Hydrogen Fuel Basics

Hydrogen is a clean fuel that, when consumed in a fuel cell, produces only
water. Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of domestic resources, such as
natural gas, nuclear power, biomass, and renewable power like solar and wind.
These qualities make it an attractive fuel option for transportation and
electricity generation applications. It can be used in cars, in houses, for portable
power, and in many more applications.

Hydrogen is an energy carrier that can be used to store, move, and deliver
energy produced from other sources.

Today, hydrogen fuel can be produced through several methods. The most
common methods today are natural gas reforming (a thermal process), and
electrolysis. Other methods include solar-driven and biological processes.

THERMAL PROCESSES

Thermal processes for hydrogen production typically involve steam reforming,

a high-temperature process in which steam reacts with a hydrocarbon fuel to
produce hydrogen. Many hydrocarbon fuels can be reformed to produce
hydrogen, including natural gas, diesel, renewable liquid fuels, gasified coal, or
gasified biomass. Today, about 95% of all hydrogen is produced from steam
reforming of natural gas

Natural gas reforming

Natural gas reforming is an advanced and mature production process that

builds upon the existing natural gas pipeline delivery infrastructure. Today,
95% of the hydrogen produced in the United States is made by natural gas
reforming in large central plants. This is an important technology pathway for
near-term hydrogen production.

How Does It Work?

Natural gas contains methane (CH4) that can be used to produce hydrogen with
thermal processes, such as steam-methane reformation and partial oxidation.
Steam-Methane Reforming

Most hydrogen produced today in the United States is made via steam-methane
reforming, a mature production process in which high-temperature steam
(700°C–1,000°C) is used to produce hydrogen from a methane source, such as
natural gas. In steam-methane reforming, methane reacts with steam under 3–
25 bar pressure (1 bar = 14.5 psi) in the presence of a catalyst to produce
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and a relatively small amount of carbon dioxide.
Steam reforming is endothermic—that is, heat must be supplied to the process
for the reaction to proceed.

Subsequently, in what is called the "water-gas shift reaction," the carbon

monoxide and steam are reacted using a catalyst to produce carbon dioxide and
more hydrogen. In a final process step called "pressure-swing adsorption,"
carbon dioxide and other impurities are removed from the gas stream, leaving
essentially pure hydrogen. Steam reforming can also be used to produce
hydrogen from other fuels, such as ethanol, propane, or even gasoline.

Steam-methane reforming reaction

CH4 + H2O (+ heat) → CO + 3H2

Water-gas shift reaction

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 (+ small amount of heat)

Partial Oxidation

In partial oxidation, the methane and other hydrocarbons in natural gas react
with a limited amount of oxygen (typically from air) that is not enough to
completely oxidize the hydrocarbons to carbon dioxide and water. With less
than the stoichiometric amount of oxygen available, the reaction products
contain primarily hydrogen and carbon monoxide (and nitrogen, if the reaction
is carried out with air rather than pure oxygen), and a relatively small amount
of carbon dioxide and other compounds. Subsequently, in a water-gas shift
reaction, the carbon monoxide reacts with water to form carbon dioxide and
more hydrogen.

Partial oxidation is an exothermic process—it gives off heat. The process is,
typically, much faster than steam reforming and requires a smaller reactor
vessel. As can be seen in chemical reactions of partial oxidation, this process
initially produces less hydrogen per unit of the input fuel than is obtained by
steam reforming of the same fuel.

Partial oxidation of methane reaction

CH4 + ½ O2 → CO + 2H2 (+ heat)

Water-gas shift reaction

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 (+ small amount of heat)
Why Is This Pathway Being Considered?

Reforming low-cost natural gas can provide hydrogen today for fuel cell
electric vehicles (FCEVs) as well as other applications. Over the long term,
DOE expects that hydrogen production from natural gas will be augmented
with production from renewable, nuclear, coal (with carbon capture and
storage), and other low-carbon, domestic energy resources.

Petroleum use and emissions are lower than for gasoline-powered internal
combustion engine vehicles. The only product from an FCEV tailpipe is water
vapor but even with the upstream process of producing hydrogen from natural
gas as well as delivering and storing it for use in FCEVs, the total greenhouse
gas emissions are cut in half and petroleum is reduced over 90% compared to
today's gasoline vehicles.

