METABOLIC REACTIONS AND ENERGY TRANSFORMATION: ENZYME

All living things need energy since energy is required by most, complex, metabolic pathways
(often in the form of ATP) and life itself is an energy-driven process. Living organisms would not be able
to assemble macromolecules (proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and complex carbohydrates) from their
monomeric subunits without a constant energy input.

The energy is passed from one organism to another through food webs and their constituent food
chains. Energy is acquired by living things in three ways: photosynthesis, chemosynthesis, and the
consumption and digestion of other living or previously-living organisms by heterotrophs.

Large amounts of energy are lost from the ecosystem between one trophic level and the next level
as energy flows from the primary producers through the various trophic levels of consumers and
decomposers. The main reason for this loss is the second law of thermodynamics, which states that
whenever energy is converted from one form to another, there is a tendency toward disorder (entropy) in
the system. In biologic systems, this means a great deal of energy is lost as metabolic heat when the
organisms from one trophic level are consumed by the next level. 

Metabolic Reactions
Organisms on Earth have cells that metabolize energy to support life. This is the reason why we
need a constant supply of energy around us. The biochemical reactions involved in building up and
breaking down cellular components must be regulated and balanced. Energy releasing processes, ones
that "generate" energy, are termed exergonic reactions. Reactions that require energy to initiate the
reaction are known as endergonic reactions. All of the chemical reactions that take place inside cells,
including those that consume or generate energy, are referred to as the cell’s metabolism.

a. Exergonic reactions

Reactions that have a negative change in free energy and consequently release free energy are
called exergonic reactions. These reactions are also referred to as spontaneous reactions, and
their products have less stored energy than the reactants. The rusting of iron is an example of a
spontaneous reaction that occurs slowly, little by little, over time.

b. Endergonic reactions

Reactions that have a positive change in free energy and consequently absorbs energy are called
endergonic reactions. Thus, the products of these reactions can be thought of as energy-storing
molecules. Photosynthesis and fatty acid anabolism are examples of this reaction.

Enzymes are biological catalysts. They are compounds that facilitate chemical reactions. The
orderly course of metabolic processes is only possible because each cell is equipped with its own
genetically determined set of enzymes. It is only this that allows coordinated sequences of reactions
(metabolic pathways). Enzymes are also involved in many regulatory mechanisms that allow the
metabolism to adapt to changing conditions. Almost all enzymes are proteins. The name of the enzyme
usually ends in –ase and is derived from the substrate that is affected by it. For example, enzymes that
break down proteins are called proteases.

Figure 1. Enzyme and active site

The active site and functional groups of its amino acids may lower activation energy by: acting as
a template for substrate orientation, stressing the substrates and stabilizing the transition state, providing a
favorable micro environment, and participating directly in the catalytic reaction.

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Reaction and substrate specificity
Enzymes are catalysts. Catalysts are compounds that accelerate a reaction without being changed.
Enzymes are not destroyed or changed, but rather reused in the same chemical reaction over and over.
The compounds that enzymes act upon are known as substrates. Enzymes bind to an active site in the
substrate and lower the energy needed for the reaction to occur making it faster. The energy required for
a chemical reaction to occur is known as the activation energy. The substrates change to form a product.
The action of enzymes is usually very specific. This applies not only to the type of reaction being
catalyzed (reaction specificity), but also to the nature of the reactants (substrates) that are involved
(substrate specificity).

Figure 2. Representation of “lock-key” model for enzyme

An enzyme acts on a specific substrate to form an enzyme–substrate complex because of the fit
between their structures. As a result, something happens to the substrate molecule. For example, it might
be split in two at a particular location. Then the enzyme–substrate complex comes apart, yielding the
enzyme and products. The enzyme is not changed in the reaction and is now free to react again. Note that
the arrows in the formula for enzyme reaction point both ways (Fig. 2). This means that the reaction is
reversible. An enzyme–substrate complex can simply go back to the enzyme and the substrate. The
products of an enzymatic reaction can react with the enzyme to form the enzyme–substrate complex
again. It, in turn, may again form the enzyme and the substrate. Therefore, the same enzyme may act to
cause a reaction to go either way. Some enzymes cannot function by themselves. In order to work, they
must first be attached to coenzymes. Coenzymes normally are not protein materials. Some of the vitamins
are important coenzymes.

References:
Faltado, Ruben E., et.al. General Biology 1: Lorimar Publishing Inc., 2017.
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1DNXU7dYNUxZ_ieRzFpmoKUTcKPw-rC0Q?
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