both parents.
- sexual reproduction in plants takes place
when the gametes, or the male and female sex
cell of a plant, unite to form a single cell called
zygote.
Petals – are the flower’s brightly colored parts
that play an important role of attracting bees,
birds, butterflies, and other animals that aid in
transporting pollen grains to different places as
they move around.
Receptacle – is the part of the plant unto
which the flower is attached.
Sepals – are the leaflike parts that enclose and
protect the flower bud before it blooms
Stamen – the male reproductive part of a
flower which is made up of the anther and
filament.
Filament – is the stalk that supports the anther
where pollen is produced.
Pollen – are tiny grains containing the sperm
that is necessary for sexual reproduction.
Carpel or Pistil – the female reproductive part
of the flower which is made up of the stigma,
style, and ovary.
Stigma – is the sticky part that catches the
pollen grains coming from the stamen.
Style – is the long tubelike part that connects
the stigma to the ovary, which contains the
ovule or unfertilized egg.
Pollution and Fertilization
Reproduction in flowering plants starts with
pollination, or the transfer of the pollen from the
anther to the stigma of the same plant.
Self-Pollination – occurs when pollen falls
from the same stigma of the same flowering
plant.
Cross Pollination – pollen from anther of one
plant may also be transferred to the stigma of
another plant.
Fertilization – or the process by which the
sperm and egg cells unite, and this takes place
after pollination.
Asexual Reproduction
- a single parent produces offspring that are
identical to the parent
- some plants do not bear flowers, yet they are
able to produce offsprings through this
Vegetative Propagation
- wherein a new plant can grow from a
vegetative part taken from the parent plant.
When the plant part grows, it will bear the
parent plant’s characteristics. Almost all plants
parts can be used for vegetative propagation,
but roots, leaves, and stems are used more
often than other parts.
Tubers – a thick and swollen stolons that are
modified stems that grow deep under the
ground and contain the nutrients that the plants
need for growth. Ex. Potatoes and Camote
o other kinds of modified stems that can be
used for vegetative propagation are bulbs,
rhizomes, and runners
Apical Bud – a plant structure at the center of
each bulb
Rhizome – is a stem that grows horizontally
under the ground. A runner or stolon also
grows in a horizontal direction. Ex. Gingers and
Grasses
Reproduction in Animals and Other
Organisms
Animals also reproduce through sexual
reproduction or asexual reproduction.
Sexual Reproduction (Animals)
Male and female animals have different
reproductive parts. Male and female
reproductive parts produce sperm and egg
cells respectively that fuse to form a zygote.
Two types of Sexual Reproduction:
Syngamy or Fertilization – is the sexual
reproduction by the union of gametes – sperm
and ovum. Single-celled protists such as
paramecia reproduce by conjugation.
Conjugation – involves two organisms of the
same species with similar appearance but have
different biochemical compositions.
Multicellular Animals – have primary sex
organs called gonads. The male gonad is the
testes or testis and the female gonad is the
ovary.
Asexual Reproduction
- only one parent is needed to reproduce a
new individual. The single parent produces
offspring that is genetically identical to it. The
offspring develops without meiosis or
fertilization.
Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
1. Binary Fission – This is the simplest
process of asexual reproduction wherein the
body of an organism divides into new bodies.
Ex. Synechococcus
2. Budding – outgrowths or buds develop from
the parent organism. The buds may break off
and develop into a new organism or remain
attached to the parent organism. Ex.
Flatworms, hydras, yeasts, sponges, jellyfish,
sea anemones, and corals.
3. Fragmentation – in this type of asexual
reproduction, an organism’s body is divided
into two or more parts, wherein each fragment
develops into an organism with characteristics
like that of the parent. Ex. Fungi, Sea Stars,
Annelids
4. Regeneration – this is a specialized form of The advantages of genetic engineering are
asexual reproduction wherein detached parts most evident in the field of agriculture and
of some organisms can regrow or regenerate. animal cultivation.
Ex. Sea Stars and Salamanders
Risks of using GMOs
Reproduction and the Genetic Makeup
1. Food Allergy – no allergic reaction to GMOs
Reproduction is the process that supports the has been reported. But if the protein from a
perpetuation of a species. Through it, the genetically modified food or GMF comes from a
characteristics of a parent plant, or an animal source that is known to cause allergy to
are passed on to its offspring. The nucleus of humans.
each cell contains chromosomes, or long
2. Decreased Nutritional Value – GMOs have
threadlike structures made up of
lower nutritional value by making nutrients
deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA)
unavailable or indigestible.
3. Additives – are substances that are
Information Transfer normally consumed as food themselves but are
added to food for the purpose of preservation.
Genes also store instructions for cells to follow
so they can carry out protein synthesis, or the 4. Long-term effects – GMO technology is still
process by which cells produce the proteins in its early stage, and only a few research
that an organism needs in order to live and studies have been conducted regarding this
grow. technology’s long-term effects on health.
Proteins – are made up of amino acids, or International Journal of Biological Sciences
special organic molecules that consist of – has published a study in 2009 which reported
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. hepatorenal toxicity (a type of progressive
kidney failure where the kidney stops
Enzyme – is a kind of protein needed for body
functioning and toxins begin to build up in the
processes to proceed
body).and other effects which were mostly
Protein Synthesis associated with the kidney, liver, heart, adrenal
glands, spleen and haematopoietic system.
Takes place in a cell in two major stages:
transcription and translation. During
transcription, a segment of the DNA is copied.
This copy, or transcript, is known as ribonucleic
acid (RNA)
Perpetuation through Genetic Engineering
In the seventies, scientists began developing a
process through which they could manipulate
or change the genetic makeup of a plant or an
animal even outside of reproduction. This
process is called Genetic Engineering.
The aim is to get a desired trait or
characteristic of the source organism. The
resulting organism is them referred to as a
genetically modified organism (GMO)
Benefits of Genetic Engineering