Biomass gasification

Biomass gasification is a mature technology pathway that uses a controlled

process involving heat, steam, and oxygen to convert biomass to hydrogen and
other products, without combustion. Because growing biomass removes carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere, the net carbon emissions of this method can be
low, especially if coupled with carbon capture, utilization, and storage in the
long term. Gasification plants for biofuels are being built and operated, and can
provide best practices and lessons learned for hydrogen production. The U.S.
Department of Energy anticipates that biomass gasification could be deployed
in the near-term timeframe.
What Is Biomass?

Biomass, a renewable organic resource, includes agriculture crop residues

(such as corn stover or wheat straw), forest residues, special crops grown
specifically for energy use (such as switchgrass or willow trees), organic
municipal solid waste, and animal wastes. This renewable resource can be used
to produce hydrogen, along with other byproducts, by gasification.

How Does Biomass Gasification Work?

Gasification is a process that converts organic or fossil-based carbonaceous

materials at high temperatures (>700°C), without combustion, with a controlled
amount of oxygen and/or steam into carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and carbon
dioxide. The carbon monoxide then reacts with water to form carbon dioxide
and more hydrogen via a water-gas shift reaction. Adsorbers or special
membranes can separate the hydrogen from this gas stream.

Simplified example reaction

C6H12O6 + O2 + H2O → CO + CO2 + H2 + other species

Note: The above reaction uses glucose as a surrogate for cellulose. Actual
biomass has highly variable composition and complexity with cellulose as one
major component.
Water-gas shift reaction
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 (+ small amount of heat)

Pyrolysis is the gasification of biomass in the absence of oxygen. In general,

biomass does not gasify as easily as coal, and it produces other hydrocarbon
compounds in the gas mixture exiting the gasifier; this is especially true when
no oxygen is used. As a result, typically an extra step must be taken to reform
these hydrocarbons with a catalyst to yield a clean syngas mixture of hydrogen,
carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide. Then, just as in the gasification process
for hydrogen production, a shift reaction step (with steam) converts the carbon
monoxide to carbon dioxide. The hydrogen produced is then separated and
purified.

Why Is This Pathway Being Considered?

Biomass is an abundant domestic resource.

In the United States, there is more biomass available than is required for food
and animal feed needs. A recent report projects that with anticipated
improvements in agricultural practices and plant breeding, up to 1 billion dry
tons of biomass could be available for energy use annually. For more
information, see U.S. Billion-Ton Update: Biomass Supply for a Bioenergy and
Bioproducts Industry.

Biomass "recycles" carbon dioxide.

Plants consume carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as part of their natural
growth process as they make biomass, off-setting the carbon dioxide released
from producing hydrogen through biomass gasification and resulting in low net
greenhouse gas emissions.

Research Focuses on Overcoming Challenges

Key challenges to hydrogen production via biomass gasification involve

reducing costs associated with capital equipment and biomass feedstocks.

Research to lower capital costs:

⚫ Replacing the cryogenic process currently used to separate oxygen from

air when oxygen is used in the gasifier with new membrane technology.
⚫ Developing new membrane technologies to better separate and purify
hydrogen from the gas stream produced (similar to coal gasification).
⚫ Intensifying the process (combining steps into fewer operations).

Research to lower biomass feedstock costs:

⚫ Improved agricultural practices and breeding efforts should result in low

and stable feedstock costs.

As biomass gasification is a mature technology, feedstock costs and lessons

learned from commercial demonstrations will determine its potential as a viable
pathway for cost-competitive hydrogen production.

Reforming of renewable liquid fuels.

Liquids derived from biomass resources—including ethanol and bio-oils—can

be reformed to produce hydrogen in a process similar to natural gas reforming.
Biomass-derived liquids can be transported more easily than their biomass
feedstocks, allowing for semi-central production or possibly distributed
hydrogen production at fueling stations. Biomass-derived liquid reforming is a
mid-term technology pathway.
How Does It Work?

