(123doc) - A-Contrastive-Analysis-Of-Performative-Verbs-In-English-And-Vietnamese-Phan-Tich-Doi-Chieu-Dong-Tu-Ngu-Vi-Trong-Tieng-Anh-Va-Tieng-Viet

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
……………o0o……………
TRẦN THỊ THU HIỀN
A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PERFORMATIVE VERBS IN

ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE
(PHÂN TÍCH ĐỐI CHIẾU ĐỘNG TỪ NGỮ VI
TRONG TIẾNG ANH VÀ TIẾNG VIỆT)
M.A. MINOR THESIS
Field: English Linguistics

Code: 60 22 15
HANOI - 2011
VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES
……………o0o……………
TRẦN THỊ THU HIỀN
A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PERFORMATIVE VERBS IN

ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE
(PHÂN TÍCH ĐỐI CHIẾU ĐỘNG TỪ NGỮ VI
TRONG TIẾNG ANH VÀ TIẾNG VIỆT)
M.A. MINOR THESIS
Field: English Linguistics

Code: 60 22 15
Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Võ Đại Quang
HANOI - 2011
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CANDIDATE’S STATEMENT ............................................................................... i

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................. iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................ iv
ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................. vi
CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................. 1
1.1. Rationale of the study ..................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Aims and objectives of the study .................................................................................... 1
1.2.1. Aims .................................................................................................................... 1
1.2.2. Objectives ........................................................................................................... 2
1.2.3. Research questions .............................................................................................. 2
1.3. Scope of the study ........................................................................................................... 2
1.4. Method of the study ........................................................................................................ 2
1.5. Organization of the study ................................................................................................ 3
CHAPTER TWO. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ............................................................... 4
2.1. Speech Act Theory.......................................................................................................... 4
2.1.1. Definition of speech acts..................................................................................... 4
2.1.2. Components of speech acts ................................................................................. 4
2.1.3. Speech Act Classification ................................................................................... 5
2.1.4. Illocutionary force indicating device .................................................................. 6
2.1.5. Felicity conditions............................................................................................... 7
2.1.6. The relationship between speech acts and speech act verbs ............................... 8
2.1.7. Property of speech act verbs ............................................................................... 9
2.2. Performatives .................................................................................................................. 9
2.2.1. Performatives versus Constatives ....................................................................... 9
2.2.2. Definition of Performatives .............................................................................. 10
2.2.3. Types of performatives .................................................................................... 10
2.2.3.1. Explicit performative ......................................................................... 10
2.2.3.2. Implicit performative ......................................................................... 11
2.3. Performative verbs ........................................................................................................ 12
2.3.1. Definition of performative verbs which ............................................................ 12
v
2.3.2. The function of performative verbs .................................................................. 12

2.3.3. Classification of performative verbs ................................................................. 13
2.3.3.1. Meta-linguistic performative verbs .................................................... 13
2.3.3.2. Ritual performative verbs .................................................................. 13
2.3.3.3. Collaborate performative verbs ......................................................... 13
2.4. Summary ....................................................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER THREE. A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH DIRECTIVE
PERFORMATIVE VERBS AND THEIR VIETNAMESE EQUIVALENTS ......................... 15
3.1. Syntactic features of directive PVs ............................................................................... 15
3.1.1. Directive PVs in English................................................................................... 15
3.1.2. Directive PVs in Vietnamese ............................................................................ 17
3.1.3. Similarities and differences of directive PVs in English and Vietnamese in
terms of syntactic features .......................................................................................... 19
3.1.3.1. Similarities ......................................................................................... 19
3.1.3.2. Differences ......................................................................................... 19
3.2. Semantic features of directive PVs ............................................................................... 21
terms of semantic features .......................................................................................... 31
3.2.3.1. Similarities ......................................................................................... 31
3.2.3.2. Differences ......................................................................................... 32
CHAPTER FOUR. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................. 34
4.1. Recapitulation ............................................................................................................... 34
4.2. Concluding remarks ...................................................................................................... 34
4.2.1. Concluding remarks on objective 1 .................................................................. 34
4.3. Limitation of the study .................................................................................................. 36
4.4. Suggestions for further study ........................................................................................ 36
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... vii
APPENDIX .............................................................................................................. ix
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CANDIDATE‟S STATEMENT ............................................................................... i

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................. iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................ iv
ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................. vi
CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................. 1
1.1. Rationale of the study ..................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Aims and objectives of the study .................................................................................... 1
1.2.1. Aims .................................................................................................................... 1
1.2.2. Objectives ........................................................................................................... 2
1.2.3. Research questions .............................................................................................. 2
1.3. Scope of the study ........................................................................................................... 2
1.4. Method of the study ........................................................................................................ 2
1.5. Organization of the study ................................................................................................ 3
CHAPTER TWO. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ............................................................... 4
2.1. Speech Act Theory.......................................................................................................... 4
2.1.1. Definition of speech acts..................................................................................... 4
2.1.2. Components of speech acts ................................................................................. 4
2.1.3. Speech Act Classification ................................................................................... 5
2.1.4. Illocutionary force indicating device .................................................................. 6
2.1.5. Felicity conditions............................................................................................... 7
2.1.6. The relationship between speech acts and speech act verbs ............................... 8
2.1.7. Property of speech act verbs ............................................................................... 9
2.2. Performatives .................................................................................................................. 9
2.2.1. Performatives versus Constatives ....................................................................... 9
2.2.2. Definition of Performatives .............................................................................. 10
2.2.3. Types of performatives .................................................................................... 10
2.2.3.1. Explicit performative ......................................................................... 10
2.2.3.2. Implicit performative ......................................................................... 11
2.3. Performative verbs ........................................................................................................ 12
2.3.1. Definition of performative verbs which ............................................................ 12
v
2.3.2. The function of performative verbs .................................................................. 12

2.3.3. Classification of performative verbs ................................................................. 13
2.3.3.1. Meta-linguistic performative verbs .................................................... 13
2.3.3.2. Ritual performative verbs .................................................................. 13
2.3.3.3. Collaborate performative verbs ......................................................... 13
2.4. Summary ....................................................................................................................... 14
PERFORMATIVE VERBS AND THEIR VIETNAMESE EQUIVALENTS ......................... 15
3.1. Syntactic features of directive PVs ............................................................................... 15
terms of syntactic features .......................................................................................... 19
3.1.3.1. Similarities ......................................................................................... 19
3.1.3.2. Differences ......................................................................................... 19
3.2. Semantic features of directive PVs ............................................................................... 21
terms of semantic features .......................................................................................... 31
3.2.3.1. Similarities ......................................................................................... 31
3.2.3.2. Differences ......................................................................................... 32
CHAPTER FOUR. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................. 34
4.1. Recapitulation ............................................................................................................... 34
4.2. Concluding remarks ...................................................................................................... 34
4.3. Limitation of the study .................................................................................................. 36
4.4. Suggestions for further study ........................................................................................ 36
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... vii
APPENDIX .............................................................................................................. ix
vi
ABBREVIATIONS
A: Action
CA: Contrastive analysis
EPV: English Performative Verb
EPVs: English Performative Verbs
EPs: Explicit Performatives
H: Hearer
IF: Illocutionary Force
IFIDs: Illocutionary Force Indicating Devices
IPs: Implicit Performatives
PV: Performative Verb
S: Speaker
SA: Speech act
SAs: Speech acts
U: Utterance
Us: Utterances
VPV: Vietnamese Performative Verb
VPVs: Vietnamese Performative Verbs
1
CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Rationale of the study
Language is an inseparable part in people‟s life because it is employed to transmit

information, to state facts, to express thoughts and to get so many things done. It is true
that verbs referring to speech constitute one of the most important areas of the vocabulary
of any language. Every day, we use the verbs of ask, tell, require, apologize, promise,
thank and so on to communicate together. Moreover, we try to interpret what kinds of
speech acts they are performing, that is, when someone says something, we have to
categorize their utterances as this or that kind of speech acts. For instance, is this an
advice? is this a suggestion? is this a request? or is this a warning? Among speech act
verbs, PVs are crucially importance to the way we interpret what other people are saying
because PVs signal the performance of acts.
PVs play a very esential role in communication, so learners of foreign language should pay
much attention to PVs. However, there is a fact that leaners of English have not been well
equipped with a all-sided knowledge of EPVs and the meanings of PVs have never been
systematically investigated. For example, learners of English often make confusion about
the meanings of the verbs “request” and “demand”, “suggest” and “propose”, “beg” and
“entreat”, etc. As a result, they do not often make proper uses of EPVs in communication
and even may break their real communication.
Recognizing the importance of PVs in communication and the problems learners may face
in using PVs, I decide to carry out a contrastive analysis of English and Vietnamese
directive PVs in terms of syntactic and semantic features. With this peculiar function, PVs
that play an essential role in performing speech acts need being further studied to serve
better communication.
1.2. Aims and objectives of the study
1.2.1. Aims
The study is aimed at:

- raising Vietnamese learner‟s awareness of how to realize the meanings of EPVs and use
them appropriately in order to achieve communicative purposes.
- providing teachers of English with useful materials about the knowledge of PVs.
2
1.2.2. Objectives
To achieve these aims, the research tries to:

- present and describe the structures and the meanings of directive PVs in English and
Vietnamese.
- point out the similarities and differences of directive EPVs and their Vietnamese
equivalents in terms of syntax and semantics.
- suggest some implications for learning and teaching English directive PVs.
1.2.3. Research questions
The objectives are elaborated into the following research questions:

- What are the structures and meanings of directive PVs in English and Vietnamese ?
- What are the similarities and differences of directive PVs in English and Vietnamese?
- What are the possible recommendations for learning and teaching English directive PVs?
1.3. Scope of the study
Due to the limited time and the scale of the minor thesis, the study is focused on directive
PVs which are most frequently used in written discourse in English and Vietnamese.
1.4. Method of the study
The main method in the study is the contrastive analysis (CA) of directive PVs in English
and Vietnamese. The term CA is defined by James, C. (1980:3) as “a linguistic enterprise
aimed at producing inverted (i.e. contrastive, not comparative) two-valued typologies (a
CA is always concerned with a pair of languages), and founded on the assumption that
language can be compared.” According to Richard, J.C et al (1992), CA is “the
comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages”. As far as I know, CA is the
systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying the differences and
similarities. It is considered as a device for predicting and explaining difficult points and
some errors that learners will make in learning a target language.
The author uses the following principles in order to achieve the aims and objectives of the
study:
+ Collecting data containing directive PVs.
+ Choosing data sources from ebook.
+ Choosing type of data: original texts in English and Vietnamese translation equivalents
3
+ Choosing instrumental languages: English is selected as the source language and

Vietnamese as the target language.
Important techniques which are employed in the study include:
+ observing data on translation texts
+systematizing and categorizing data
1.5. Organization of the study
Chapter one: Introduction.