Biomass resources can be converted to cellulosic ethanol, bio-oils, or other

liquid biofuels. Some of these liquids may be transported at relatively low cost
to a refueling station or other point of use and reformed to produce hydrogen.
Others (for example, bio-oils) may be reformed on-site.

The process for reforming biomass-derived liquids to hydrogen is very similar

to natural gas reforming and includes the following steps:

1. The liquid fuel is reacted with steam at high temperatures in the presence
of a catalyst to produce a reformate gas composed mostly of hydrogen,
carbon monoxide, and some carbon dioxide.
2. Additional hydrogen and carbon dioxide are produced by reacting the
carbon monoxide (created in the first step) with high-temperature steam in
the "water-gas shift reaction."
3. Finally, the hydrogen is separated out and purified.

Steam reforming reaction (ethanol)

C2H5OH + H2O (+ heat) → 2CO + 4H2

Water-gas shift reaction

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 (+ small amount of heat)

Biomass-derived liquids, such as ethanol and bio-oils, can be produced at large,

central facilities located near the biomass source to take advantage of
economies of scale and reduce the cost of transporting the solid biomass
feedstock. The liquids have a high energy density and with some upgrading can
be transported with minimal new delivery infrastructure and at relatively low
cost to distributed refueling stations, semi-central production facilities, or
stationary power sites for reforming to hydrogen.

Why Is This Pathway Being Considered?

Biomass is an abundant domestic resource.

In the United States, there is more biomass available than is required for food
and animal feed needs. A recent report projects that with anticipated
improvements in agricultural practices and plant breeding, up to 1 billion dry
tons of biomass could be available for energy use annually. This equates to
around 13–14 quadrillion Btu/year potential (in 2030). Biomass has the
potential to be a major contributing source of renewable energy. For more
information, see U.S. Billion-Ton Update: Biomass Supply for a Bioenergy and
Bioproducts Industry.

Biomass "recycles" carbon dioxide.

Plants consume carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as part of their natural
growth process as they make biomass, off-setting the carbon dioxide released
from producing hydrogen through biomass gasification and resulting in low net
greenhouse gas emissions.

Research Focuses on Overcoming Challenges

Reforming biomass-derived liquids is a process very similar to reforming

natural gas (a relatively mature technology). However, biomass-derived liquids
are composed of larger molecules with more carbon atoms than natural gas,
making them more difficult to reform. Research is needed to identify better
catalysts to improve yields and selectivity. Other challenges include:

⚫ Reducing the cost of biomass-derived liquids (research conducted by

DOE's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Bioenergy
Technologies Office)
⚫ Reducing capital equipment costs, as well as operation and maintenance
costs, and improving process efficiency (similar to the challenges of
natural gas reforming).

ELECTROLYTIC PROCESSES

Water can be separated into oxygen and hydrogen through a process called
electrolysis. Electrolytic processes take place in an electrolyzer, which
functions much like a fuel cell in reverse—instead of using the energy of a
hydrogen molecule, like a fuel cell does, an electrolyzer creates hydrogen from
water molecules.
Electrolysis is a promising option for carbon-free hydrogen production from
renewable and nuclear resources. Electrolysis is the process of using electricity
to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. This reaction takes place in a unit
called an electrolyzer. Electrolyzers can range in size from small, appliance-
size equipment that is well-suited for small-scale distributed hydrogen
production to large-scale, central production facilities that could be tied directly
to renewable or other non-greenhouse-gas-emitting forms of electricity
production.

How Does it Work?

Like fuel cells, electrolyzers consist of an anode and a cathode separated by an

electrolyte. Different electrolyzers function in different ways, mainly due to the
different type of electrolyte material involved and the ionic species it conducts.
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Electrolyzers

In a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer, the electrolyte is a

solid specialty plastic material.