This part presents the rationale, aims, objectives, scope and method of the study
Chapter two: Theoretical Background
This chapter provides the theoretical concepts and terms that are necessary and relevant to
directive PVs.
Chapter three: A contrastive analysis of directive PVs in English and in Vietnamese
This chapter is focused on exploring the structures and meanings of directive EPVs and
their Vietnamese equivalents. Then, some similarities and differences are drawn out to
illustrate the contrastive analysis of the two languages. Last but not least, some
recommendations for learning and teaching will be suggested.
Chapter four: Conclusion
This is the last part of the thesis which summarizes main points, gives concluding remarks
on objectives as well as suggestions for further study.
4
CHAPTER TWO. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
This chapter is aimed at giving a general framework for analysing directive PVs later.
Firstly, the theory of speech acts including the notion, components, classification and
felicity conditions is explored. Secondly, the important matters referring to performative
verbs are presented in order to pave the way for an investigation of directive PVs in
chapter 2 where the forms and meanings of PVs will be examined in terms of syntactic and
semantic features.
2.1. Speech Act Theory
2.1.1. Definition of speech acts
According to an American language philosopher J.R. Searle, speaking a language is

performing speech acts, acts such as making statements, asking questions, giving command
or making promises. Yule, G. (1996, p.47) views that speech acts are actions that are
performed via utterances to serve a function in communication. Speech acts are also
defined as “the basic or minimal units of linguistic communication”. (Searle, 1969, p.16).
In English, there are specific labels of speech acts such as compliment, apology, request,
complaint, invitation, advice and so on.
For example:
When a speaker makes an utterance: “I‟ll take you to the cinema tomorrow”. The speaker
makes a promise (a speech act that commits the speaker to do something in the future).
2.1.2. Components of speech acts
The matter of speech acts was pioneered by American language philosopher J.L. Austin. In
the book “How to do things with words” by Austin (1962), there are three related acts in
the action of performing an utterance, including locutionary, illocutionary and
perlocutionary acts. Firstly, locutionary act can be viewed as a mere uttering of some
words in certain language, while the illocutionary and perlocutinary acts convey a more
complicated message for the hearer. Secondly, illocutionary act communicates the
speaker‟s intentions behind the locution. Thirdly, perlocutionary act reveals the effect of
the utterance on the listeners.
Example: Give me an apple
5
+ Locutionary act: the utterance is an imperative

+ Illocutionary act: Request from the part of the speaker
+ Perlocutionary act: Hearer passes Speaker an apple
Among three acts, the illocutionary act/force appears to be the most crucial and
predominant one. The illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an
utterance which is known as the illocutionary force of the utterance. The illocutionary
force of the utterance is what it “count as”. The same locutionary act can have different
illocutionary forces.
Example:
I‟ll see you later. (= A) (Yule, 1996:49)
→ [ I predict that] A.
→ [ I promise you that] A.
→ [ I warn you that] A.
In this example, illocutionary forces can count as a prediction, a promise or a warning.
2.1.3. Speech Act Classification
On the basis of Searle‟s theory, a general classification system includes five types of
functions performed by speech acts: representatives, directives, commissives, expressives
and declarations.
Representatives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker believes to be
the case or not. In using a representative, the speaker makes words fit the world. They may
be statements of fact, assertions, conclusions and descriptions.
E.g:
The earth is flat. (Yule, 1996:53)
It was a warm sunny day. (Yule, 1996:53)
Directives are those kinds of speech act that the speaker uses to get the hearer to do
something. They express what the speaker wants. They are orders, commands, requests,
suggestions.
E.g:
Don‟t touch that. (Yule, 1996:54)
Could you lend me a pen, please? (Yule, 1996:54)
6
Commissives are those kinds of speech acts that the speaker uses to commit themselves to
some future action. They express what the speaker intends. They are promises, threats,
refusals, pledges.
E.g:
I‟ll be back. (Yule, 1996:54)
I‟m going to get it right next time. (Yule, 1996:54)
Expressives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feels. They express
psychological states and are about the speaker‟s experience. They are apologies,
congratulations, thanks.
E.g:
I‟m really sorry! (Yule, 1996:53)
What a great day! (Hoa, 2004:73)
Declarations are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via their utterance.
When the speaker performs declarations appropriately, he has to have a special
institutional role, in a specific context. They are christening, declaration, naming.
E.g:
Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife. (Yule, 1996:53)
I declare the meeting open. (Hoa, 2004:73)
2.1.4. Illocutionary force indicating device
The most obvious device for indicating the illocutionary force (the illocutionary force
indicating device or IFID) is a piece of language that signals what kind of speech act is
being performed.
Some useful IFIDs are mood, word order, lexicon (modal, expletive, function words),
stress, intonation, tone of voice and performative verbs. Among them, PVs are always the
prominent signals and alone can imply the intended communicative force.
Look at the telephone conversation between a man trying to contact Mary and Mary‟s
friend: (Yule, 1996:50)
Him: Can I talk to Mary?
Her: No, she‟s not here.
Him: I‟m asking you – can I talk to her?
Her: And I‟m telling you – SHE‟S NOT HERE!
7
In this scenario, each speaker has described and drawn attention to the illocutionary force
(„ask‟ and „tell‟) of their utterances. PVs „ask‟ and „tell‟ are clear IFIDs.
Other type of IFID which can facilitate the hearer recognize the intended illocutionary
force are felicity conditions.
2.1.5. Felicity conditions
Austin (1962:14-15) defines the felicity conditions as follows:

- There must exist an accepted conventional procedure having a certain conventional effect,
that procedure to include the uttering of certain words by certain persons in certain
circumstances.
- The particular persons and circumstances in a given case must be appropriate for the
invocation of the particular procedure invoked.
- The procedure must be executed by all participants both correctly and completely.
- Where, as often, the procedure is designed for use by persons having certain thoughts or
feelings, or for the inauguration of certain consequential conduct on the part of any
participant, then a person participating in and so invoking the procedure must intend so to
conduct themselves, and further must actually so conduct themselves subsequently.
According to Yule (1996:50), felicity conditions cover certain expected or appropriate
circumstances for the performance of a speech act to be recognized as intended. Basing on
the original Searle‟s assumption, Yule (1996:50) proposes a classification of felicity
conditions into five classes: general condtions, content conditions, preparatory conditions,
sincerity conditions and essential conditions. He defines that general conditions
presuppose the participant‟s knowledge of the language being used and his non-playacting,
content conditions concern the appropriate content of an utterance, preparatory conditions
deal with differences of various illocutionary acts, sincerity conditions count with
speaker‟s intention to carry out the future action and finally, essential condition “combines
with a specification of what must be in the utterance content, the context, and the speaker‟s
intentions, in order for a specific speech act to be appropriately (felicitously) performed”
(Yule, 1996:51).
For example, in order to felicitously perform the speech act of promising, the following
conditions have to be met:
 Propositional content: the speaker said he would perform a future action
8
 Preparatory conditions:
- He intends to do it
- He believes he can do
- He thinks he wouldn‟t do it anyway, in the normal course of action
 Sincerity conditions:
- He thinks the addressee want him to do it (rather than not to do it)
- He intendents to place himself underan obligation so to it by uttering U
 Essential condition: The utterance U contains some IFID which is not only properly
uttered if all of the appropriate conditions obtain.
- Both speaker and addressee comprehend U
- They are both conscious, normal human beings
- They are both in normal circumstances – not e.g. acting in a play.
- The uttering U contains some IFID which is only properly uttered if all the
appropriate conditions obtain.
2.1.6. The relationship between speech acts and speech act verbs
According to Searle (1979), illocutionary acts are “natural conceptual kinds”. “The
illocutionary acts carried out by the speaker making utterances are the acts viewed in
terms of the utterance‟s significance within a conventional system of social interaction.”
(James, 1983:244). As Wittgenstein (1953) mentions, there are countless kinds of speech
acts. For example, the following three utterances illustrate three different kinds of speech
acts:
Why don‟t you do X?
Why not do X?
How about doing X?
Speech act verbs such as apologize, thank, congratulate, request, beg, promise, etc reflect
the certain interpretation of the world of human action and interaction. In other words,
speech act verbs are the importance to the way we perceive the world we live in – the
world of human relationships and human interaction.
In the scope of thesis, the directive acts are invesitgated. Directive acts are illocutionary
acts which essentially involve the speaker trying to get the hearer to behave in some
required way.
9
2.1.7. Property of speech act verbs
It is pointed out that many speech act verbs can be used “performatively”, i.e that they can
be used in the first person, present tense to indicate the nature (or the so-called
“illocutionary force”) of the utterance in which they occur. Performative verbs are
particular cases of speech act verbs in indicating the illocutionary forces.
For example, while an “order” can be performed by means of a bare imperative (e.g. “Stop
it!”), it can also be performed using the formula “I order you” (e.g. “I order you to stop
it”.)
2.2. Performatives
2.2.1. Performatives versus Constatives
Considering the utterances such as: “I pledge my absolute support for the new President”
or “I promise to meet him” (Hoa, 2004:234), we find that they seem to be doing something,
rather than merely saying something. Such sentences Austin dubbes performatives in
contrast to constatives.
Austin(1962) posits that constatives are utterances employed to make true or false
statements or assertions meanwhile performatives are utterances used to change the world.
Performatives are ordinary declarative sentences which are, not truth-evaluable, but instead
'happy' or 'unhappy' not used with any intention of making true or false statements, so they
are not true or false.
E.g:
Britain has no written constitution (Hoa, 2004:234)
→ constative
I ask you to help me (Hoa, 2004:234)
→ performative
By Austin‟s proposal, it is interesting to note that constatives fail when they are false;
whereas, performatives are not false, but rather improper, unsuccessful. In other words,
they are infelicitous.
10
2.2.2. Definition of Performatives
Austin defines a performative as an utterance which contains a special type of verb (a

performative verb) by force of which it performs an action. Or “a performative utterance is
one that actually describes the act that it performs”. (James, 1983:235)
For example, when Peter says "I promise to do the dishes" in an appropriate context then
he thereby does not just say something, and in particular he does not just describe what he
is doing; rather, in making the utterance he performs the promise. Since promising is an
illocutionary act, the utterance is thus a performative utterance.
2.2.3. Types of performatives
Having defined performatives, Austin then distinguishes two general groups: explicit and
implicit performatives.
2.2.3.1. Explicit performative
An explicit performative is one in which the utterance contains an expression that makes
explicit what kind of act is being performed (Lyons, 1981:175). An explicit performative
includes a performative verb and mainly therefore, as Thomas (1995:47) asserts, it can be
seen to be a mechanism which allows the speaker to remove any possibilities of
misunderstanding the force behind an utterance.
In order for an utterance to be explicit, Austin (1975:32) explains, it has to “begin with or
include some highly significant and unambiguous expression such as „I bet‟, „I promise‟, „I
bequeath‟”. An explicit performative utterance “makes explicit both that the utterance is
performative, and which act it is that is being performed” (1975:62); in performing an
illocutionary act by means of an explicit performative.
In English, explicit performatives are marked by performative verbs. The explicit
performative has the following normal form:
I + Vp + (you) + (that) + U
E.g: I warn you the bull will charge. (Levinson, 1983:235)
I thank you for being here. (Hoa, 2004:227)
The explicit performatives are those which take the following characteristics:
- They tend to begin with a verb in simple present tense and the subject of this verb is in
the first person: I order, I promise, I advise, I warn, I declare, etc.
11
- The main verb belongs to a special class describing verbal activities, for example:
promise, declare, warn, order, etc.
- Generally, the performative nature can be emphasized by inserting the adverb “hereby”,
for example: I hereby advise you to leave from the country.
2.2.3.2. Implicit performative
We regularly meet these utterances like those below:

a. I‟ll meet him. (Hoa, 2004:234)
b. You must report your supervisor next Tuesday at 10 a.m. (Hoa, 2004:233)
We can provide these sentences above with the corresponding explicit performatives as
below:
A. I promise to meet him. (Hoa, 2004:234)
B. I order you to report to your supervisor next Tuesday at 10 a.m. (Hoa, 2004:233)
It seems reasonable to say that these sentences (a) and (b) could be uttered to perform the
same speech acts as those in (A) and (B). In fact, none of special characteristics of
performative utterances is indispensable to their performance. The utterances (a) and (b)
are called implicit performatives. Implicit performatives do not make explicit the
illocutionary act performed in making the utterance. Further examples of implicit
performatives are “Go!” (Austin, 1975:32) (ordering someone to go), as well as “Turn
right!” (Austin 1975:58) (ordering someone to turn right).
There are various linguistic means by which more implicit performatives could be marked,
like the mood of the verb, as in “shut it”, instead of “I order you to shut it”; or an adverb as
in “I will be there without fail” instead of “I promise I will be there”, or particle like
“therefore” instead of “I conclude that X”.
According to Levinson (1983), the imperative, interrogative or declarative sentences are
implicit performatives which can be changed into explicit performatives with the explicit
performative prefixes such as “I order you to…”, “I ask you whether …”, or “I declare
you that …” The explicit performatives in declarative form, have the force associated with
the overt performative verb in each case.
12
2.3. Performative verbs
2.3.1. Definition of performative verbs which
James R.Hurford (1983:237) defines that “a performative verb is one, when used in a
simple positive present tense sentence, with a 1st person singular subject, can make the
utterance of that sentence performative.”
In the book “Đại cương ngôn ngữ học: tập 2 – ngữ dụng học”, (2006:97) GS.TS Đỗ Hữu
Châu gives the notion of performative verbs: “Động từ ngữ vi là những động từ mà khi
phát âm chúng ra cùng với biểu thức ngữ vi (có khi không cần có biểu thức ngữ vi đi kèm)
là người nói thực hiện luôn cái hành vi ở lời do chúng biểu thị”.
E.g:
I sentence you to be hanged by the neck. (James, 1983:237)
I punish you. (James, 1983:237)
Sentence is a PV because it appears in a performative utterance. Punish is not a PV
because “I punish you” is not a performative utterance.
2.3.2. The function of performative verbs
In speech act theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning including propositional
meaning and illocutionary meaning.
Propositional meaning, known as locutionary meaning, is the basic literal meaning of the
utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structures which the utterances
contain.
Illocutionary meaning, also known as illocutionary force, is the effect the utterance has on
the hearer.
All utterances, in addition to meaning whatever they mean, perform special actions (or do
things) through having specific force. The same utterance can potentially have quite
different illocutionary forces.
Example: The sentence “I will see you later” can count as a promise, a warning, or a
prediction in the following cases:
I promise you that I will see you later
I warn you that I will see you later
I predict that I will see you later
13
PVs identify a particular kind of speech act that can be performed by virtue of uttering a
sentence containing the verb. The function of PVs is to make explicit and precise the
illocutionary force of the utterances of the sentences containing them.
2.3.3. Classification of performative verbs
Performative verbs appear in explicit performatives and do not exist in implict

performatives. Based on the relations of utterances, Performative verbs can be classified
into three types as follows:
2.3.3.1. Meta-linguistic performative verbs
Metalinguistc performatives are verbs that help hearers realize what kind of speech act is
uttered and help perform meta-linguistic functions through self-referential way (the verb
refers to what the speaker of the utterance is doing). The structure of utterances containing
meta-linguistic performative verbs is:
Meta-linguistic per formative verbs + primary performative clause
Meta-linguistic PVs include say, speak, tell, protest, object, apologize, reject, etc
E.g:
I say it is the rising sun. (Hoa, 2004:184 )
I hereby tell you that work was done by Elain and myself. (James, 1983:53)
I apologize to you for buming into you. (Palmer, 1990:148)
2.3.3.2. Ritual performative verbs
Ritual performatives do not explain actions but express the performance of actions. This
kind of verb often appears in declarative sentences, such as name, baptize, sentence.
Absolve, pronounce, appoint, etc
E.g:
I sentence you to ten years of hard labor. (Levinson, 1983:228)
I now pronounce you man and wife. (James, 1983:53 )
I appoint you chairman. (Verschuren, 1999:52)
2.3.3.3. Collaborate performative verbs
Some performatives do not have felicity conditions in the sense that a specified person
must utter the words in particular circumstances but nevertheless their success is not
14
guaranteed. They require, for their success, the 'collaboration' or particular uptake of
another person. Collaborate PVs may be bet, challenge, dare, force, compel, etc.
E.g:
I bet you five pounds it‟ll rain tomorrow. (Levinson, 1983:232)
I challenge you to prove your innocence. (Partridge, 1982:92)
2.4. Summary
The chapter two has provided basic concepts and terms related to performative verbs in
order to give better understanding of the rest of the study.
15

PERFORMATIVE VERBS AND THEIR VIETNAMESE EQUIVALENTS
This chapter is focused on the forms and meanings of most frequently directive PVs which
are employed in written discourse. Basing on the Dictionary “English speech act verbs”
(Wierzbicka, 1987), I will investigate the syntactic features and semantic features of
directive PVs in both language in turn. First of all, directive PVs in each language will be
presented, and then similarity and difference between them will be pointed out.
3.1. Syntactic features of directive PVs
3.1.1. Directive PVs in English
Directive PVs in English include ask, advise, beg, beseech, challenge, command, dare,
defy, demand, dictate, direct, forgive, implore, insist, order, petition, propose, recommend,
request, require, tell, suggest, urge, warn.
They normally occur in the constructions below:
I + Vp + (you) + that X or I + Vp + (you) + to Y
In which:
- Vp: is a PV in directive clause
- that X: is that-clause which contains a subjunctive or a modal like “should”. “That” is a
conjunction and can be omitted.
- to Y: is an infinitive clause or to infinitive
E.g:
- I suggest that you be there on time. (Hoa, 2004:233)
Tôi đề nghị anh có mặt ở đó đúng giờ.
- I recommend that you go to that restaurant. (Hoa, 2004:233)
Tôi gợi ý anh đến nhà hàng đó.
Directive PVs may be taken into the following classes:
 The “order” group
The “order” group consists of order, command, demand, direct, tell, require. Commonly,
these verbs belonging this group permit a non-indicative that clause and take to-infinitive.
E.g:
- I demand that you release me at once. (Partridge, 1982:94)
16
Tôi yêu cầu anh thả tôi ngay lập tức.