• Water reacts at the anode to form oxygen and positively charged

hydrogen ions (protons).
• The electrons flow through an external circuit and the hydrogen ions
selectively move across the PEM to the cathode.
• At the cathode, hydrogen ions combine with electrons from the external
circuit to form hydrogen gas. Anode Reaction: 2H2O → O2 + 4H+ +
4e- Cathode Reaction: 4H+ + 4e- → 2H2

Alkaline Electrolyzers

Alkaline electrolyzers operate via transport of hydroxide ions (OH-) through

the electrolyte from the cathode to the anode with hydrogen being generated on
the cathode side. Electrolyzers using a liquid alkaline solution of sodium or
potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte have been commercially available for
many years. Newer approaches using solid alkaline exchange membranes
(AEM) as the electrolyte are showing promise on the lab scale.

Solid Oxide Electrolyzers

Solid oxide electrolyzers, which use a solid ceramic material as the electrolyte
that selectively conducts negatively charged oxygen ions (O2-) at elevated
temperatures, generate hydrogen in a slightly different way.

• Steam at the cathode combines with electrons from the external circuit
to form hydrogen gas and negatively charged oxygen ions.
• The oxygen ions pass through the solid ceramic membrane and react at
the anode to form oxygen gas and generate electrons for the external
circuit.
Solid oxide electrolyzers must operate at temperatures high enough for the
solid oxide membranes to function properly (about 700°–800°C, compared to
PEM electrolyzers, which operate at 70°–90°C, and commercial alkaline
electrolyzers, which typically operate at less than 100°C). Advanced lab-scale
solid oxide electrolyzers based on proton-conducting ceramic electrolytes are
showing promise for lowering the operating temperature to 500°–600°C. The
solid oxide electrolyzers can effectively use heat available at these elevated
temperatures (from various sources, including nuclear energy) to decrease the
amount of electrical energy needed to produce hydrogen from water.

Why Is This Pathway Being Considered?

Electrolysis is a leading hydrogen production pathway to achieve

the Hydrogen Energy Earthshotgoal of reducing the cost of clean
hydrogen by 80% to $1 per 1 kilogram in 1 decade ("1 1 1"). Hydrogen
produced via electrolysis can result in zero greenhouse gas emissions,
depending on the source of the electricity used. The source of the required
electricity—including its cost and efficiency, as well as emissions resulting
from electricity generation—must be considered when evaluating the
benefits and economic viability of hydrogen production via electrolysis. In
many regions of the country, today's power grid is not ideal for providing
the electricity required for electrolysis because of the greenhouse gases
released and the amount of fuel required due to the low efficiency of the
electricity generation process. Hydrogen production via electrolysis is being
pursued for renewable (wind, solar, hydro, geothermal) and nuclear energy
options. These hydrogen production pathways result in virtually zero
greenhouse gas and criteria pollutant emissions; however, the production
cost needs to be decreased significantly to be competitive with more mature
carbon-based pathways such as natural gas reforming.

Potential for synergy with renewable energy power generation

Hydrogen production via electrolysis may offer opportunities for synergy
with dynamic and intermittent power generation, which is characteristic of
some renewable energy technologies. For example, though the cost of wind
power has continued to drop, the inherent variability of wind is an
impediment to the effective use of wind power. Hydrogen fuel and electric
power generation could be integrated at a wind farm, allowing flexibility to
shift production to best match resource availability with system operational
needs and market factors. Also, in times of excess electricity production
from wind farms, instead of curtailing the electricity as is commonly done, it
is possible to use this excess electricity to produce hydrogen through
electrolysis.

It is important to note...

• Today's grid electricity is not the ideal source of electricity for

electrolysis because most of the electricity is generated using
technologies that result in greenhouse gas emissions and are energy
intensive. Electricity generation using renewable or nuclear energy
technologies, either separate from the grid, or as a growing portion of
the grid mix, is a possible option to overcome these limitations for
hydrogen production via electrolysis.
• The U.S. Department of Energy and others continue efforts to bring
down the cost of renewable-based electricity production and develop
more efficient fossil-fuel-based electricity production with carbon
capture, utilization, and storage. Wind-based electricity production,
for example, is growing rapidly in the United States and globally.