- I order you to wash the dishes. (Levinson, 1983:224)
Tôi yêu cầu bạn rửa bát đĩa.
- I tell you to turn on the heating. I feel cold. (Patterson, 1997:92)
Tôi bảo anh bật lò sưởi lên. Tôi cảm thấy lạnh.
- I hereby order you that you clean up this mess. (Yule, 1996:51)
Tôi yêu cầu bạn dọn mớ bừa bộn này.
However, it is necessary to notice the way of using some directive PVs when these verbs
go with an object as follows:
- “order” can take an action noun as its direct object meanwhile “command” does not
precede an action noun. One can say “The Prime Minister ordered a survey/an
investigation/a search” but not “The Prime Minister commanded a survey/an
investigation/a search”(Wierzbicka, 1987:39).
- “Demand” takes a direct object when the object is something, not someone. We can say
“he demanded money” or “he demanded an investigation”, etc. One can say “He ordered/
commanded her to do it” rather “He demanded her to do it”. (Wierzbicka, 1987:40)
 The ask1 group
This group includes ask, beg, beseech, entreat, request, suggest, recommend, warn. Like
the “order” group, the “ask” group can go with a non-indicative clause or can take to-
infinitive with or whithout the surface object “you”.
E.g:
- I ask you to shut the door. (Levinson, 1983:265)
Tôi nhờ anh đóng cửa lại.
- I beg you to stay away from my daughter. (Hoa, 2004:233)
Tôi xin anh tránh xa con gái tôi ra.
- I entreat you to spare me. (Partridge, 1982:96)
Tôi cầu xin anh tha thứ cho tôi.
- I hereby request of you that you close the door. (Yule, 1996:55)
Tôi đề nghị bạn đóng cửa lại.
There are some special cases of using directive PVs as follows:
- The speaker does not request for something, instead he can ask or beg for something. In
other words, ask or beg permit a preposition “for” with a direct object.
17
- One can not “beseech for mercy” or “beseech for money” but one can “beg for mercy” or
“beg for money”.
 The ask2 group
This group comprises ask, inquire, question, interrogate, query.
- Inquire, unlike ask or question, can not take the addressee phrase as its direct object. One
does not inquire John, one can only inquire of John because the speaker does not attribute
to the addressee a central role in fulfilling the purpose of the act like in the case of asking.
- One can not query a person in contrast one can ask, question or interrogate a person.
 The “advise” group
- The verb “advise” takes to-infinitive with a surface object “you”. A non-indicative that
clause or gerund are unacceptable.
I advise you to be nice to her. (Hoa, 2004:233)
Tôi khuyên anh đối xử tốt với cô ấy.
- The verbs suggest, recommend can go with a non-indicative that clause or to-infinitive or
a gerund. In the case of a non-indicative that clause, they admit a direct or indirect object.
Both verbs require the preposition “to” when they go with a direct object.
E.g:
- I suggest that you should do it tomorrow. (Partridge, 1982:98)
Tôi đề nghị bạn nên làm việc đó vào ngày mai.
- I suggest to you to do it tomorrow. (Partride, 1982:98)
Tôi đề nghị bạn làm việc đó vào ngày mai.
- I recommend to you that you should lay off it tomorrow. (Partride, 1982:98)
Tôi đề nghị bạn nên tránh việc đó vào ngày mai.
3.1.2. Directive PVs in Vietnamese
The structures of directive PVs in Vietnamese are not as complicated as ones in English.
Directive PVs in Vietnamese often occur in complex sentences.
A complex sentence is a sentence containing two clauses or more than one clause, in which,
there is only one main clause. The other clauses are subordinate clauses modifying the
main clause.
The construction of a complex sentence that has a PV in the main predicate as follow:
S1 – V1(p) (conjunction) S2 - V
18
In which:
- S1: is the subject of the main clause
- V1: is PV (the predicate of the main clause)
- S2: is the subject of the subordinate clause
- V2: is predicate of the subordinate clause
Between two clauses, there are often conjunctions such as “là”, “rằng”.
Tôi khuyên anh nên bỏ thuốc lá đi. (Chau, 2006:101)
S1 Vp S2 V2
In fact, this sentence can be written again:

Tôi khuyên anh (rằng) (anh) nên bỏ thuốc lá đi.
S1 Vp S2 (S2) V2
In this case, the subject S2 “anh” in the subordinate clause (is also the object of the main
clause) is omitted.
To sum up, the syntactic structure of sentences containing performative verbs is
S1 + Vp1 + (± conj) + (± S2) + V2
E.g:
Tôi xin anh cho tôi một lời khuyên. (Giap, 2004:18)
S1 Vp S2 V2
Tao ra lệnh cho mày cút khỏi đây ngay. (Giap, 2004:18)
S1 Vp S2 V2
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3.1.3. Similarities and differences of directive PVs in English and Vietnamese in terms
of syntactic features
3.1.3.1. Similarities
In both English and Vietnamese, performative verbs are the most explicit IFID of
directives and go with the first personal subject of the speaker. PVs are widely used in both
languages as a major means of emphasizing the IF of the utterances of the sentences
containing them.
The same thing PVs in English and Vietnamese share is the position of PVs in
performative utterances. They follow the first personal pronoun and precede the
conjunction. However, the conjunction can be omitted.
3.1.3.2. Differences
Firstly, EPVs take many different forms in structure such as non-indicative that clause, to-
infinitive, gerund and even require the preposition meanwhile VPVs only occur in the
same complex sentence.
- I suggest to you to do it tomorrow. (Partridge, 1982:98)
- I suggest that you should do it tomorrow. (Partridge, 1982:98)
In Vietnamese, we can say:
- Tôi đề nghị anh làm việc đó vào ngày mai.
- Tôi đề nghị anh rằng anh nên làm việc đó vào ngày mai.
Although the verb “suggest” goes with a non-indicative that clause or a prepositionn, the
meaning of the sentences is not changeable. In contrast, the verb “đề nghị” in Vietnamese
has the only form.
Moreover, when expressing the illocutionary force, EPVs always require the first singular
subject whereas VPVs can go with or without the personal subject.
Look at examples of “khuyên” in Vietnamese folk verses:
Khuyên anh ăn ở cho lành,
Kiếp này chưa gặp để dành kiếp sau. (25:1213)
Khuyên anh xét kỹ và nghĩ cho cùng
Trung trinh liệt nữ, quân tử anh hùng. (25:1214)
Khuyên chàng cờ bạc thời chừa
20
Rượu chè trai gái say sưa thời đừng. (25:1214)

Khuyên em giữ lấy cang thường
Anh đây người quân tử, không bỏ ruồng mà lo. (25:1215)
- “A lô! A lô! Yêu cầu đồng bào im lặng.” (32)
- Con mẹ biết ngay rằng đó là cậu lính lệ. và như hiểu rõ phép vào quan, nó giúi đưa cậu
lệ hai hào đã cầm sẵn ở trong tay, rồi nói nhỏ:
- Nhờ cậu bẩm quan cho tôi vào hầu. (33)
Bác Lan đánh liều gọi cổng. Anh bếp ở trong chạy ra:
- Nhờ cậu vào bẩm với ông bà rằng có người bán con đương ở cổng.
(Nguyen Cong Hoan, 1930, Hai thằng khốn nạn)
From these examples, in English we can not say:
- Ask you to keep silent.
- Ask you to tell the mandarin.
In contrast, we have to say: I ask you to keep silent or I ask you to tell the mandarin.
The table shows the similarities and differences of PVs in English and Vietnamese in terms
of syntactic feature.
EPVs VPVs
I + Vp + (you) + (that) + you + V2 S1 + Vp + (S2) + (rằng) + S2 + V2
E.g: E.g:
Similarity
I suggest that you see a psychiatrist as Tôi đề nghị anh đi gặp bác sỹ tâm
soon as possible. (James, 1983:238) thần càng sớm càng tốt.
- I + Vp + for + Noun - S1 + Vp + Noun (without
preposition)
E.g: I beg for favour. E.g: Tôi xin một ân huệ.
Might I ask for a photograph of Mr. Liệu tôi có thể xin một bức ảnh của
John Straker? ông Straker được không?
Differences
- I + Vp + of / to + you - S1 + Vp + S2
E.g: E.g:
I hereby request of you that you close Tôi yêu cầu anh đóng cửa lại.
the door. (Yule, 1996:55)
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3.2. Semantic features of directive PVs
3.2.1. Directive PVs in English
The primary purpose of semantics is to discover how meaning is conveyed in language.

This part describes the meanings of EPVs and VPVs in turn. All the examples in English
for the illustration will be accompanied by their translation into Vietnamese to facilitate the
CA thereafter. The typical meaning of directive PVs is to want H to cause something to
happen. Directives are illocutionary acts with the point of illocutionary being to put H into
an obliged situation of performing a future act. The classification of groups of directive
PVs is based on the Dictionary of speech act verbs. (Wierzbicka, 1987)
 The order group
This group consists of PVs such as order, claim, command, demand, direct, tell, instruct,
charge, challenge, require, prescribe, etc. There is a strong degree of imposition and the
speaker‟s desire for the hearer to do the required acts.
- The verb „order‟
The speaker who orders someone to do something wants the addressee to do it and expects
to cause him to do it via the speech act. The speaker presumes that the hearer has to do
whatever the speaker says he wants him to do and that the hearer understands this. The
speaker appeals to the adressee‟s understanding or realization rather his feelings or
goodwill. The verb “order” has the future-orientedness.
E.g:
- The commander turned red. "I order you to go in the name of discipline," said he. [31]
This sentence can be translated into “Ngài chỉ huy mặt đỏ gắt. Ông nói to: “Nhân danh
pháp luật, tôi ra lệnh cho anh phải đi”.
- I order you to pick up that cigarette butt! (Geis, 1995:24)
Tôi yêu cầu anh nhặt mẩu thuốc lá lên.
- The verb „command‟
The person who commands wants the addressee to do something and expects to cause him
to do it. Commands are expected to act as signals, triggering an action almost
automatically. In contrast to an order, a command does not appeal to the hearer‟s
understanding.Commands are typically present-oriented because the speaker expects an
immediate response.
22
E.g:
“Swallow, swallow, little swallow”, said the Prince, “do as I command you.” (26: 8)
This sentence can be translated as:
Hoàng tử nói: “Nhạn ơi, Nhạn ơi, Nhạn bé nhỏ ơi, xin hãy làm như tôi yêu cầu.”
- The verb „demand‟
The person who demands something says that he wants something to happen and implies
that the addressee has to cause it to happen. The speaker expects that the person involved
will be reluctant to comply with his will, but he wants to convince them that they should do
it.
E.g:
The devil is in it if you cannot answer distinctly. I again demand, what have you to say?
(27: chapter 26)
Nếu anh không nói cho rõ thì quỷ tha ma bắt anh đi. Tôi yêu cầu anh một lần nữa, anh
muốn nói gì? (Tuyên, 2008: chapter 26)
- The verb “require”
To require something is to demand it with the additional preparatory condition that it
needs to be done. Normally, the speaker presupposes that there is a specific reason to
perform the required action.
E.g:
"I require and charge you both (as ye will answer at the dreadful day of judgment, when
the secrets of all hearts shall be disclosed), that if either of you know any impediment why
ye may not lawfully be joined together in matrimony, ye do now confess it;."
(27: chapter 26)
Ta đề nghị và ra lệnh cho cả hai người (các người có thể sẽ phải trả lời trong ngày phán
quyết đáng sợ, nếu bí mật trong long hai người bị phát giác) rằng nếu ai trong các người
biết bất cứ một trở ngại nào khiến các người không thể kết hôn hợp pháp được với nhau,
thì bây giờ hãy nên tự thú. (Tuyen, 2008:chapter 26)
- The verb “tell”
To tell someone to do something is to direct him in a way that does not allow the option of
refusal. An act of telling someone to do something is more peremptory. It can only be
obeyed or disobeyed.
E.g:
23
- No; I pleaded off, and he admitted my plea. I tell you how to manage so as to avoid the
embarrassment of making a formal entrance, which is the most disagreeable part of the
business. (27: chapter 17)
Không, tôi đã xin được cáo lui và ông chủ đồng ý rồi. Tôi bảo cô tránh lúng túng như thế
nào khi phải xuất hiện trước mắt bọn họ vì tất cả chỉ có điều ấy là khó chịu nhất.
(Tuyen, 2008: chapter 17)
- "What are you doing there?" exclaimed Macphail. " I tell you to lie down. (36)
Ông Macphaylo la “Cô làm cái gì đó? Tôi bảo cô phải nằm mà.” (37)
 The ask1 group
This group seems to be the most popular kind of directives including PVs such as ask, beg,
beseech, entreat, implore, entreat, insist, plead, appeal, solicit, supplicate, etc. A person
can ask for something for the sake of himself other than the addressee‟s benefit.
- The verb “ask”
When using PV “ask”, the S wants the H to do something that would benefit the S. The S
assumes that the H can do it, but he does not assume that the H will do it. Furthermore,
“ask” is usually performed by means of a straight imperative construction, not by means of
interrogative construction.
E.g:
- I dare say now if I ask you for a kiss you wouldn't give it me: you'd say you'd RATHER
not." (27: chapter 4)
Tôi dám chắc rằng nếu bây giờ tôi xin được hôn cô một cái, chắc gì cô đã đồng ý! Thế nào
cô sẽ lại bảo tôi rằng cô hơi không thích. (Tuyên, 2008, chapter 4)
- "I must ask you to excuse me. I have an engagement. Please give my respects to Mrs.
Macphail." (36)
Tôi xin ông thứ lỗi. Tôi có hẹn. Ông cho tôi gởi lời chào bà nhà. (37)
- "I want to ask you if you can‟t stretch a point and let her stay here till the boat comes in
from San Francisco so that she can go to Sydney." (36)
Tôi muốn xin ông cho phép cô ta ở lại đây đợi chuyến tàu ở San Francisco lại, như vậy cô
ta có thể đi Sydney. (37)
- “Sit down, Nancy Lee Johnson” said Miss O‟shay. “I have something to tell you. But I
must ask you to promise not to tell anyone yet.” (26:162)
24
Cô O‟shay nói: “Mời anh ngồi, Nancy Lee Johnson”. “Tôi có vài điều muốn nói với anh.
Nhưng tôi đề nghị anh không được kể cho bất kỳ ai khác.”
- “Still, I must ask you to humour me a little further. I should like, for example, to see how
far the windows of the bedrooms command the front. This, I understand, is your son‟s
room” (29 - The Reigate Puzzle, 1893)
Tuy nhiên, tôi xin quý vị lượng thứ cho cái ý thích thất thường của tôi . Chẳ ng hạn như tôi
muố n biế t tầ m nhìn từ những khuôn cửa sổ kéo dài tới tận đâu. Phòng của anh Alec đây ạ?
(30 - Vụ án ở Reigate, 1893:424)
- The verb “request”
The act of requesting has the same illocutionary force with “asking”, however, “request”
is more forceful than ask. The diference between “ask” and “request” is that the former is
direct, personal and informal whereas the later is formal, impersonal and markedly polite.
For example, stewardesses say “Passengers are requested to extinguish their cigarettes”
rather “Passengers are asked to extinguish their cigarettes”.
E.g:
- “My dear Gregory, you anticipate all my wants. If I might request you to wait here for
an instant, I have a question which I should like to put to the maid.”
(29 - Silver Blaze, 1892)
Ông thanh tra, ông đoán được mọi ý muốn của tôi. Liệu tôi có thể yêu cầu ông chờ tôi tại
đây trong chốc lát chăng? Tôi muốn gặp cô hầu gái... (30 - Ngọn lửa bạc, 1892:48)
- The verb “beg”
The person who begs wants to obtain something, that is, he wants something to happen that
is useful for him. In other words, one begs for a favour, for something good. He feels
helpless because he knows that he himself can not cause it to happen. Although the hearer
can cause it to happen, he evidently does not want to do it. The speaker can not bear the
though that he may be unable to obtain what he so strongly desires, and he tries to prevail
upon the addressee to do it. For one thing, the speaker indicates to the hearer that he is not
going to give up easily.
E.g:
- ... I beg you not to allow the waters to stagnate round her. (27: chapter 7)
Còn các cô giáo và bà giám thị, tôi xin mọi người đừng để cho dòng nước tù hãm xung
quanh nó. (Tuyen, 2008: 296)
25
- "the mountain will never be brought to Mahomet, so all you can do is to aid Mahomet to
go to the mountain; I must beg you to come here." (27: chapter 12)
Tôi thấy có lẽ cô chẳng bao giờ đem được núi lại cho Mahomet, vì vậy tất cả những gì cô
có thể làm bây giờ là giúp Mahomet lại gần ngọn núi thôi. Tôi phải nhờ cô lại đây vậy.
(Tuyen, 2008:528)
- “I have every hope, however, that your horse will start upon Tuesday, and I beg that you
will have your jockey in readiness.” (29 - Silver Blaze, 1892)
Tuy nhiên tôi hy vọng rằng con ngựa của Ngài sẽ có mặt vào lúc xuất phát cuộc đua ngày
thứ ba, và tôi mong Ngài nên chuẩn bị cưỡi con ngựa đó. (30 – Ngọn lửa bạc, 1892:48)
- “In answer to your advertisement of to-day‟s date, I beg to inform you that I know the
young lady in question very well.” (29 - The Greek Interpreter, 1893)
“Thưa ông, để trả lời cho tin nhắn của ông về ngày hôm nay , tôi xin thông báo cho ông
biế t rằ ng tôi hiể u rấ t rõ về người phụ nữ ấ y.” (30 – Người thông ngôn Hy lạp, 1893:613)
- The verb “implore”
The person who implores wants the addressee to do something. The speaker does not
appeal to the addressee‟s sense of his own power and importance; instead, he appeals to the
hearer‟s feelings. The speaker shows clearly that he feels distressed by his tone, hia facial
expression or his posture. With his tearful intonation, he is trying to touch the addresse‟s
heart.
E.g:
- “I implore you not to do this, Jack,” she cried. (29 - Yellow face, 1893)
“Em van anh đừng vào” nàng la lên. (30 – Bộ mặt vàng vọt,1893:125)
- The verb “beseech”
To beseech is to beg earnestly that a request be granted. The beseeching person is trying to
obtain an action from the addressee. It is crucially important for him that the addressee
should fulfil his wish. The speaker persuades the addressee by impressing him with the
intensity of his desire.
E.g:
- I beseech you to let me bring him here. (34: chapter 25)
Tôi xin ông hãy đưa anh ấy đến đây.
- I beg you not to let Strickland come here ... I beseech you not to bring Strickland here.
(34: chapter 25)
26
Tôi xin ông đừng để Strickland đến đây ... Tôi cầu xin ông đừng đưa Strickland về đây.
 The ask2 group
- The verb “ask”
In the sense of „asking a question‟ (e.g. “ask who”, “ask where”, “ask when”, “ask
whether”, “ask why”, “ask whom”) to ask is to request the hearer to perform a future
speech act that would give the original speaker a correct answer to his question. When the
speaker asks questions, he does not expect a favour from the addressee.
E.g:
- There is something I want to ask you. Have you ever heard anything from your father's
kinsfolk, the Eyres? (27: chapter 10)
Tôi muốn hỏi cô một vài điều. Cô có bao giờ nhận được tin tức gì của họ nội không?
(28: chapter 10)
- “You never felt jealousy, did you, Miss Eyre? Of course not: I need not ask you; because
you never felt love.” (27: chapter 15)
“Cô chưa bao giờ cảm thấy ghen tuông, đúng không Eyre? Tất nhiên là đúng, tôi chẳng
cần phải hỏi vì cô đã bao giờ yêu đâu mà ghen với chả tuông.” (28: chapter 15)
- "I ask you, Mr. Treloar, can any man call any woman a pig?" (38)
Thưa ông Treloar, tôi hỏi ông rằng liệu có ai có thể gọi một người phụ nữ là lợn chưa?
- The verb “inquire”
To inquire is to question something with the expectation of an answer which is assertive.
The difference between ask and inquire is that the first is quite compatible with prior
knolwedge and may be done to test the addressee rather than to find out meanwhile the
second implies lack of knowledge and a desire to know.
E.g:
"Far from it, sir. You perhaps, think me rude if I inquire in return whether you are a
philanthropist?" (27: chapter 14)
“Còn lâu mới như vậy thưa ông chủ. Nhưng có thể ông sẽ nghĩ tôi là một đứa thô lỗ nếu tôi
hỏi lại ông rằng ông có phải là một người bác ái không?” (28: chapter 14)
 The advise group
PVs of this group may be advise, suggest, recommend, warn, propose, remind, etc.
- The verb “advise”
27
When the speaker gives advice, he thinks that he knows what the addressee should do and
he says confidently that it will be a good thing if the addressee follows the proposed course
of action. The speaker does not say that he wants the addressee to follow the proposed
course of action but he rather expects that he will do so.
E.g:
- I would advise you to look out: if another comes, with a longer or clearer rent-roll,--you
are dished. (27: chapter 19)
Tôi muốn khuyên anh nên thận trọng vì chẳng may có một gã đàn ông khác, lắm của nhiều
tiền hơn xuất hiện thì anh sẽ bị hắt ra rìa là cái chắc. (28: chapter 19)
- Were I not morally certain that your uncle will be dead ere you reach Madeira, I would
advise you to accompany Mr. Mason back. (27: chapter 26)
Không biết chú cô có thể gắng gượng thở cho đến khi cô đến Mandeira được không, nếu
biết thì tôi khuyên cô cùng đến đó với ông Mason. (28: chapter 26)
- The verb “suggest”
In the directive sense, the act of suggestting is just to make a weak attempt to get someone
to do something. The person making a suggestion thinks that it might be a good thing if the
addressee does it. The speaker does not attempt to influence the hearer, that is, he merely
tries to assist the hearer in making his own decision by drawing his attention to some
possibilities which he might have overlooked.
E.g:
“I fear there is not very much,‟ I answered. „I might suggest that you have gone about in
fear of some personal attack within the last twelvemonth.‟(29 - The “Gloria Scott”,1893)
Cháu không thể nói nhiều về bác được. Cháu có thể nhắc cho bác rằng trong thời gian
gần đây, bác có lo sợ về một cuộc tấn công nhằm vào cá nhân.
(30 – Con tàu Gloria Scott, 1893)
-“If you wish to preserve your incognito,” said Holmes, smiling, “I would suggest that you
cease to write your name upon the lining of your hat, or else that you turn the crown
towards the person whom you are addressing. (29 - The Yellow Face, 1893)
“Nếu ông muốn ẩn danh” Holmes mỉm cười nói, “tôi nhắc ông đừng viết tên mình trên
mảnh vải lót của chiếc mũ, hoặc là đừng xoay chiếc mũ lại để người nói chuyện với mình
thấy hàng chữ đó.” (30 – Bộ mặt vàng vọt, 1893)
- The verb “warn”
28
To warn someone to do something is to suggest that he do it, while presupposing that it

would be bad for him not to do it.
E.g:
„I must warn you, however, Mr. Melas, that if at any time to-night you attempt to raise an
alarm or do anything which is against my interest, you will find it a very serious thing.‟
(29 - The Greek Interpreter, 1893)
Tuy nhiên, tôi phải báo trước, nế u ông tìm cách báo động hoặc làm bấ t cứ điề u gì chố ng
lại tôi thì ông sẽ hối hận đấy. (30 – Người thông ngôn Hy Lạp, 1893)
- "I don't care about it, mother; you may please yourself: but I ought to warn you, I have
no faith." (27: chapter 19)
Tôi không quan tâm đến chuyện đó thưa bà. Bà có thể bói nếu cảm thấy thích, nhưng tôi
xin báo trước là tôi không tin đâu. (28: chapter 19)
- "I warn you," was his friend's answer; "I say--be on your guard when you go near her.”
(27: chapter 20)
Tôi báo trước là ông phải cẩn thận khi đến gần nó. (28: chapter 20)
- The verb “remind”
When the speaker reminds the hearer, he wants the addressee to remember something that
would be useful for the hearer.
E.g:
"I only remind you of your own words, sir: you said error brought remorse, and you
pronounced remorse the poison of existence." (27: chapter 14)
“Tôi chỉ nhắc ông nhớ lại những lời chính ông vừa nói thôi, thưa ông: ông nói rằng sự lầm
lạc dẫn đến hối hận, và ông đảm bảo rằng hối hận là thuốc độc của sự sinh tồn”.
(28: chapter 14)
- "I would remind you of your lady's existence, sir, which the law recognises, if you do
not." (27: chapter 26).
“Tôi chỉ muốn nhắc ông nhớ lại sự tồn tại của quý bà nhà ông, thưa ông. Pháp luật đã
công nhận bà ấy, cho dù ông không công nhận”. (28: chapter 26)
3.2.2. Directive PVs in Vietnamese
 The “order” group

29
The “order” group in English has Vietnamese equivalents of verbs such as ra lệnh, truyền,
bảo, thách, yêu cầu, giao, phân công, chỉ thị, buộc, hạn, etc.
These verbs mean imposing a duty, a responsibility, or an obligation on the hearer. In other
words, the speaker is in a position of considerable power over the hearer.
E.g:
- “John, đừng nhắc đến nó với mẹ nữa đi, mẹ bảo con không được lại gần nó kia mà. Nó
đâu đáng để mình đếm xỉa.” (28: chapter 4)
"Don't talk to me about her, John: I tell you not to go near her; she is not worthy of
notice;”(27: chapter 4)
- Vì vậy, tôi yêu cầu ông phải đối xử tử tế với cái Hường. Bằng không...
(43, Ma Văn Kháng, Mưa tạnh)
This sentence can be translated into: So, I require you to be nice to Huong. If not ...
- Xin ơi! Rầy tau giao cho mi việc đóng chuồng gà đó cha ! (39, Bùi Hiển, Nằm vạ)
This can be translated into: Xin! I charge you to close the chicken coop.
Biết mình bị xỏ, quan quát:
- Hay lắm! Mày đã tự xưng là học trò, vậy ta truyền cho mày phải đối lại câu mày vừa nói.
Ðối được thì thôi, bằng không tao cho một trận dừ đòn!
(44 - Truyện Trạng Quỳnh, Nhặt bã trầu)
Being cheated, the mandarin shouts:
- Very good! You tell me that you are a pupil, so I order you to reply the sentence you have
said. If you can not make a reply, I will give you a hard punishment!
 The „ask1‟ group
The „ask‟ group has a certain degree of imposition and speaker‟s desire for the hearer to do
the required acts. A person can ask for anything for the sake of himself other than the
interlocutor‟s sake. This group includes đề nghị, bắt đền, mời, nhờ, năn nỉ, van, xin, thỉnh
cầu, xin lỗi, xin phép.
E.g:
- Tôi chỉ dám đề nghị em nán lại mái nhà này một đêm nữa thôi, sau đó em có thể vĩnh biệt
những nỗi buồn tủi và bao sự khủng khiếp để ra đi! (27: chapter 27)
I only ask you to endure one more night under this roof, Jane; and then, farewell to its
miseries and terrors for ever! (28: chapter 27)
- Bà vợ đáp: “Em van mình đừng lấy tôn giáo ra mà giễu.” (37: chapter 1)
30
"I ask you again not to joke about religion," answered his wife. (36: chapter 1)
- “Tôi e là không. Tôi đề nghị cô cứ ngồ i ngay tại cái chỗ mà cô đang ngồ i đây” - Holmes
kêu lên. (30 – Bản hiệp ước hải quân, 1893)
“I am afraid not,” said Holmes, shaking his head. “I must ask you to remain sitting exactly
where you are.” (29 - The Naval Treaty, 1893)
- Công ty sẽ thu nhận ông. Tôi sẽ báo tin, khi nào chúng tôi quyế t đi ̣nh. Và giờ đây, tôi xin
các ông hãy để cho tôi được yên , được ở đây một mình. (30 – Người làm thuê cho nhà môi
giới chứng khoán, 1893)
“I have every hope that the company may accommodate you. I will let you know about it
as soon as we come to any conclusion. And now I beg that you will go. For God‟s sake
leave me to myself!” (29 - The Stock Broker's Clerk, 1893)
In Vietnamese, begging suggests a humble, abject attitude. The speaker implies that he
sees the addressee as someone who has power over him, and he tries to flatter the hearer‟s
sense of his own power. The speaker is ready to acknowledge the potential the addressee‟s
superior position.
Chị Dậu lếch thếch ôm con bé con chạy vào:
- Thôi. Tôi xin ông Cai! Ông tha cho cháu... Chúng nó hãy còn bé bỏng.
(41 - Ngô Tất Tố, Tắt đèn, chapter 4)
- Mr Cai! I beg you! Please forgive me ... Our children are too small.
Chị Dậu xám mặt, vội vàng đặt con bé con xuống đất, chạy đến đỡ lấy tay hắn:
- Cháu van ông, nhà cháu vừa mới tỉnh được một lúc, ông tha cho.
(41 - Ngô Tất Tố, Tắt đèn, chapter 19)
- I beg you. My husband has waken up. Please forgive me.
 The ask2 group
In Vietnamese, PVs in this group are hỏi, xin hỏi.
E.g:
- Tôi hỏi chú, cái Bỉnh vợ chú nó là người hay nó là ma? (43 - Ma Văn Kháng, Trốn nợ)
I ask you if your wife, Binh is a woman or a ghost?
- À thầy hỏi con nhé. Thế con ủng hộ ai? (43 - Kim Lân, Làng)
Oh, I ask you whom you support?
31
 The “advise” group

This group has Vietnamese equivalents such as khuyên, đề nghị, gợi ý, nhắc, báo trước,
dặn, mách, etc. The speaker thinks that he knows what the addressee should do and he is
confident that it will be a good thing if the addressee follows the proposed course of action.
E.g:
- Em khuyên ông sống trong sạch và mong ông được chết thanh thản, (28: chapter 27)
"I advise you to live sinless, and I wish you to die tranquil." (27: chapter 27)
3.2.3. Similarities and differences of directive PVs in English and Vietnamese in terms
of semantic features
3.2.3.1. Similarities
In general, EPVs have their Vietnamese equivalents in meaning. Directive PVs in both
languages make the illocutionary force explicit owing to the meanings of them.
The following table summarizes the meanings of directive PVs:
PV groups EPVs VPVs

- command, direct, dictate, - ra lệnh, lệnh
order
- charge - giao, cử, phân công
- challenge - đố, thách
The “order” group
- demand, require - yêu cầu, đòi hỏi
- instruct - chỉ thị
- prescribe - quy định, buộc
- convene, convoke - triệu tập, đòi
- ask, request - nhờ, yêu cầu, đề nghị
- invite - mời
- beg, beseech, entreat, insist, - van xin, năn nỉ, xin,
The “ask1” group invoke, appeal, implore, plead, van, cầu khẩn
petion, solicit, supplicate
The “ask2” group - ask, inquire, interrogate - hỏi, xin hỏi

32
- advise - khuyên
- propose, suggest, - đề nghị, kiến nghị, gợi
recommend ý, bày
- encourage - khích lệ, động viên
The “advise” group
- warn, caution, admonish - dặn, cảnh báo, báo
trước
- remind - nhắc, mách
3.2.3.2. Differences
There exists some differences established in this thesis between PVs in English and in
Vietnamese.
Firstly, one difference is that the meanings of the verbs. In comparison with English verb
“advise”, the Vietnamese people use khuyên, khuyên nhủ, khuyên răn, khuyên bảo. In
comparison with English verb “invite”, Vietnamese people use mời, mời mọc. In
comparison with the verb “ban, forbid, prohibit”, we can use the Vietnamese verbs such as
cấm, cấm đoán. However, not all VPVs are utilized in explicit performative utterances.
Look at the example: Em mời anh xơi cơm (nguyen thien giap: 58), only the verb “mời” is
used in this utterance. We do not use the verb “mời mọc‟ to say: Em mời mọc bác ăn cơm
because “mời mọc” is used to describe the action of inviting.
To sum up, VPVs have more meaning than EPVs. This can be explained that people in
different cultures use different languages.
Another diference is that some VPVs have no English equivalents such as hạn, bắt đền.
Tôi hạn từ giờ đến tối phải thu cho đủ. Nếu không đủ sáng mai tôi phải trình quan.
(41 – Tắt đèn, chapter 2)
Chú Thanh, diều của cháu mà thua diều thằng Hùng dia à? Cháu bắt đền chú đấy. (43-
Chàng trai trên sân thượng)
U vẫn chưa đem chị Tý về đây cho con kia u? Con bắt đền đấy. Con bắt đền u đấy.
(41 – Tắt đèn, chapter15)
Since the vocabulary is language-specific, we can not always find out the equivalent of a
performative verb in a language with another one. The same illocutionary force can be
expressed in other ways.
33
Last but not least, the number and the range of modal verbs followed by PVs are not totally
identical in the two languages. In English, the number of modal verbs outweights ones in
Vietnamese. The English modal verbs may include want to, would, wouldn‟t, would like,
can, must, might, ought to whereas in Vietnamese there are only some such as muốn, xin,
phải
Yes, Mrs. Reed, to you I owe some fearful pangs of mental suffering, but I ought to forgive
you, for you knew not what you did: while rending my heart-strings, you thought you were
only uprooting my bad propensities. (27: chapter 3)
Vâng, thưa bà Reed, chỉ vì bà mà thần kinh tôi khiếp đảm. Nhưng tôi phải tha thứ cho bà
vì bà đâu có ý thức được việc mình làm. Khi làm tôi đau lòng, bà chỉ nghĩ làm vậy cốt để
nhổ tận gốc rễ thói xấu của tôi thôi. (28: chapter 3)
The author hopes that the analysis of similaries and differences of directive PVs in English
and Vietnamese may be of paramount significance and importance to teachers in teaching
and Vietnamese learners of English learning English as a foreign language.
34
CHAPTER FOUR. CONCLUSION
4.1. Recapitulation
The thesis is about the contrastive analysis of directive PVs in English and Vietnamese.
The study is an attempt to describe and systematize directive PVs in terms of syntactic and
semantic features. Besides, the author tries to provide readers with a thorough and brief
overview of theory to find out the nature, type, function and conditions of using PVs.
Through the observation and description of data, the study is investigated to analyze
syntactic and semantic features of PVs employed in directives. The contrastive analysis of
authentic examples paves the way for the comprehensive study of using PVs in both
languages. In this perspective, all possible similarities and differences are revealed clearly.
The findings show that there are more differences than similarities in terms of structure,
meaning and using. The significant differences reflect the way people in different cultures
conceive, think about, understand and feel the world dissimilarily.
4.2. Concluding remarks
4.2.1. Concluding remarks on objective 1
Directives are those kinds of speech acts that the speaker uses to get someone else to do
something. Basing on the Dictionary “Speech act verbs” (Wierzbicka,1987), I describe the
structures and meanings of directive PVs in the “order” group, “ask1” group, “ask2” group,
“advise” group in turn. In each of group, directive PVs which are used most frequently in
written discourse are presented. In general, all directive PVs have the formula “I (hereby)
Vp you...”. In terms of meaning, the “order” group including order, command, demand,
direct, charge, etc shows the speaker‟s authority over the hearer that gives weight to his
utterances. In performing the act of ordering, the speaker is in an equal or superior
communicative role to the hearer. The “ask1” group comprising asking, begging, reminding,
beseeching, entreating, etc indicates that the hearer is in equal or inferiore position with the
addressee. The “ask2” group are acts of asking, inquiring, interrogating, etc which
expresses the speaker‟s desire for getting the needed information. The “advise” group
consists of advising, suggesting, reminding, warning, etc. These acts are mainly for the
35
hearer‟s benefit, thus there is an option on the hearer doing the acts. Additionally, the
speaker has power over the hearer, mainly coming from his wisdom and experience.
A contrastive analysis of directive PVs in English and Vietnamese shows some similarities
and differences as follows.
Syntactically, the difference is that directive PVs in both languages appear in explicit
performative utterances which contains the 1st person pronoun “I”, followed by a certain
type of verb in the present tense. E.g. “I order ... ”, “I advise ... ”, “I warn ... ” etc.
However, there exist some differences of syntactic features. EPVs have more complicated
forms than VPVs. EPVs can go with that-clause or to infinitive or to require a preposition
to combine a noun functioning as a object whereas VPVs often occur in the complex
sentences. Besides, EPVs always follow the first singular pronoun meanwhile the first
pronoun of VPVs can be omitted. This can be explained by different nature and features in
both languages.
Also, in terms of semantics, it is common that directive PVs in English and Vietnamese
make the illocution of an utterance more explicit or clearer.
In general, directive PVs in English and Vietnamese coincide in meanings but some VPVs
which have no equivalents in meaning with EPVs such as hạn, bắt đền, etc. (e.g. U vẫn
chưa đem chị Tý về đây cho con kia u? Con bắt đền đấy. Con bắt đền U đấy. (41 - Tắt đèn).
The analysis of the similarities and differences of PVs in English and Vietnamese may be
significant and important to teaching and learning PVs. Through describing the structures
and meanings of directive PVs which are used most frequently, Vietnamese teachers and
learners will have a clear understanding of using PVs to avoid the confusion about
meanings of directive PVs.
The findings of the study have given the foundation for the suggestion to improve an
effective usage as well as better teaching and learning of PVs of directives in second
language classes. It is necessary to learn PVs from examples in stories and novels so as to
enhances the learner‟s ability of using the target language. In the hope of helping
Vietnamese learners fully aware of directive PVs, some exercises are suggested below.
36
Teachers can ask students to do these types of exercises (see the here with enclosed
appendix) and then give them feedback, at the same time, teachers should emphasize the
structures and situational meanings when we use directive PVs.
4.3. Limitation of the study
Although the thesis has been given much time and efforts, it is inevitable to avoid
shortcomings for the limitations in the ability of the research as well as the inadequacy of
materials. It is hoped that the thesis can receive a lot of contributions from all the teachers
and opinions from readers so that it can become better and more effective.
4.4. Suggestions for further study
In briefly, this study has just touches a small aspect of performative verbs. The author is
aware that there are some important matters remaining unanswered. An interesting point
which needs further research is a contrastive analysis of PVs in English and Vietnamese
employed in representatives, commissives, expressives, declarations.
vii
REFERENCES
In English
1. Austin, J.L. (1962), How to do things with words, Cambridge, Mass: Harvard
University Press.
2. Austin, J.L. (1975), How to do things with words, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
3. Bronte, E. (1994), Withering Heights, Book Essentials Promotion, Inc.
4. Geis, Michael L. (1995), Speech acts and conversational interaction, Cambridge
University Press.
5. Jame, C. (1980), Contrastive analysis. Longman, London.
6. James R. Hurford and Brendam Heasey (1983), Semantics : A course book,
Cambridge University Press.
7. Lado, R. (1957), Linguistics Across Cultures, The University of Michgan Press.
8. Levinson, S.C. (1983), Pragmatics, Cambridge University Press.
9. Nguyen Hoa. (2004), Understanding Semantics, NXB Đai Hoc Quoc Gia Ha Noi.
10. Palmer, F.R. (1990), Semantics, Cambridge University Press.
11. Partridge, J. G. (1982), Semantics, Pragmatics and Syntactic Correlates: An
analysis of Performative Verbs based on English data.
12. Patterson, J. (1997), Cat and Mouse, Waner Books.
13. Richards, J.C et al. (1992), Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied
Linguistics. Longman Press, Malaysia.
14. Searle, J.R. (1969), Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language.
Cambridge University Press
15. Searle, J.R. (1979), Expression and meaning, Cambridge University Press.
16. Skinner, B.F. (1962), Walden Two, Macmillan Paperbacks Edition.
17. Thomas, J. (1995), Meaning in Interaction: An introduction to Pragmatics. UK:
Longman
18. Verschuren, J. (1999), Unnderstanding Pragmatics, Oxford University Press
19. Wierzbicka, A. (1987), English Speech Act Verbs. Academic Press, Australia.
20. Wittgenstein, Ludwig. (1953), Phylosophical investigations, Newyork: Macmillan
21. Yule, G. (1996), Pragmatics, New York : Oxford University Press.
viii
In Vietnamese
22. Đỗ Hữu Châu. (2006), Đại cương ngôn ngữ học, Tập 2: Ngữ dụng học, NXB Giáo
dục
23. Nguyễn Công Hoan, (1930), Hai thằng khốn nạn, Annam tạp chí số 12; 1930
24. Nguyễn Thiện Giáp. (2004), Dụng Học Việt Ngữ, NXB Đại Học Quốc Gia hà Nội
25. Nguyễn Xuân Kính, Nguyễn Thúy Loan, Phan Đăng Nhật, Phan Đăng Tài, Đặng
Diệu Trang. (1995), Kho tàng ca dao người Việt, Tập 2, NXB Văn Hóa.
26. Lê Văn Sự. (2011), Tuyển tập 110 bài đọc văn chương Anh Mỹ, NXB Hồng Đức.
Sources of extracted examples:
27. http://www.online-literature.com/brontec/janeeyre/
28. http://www.e-thuvien.com (Dịch giả: Nguyễn Tuyên, Bản dịch Jane Eyre, 2008,
NXB Văn Học, www.thuvien-ebook.com)
29. http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/d/doyle/arthur_conan/d75me/index.html
30. http://www.thamtuvn.org (Tác giả :Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , Những hồ i ức về
Sherlock Holmes, 1894, www.thuvien-ebook.com)
31. http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/gdemaupassant/bl-gdemaup-
affairofstate.htm/ (Translators: Albert M.C. McMaster, A.E. Henderson, Mme.
Quesada, & others)
32. http://www.huongdaumua.net/46-1-lsdt/ba-nguoi-khac-chuong-2-to-hoai.htm/
33. http://tailieu.vn/xem-tai-lieu/dong-hao-co-ma.433384.html/
34. http://www.online-literature.com/maugham/moon-and-sixpence/
35. http://www.online-literature.com/maugham/the-magician/
36. http://maugham.classicauthors.net/Rain/
37. http://www.wattpad.com/mưa-somerset-maugham-nguyễn-hiến-lê-dịch-truyện/
38. http://www.pagebypagebooks.com/Jack_London/The_Night_Born/UnderTheDeck
Awnings/
39. http://vietmessenger.com/books/namva/
40. http://www.talachu.org/truyen./
41. http://music.vietfun.com/
42. http://www.classicshorts.com/stories/aos.html/
43. http://www.huongdaumua.net/
44. http://vinanet.dk/printer_friendly_posts.asp?TID=5631
ix
APPENDIX
Exercise 1:
In each of the groups below only the (a) utterances would be performative in Austin‟s view.
Think about why the (b) and (c) utterances would not be classed as performative.
1. (a) I admit I failed the exam.
(b) I think I failed the exam.
(c) I know I failed the exam.
2. (a) I apologize to you.
(b) I amuse you.
(c) I flatter you.
3. (a) I promise to leave.
(b) I warned you to stop.
(c) He admits he was wrong.
Exercise 2:
Look at the following pairs of utterances. What are differences between the utterances in
each pair?
1. (a) I promise to arrive soon.
(b) I‟ll arrive soon.
2. (a) I admit I was careless.
(b) I was careless.
3. (a) I warn you, this food is stale.
(b) This food is stale.
4. (a) I apologize.
(b) I‟m sorry.
Exercise 3:
Choose a suitable PV that can produce the perlocution referred to by each of the following
situations: warn, order, promise, request, thank, apologize
1. I‟ll pay you back.
2. I‟m very grateful.
3. I‟m sorry to hear that.
4. You must sit down.
5. There‟s a spider in your hair.
6. I need the salt.
x
Exercise 4:
Are the following performative verbs or not?
(1) apologize Yes / No (4) condemn Yes / No
(2) authorize Yes / No (5) warn Yes / No
(3) argue Yes / No (6) squeal Yes / No

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VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI

UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

TRẦN THỊ THU HIỀN

A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PERFORMATIVE VERBS IN

M.A. MINOR THESIS

Field: English Linguistics

TRẦN THỊ THU HIỀN

A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PERFORMATIVE VERBS IN

M.A. MINOR THESIS

Field: English Linguistics

CANDIDATE’S STATEMENT ............................................................................... i

2.3.2. The function of performative verbs .................................................................. 12

CANDIDATE‟S STATEMENT ............................................................................... i

2.3.2. The function of performative verbs .................................................................. 12

CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Rationale of the study

Language is an inseparable part in people‟s life because it is employed to transmit

1.2. Aims and objectives of the study

The study is aimed at:

To achieve these aims, the research tries to:

1.2.3. Research questions

The objectives are elaborated into the following research questions:

1.3. Scope of the study

1.4. Method of the study

+ Choosing instrumental languages: English is selected as the source language and

1.5. Organization of the study

Chapter one: Introduction.

CHAPTER TWO. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

2.1. Speech Act Theory

2.1.1. Definition of speech acts

According to an American language philosopher J.R. Searle, speaking a language is

2.1.2. Components of speech acts

+ Locutionary act: the utterance is an imperative

2.1.3. Speech Act Classification

2.1.4. Illocutionary force indicating device

2.1.5. Felicity conditions

Austin (1962:14-15) defines the felicity conditions as follows:

2.1.7. Property of speech act verbs

2.2.1. Performatives versus Constatives

2.2.2. Definition of Performatives

Austin defines a performative as an utterance which contains a special type of verb (a

2.2.3. Types of performatives

2.2.3.1. Explicit performative

2.2.3.2. Implicit performative

We regularly meet these utterances like those below:

2.3. Performative verbs

2.3.1. Definition of performative verbs which

2.3.2. The function of performative verbs

2.3.3. Classification of performative verbs

Performative verbs appear in explicit performatives and do not exist in implict

2.3.3.1. Meta-linguistic performative verbs

2.3.3.2. Ritual performative verbs

2.3.3.3. Collaborate performative verbs

CHAPTER THREE. A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH DIRECTIVE

3.1. Syntactic features of directive PVs

3.1.1. Directive PVs in English

Tôi yêu cầu anh thả tôi ngay lập tức.