Research Focuses On Overcoming Challenges

• Meeting the Hydrogen Shot clean hydrogen cost target of $1/kg H2 by

2030 (and interim target of $2/kg H2 by 2025) through improved
understanding of performance, cost, and durability trade-offs of
electrolyzer systems under predicted future dynamic operating modes
using CO2-free electricity.
• Reducing the capital cost of the electrolyzer unit and the balance of
the system.
• Improving energy efficiency for converting electricity to hydrogen
over a wide range of operating conditions.
• Increasing understanding of electrolyzer cell and stack degradation
processes and developing mitigation strategies to increase operational
life.
Hydrogen Production:

Hydrogen is the simplest element on earth—it consists of only one proton and
one electron—and it is an energy carrier, not an energy source. Hydrogen can
store and deliver usable energy, but it doesn't typically exist by itself in nature
and must be produced from compounds that contain it.

Why Study Hydrogen Production

With approximately 10 million metric tons (MMT) hydrogen currently

produced in the United States each year, the primary demand for hydrogen
today is for petroleum refining and ammonia production. However, hydrogen
can be used across multiple sectors to enable zero or near-zero emissions in
other chemical and industrial processes, integrated clean energy systems, and
transportation. Emerging hydrogen markets within these sectors include data
centers, ports, steel manufacturing, and medium- and heavy-duty trucks.

How Hydrogen Production Works

Hydrogen can be produced through low-carbon pathways using diverse,

domestic resources—including fossil fuels, such as natural gas and coal,
coupled with carbon capture and storage; through splitting of water using
nuclear energy and renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, geothermal,
and hydro-electric power; and from biomass through biological processes.

SOLAR-DRIVEN PROCESSES

Solar-driven processes use light as the agent for hydrogen production. There
are a few solar-driven processes, including photobiological,
photoelectrochemical, and solar thermochemical. Photobiological processes use
the natural photosynthetic activity of bacteria and green algae to produce
hydrogen. Photoelectrochemical processes use specialized semiconductors to
separate water into hydrogen and oxygen. Solar thermochemical hydrogen
production uses concentrated solar power to drive water splitting reactions
often along with other species such as metal oxides.

Photobiological Processes:

The photobiological hydrogen production process uses microorganisms and

sunlight to turn water, and sometimes organic matter, into hydrogen. This is a
longer-term technology pathway in the early stages of research that has a long-
term potential for sustainable hydrogen production with low environmental
impact.

How Does it Work?

In photolytic biological systems, microorganisms—such as green microalgae or

cyanobacteria—use sunlight to split water into oxygen and hydrogen ions. The
hydrogen ions can be combined through direct or indirect routes and released
as hydrogen gas. Challenges for this pathway include low rates of hydrogen
production and the fact that splitting water also produces oxygen, which
quickly inhibits the hydrogen production reaction and can be a safety issue
when mixed with hydrogen in certain concentrations. Researchers are working
to develop methods to allow the microbes to produce hydrogen for longer
periods of time and to increase the rate of hydrogen production.
Some photosynthetic microbes use sunlight as the driver to break down organic
matter, releasing hydrogen. This is known as photo-fermentative hydrogen
production. Some of the major challenges of this pathway include a very low
hydrogen production rate and low solar-to-hydrogen efficiency, making it a
commercially unviable pathway for hydrogen production at this time.

Researchers are looking at ways to make the microbes better at collecting and
using energy to make more available for hydrogen production, and to change
their normal biological pathways to increase the rate of hydrogen production.

Why Is This Pathway Being Considered?

In the long term, photobiological production technologies may provide

economical hydrogen production from sunlight with low- to net-zero carbon
emissions. The algae and bacteria could be grown in water that cannot be used
for drinking or for agriculture, and could potentially even use wastewater.

Research Focuses on Overcoming Challenges

Research in photobiological hydrogen has progressed in recent years, though it

is still in the early stages. There are a number of common challenges to both
photolytic and photo-fermentative biological hydrogen production. Many of
these challenges require further research into basic, fundamental questions,
such as that being done in the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Science,
including:

• Improving the activity of the enzymes that produce the hydrogen, as

well as the metabolic pathways needed for the reactions, to increase the
hydrogen production rates.
• Developing strains that can efficiently use the sunlight and other inputs
to increase the hydrogen yields.
• Developing strains and reactor configurations that can ultimately be
used at large scales for commercial hydrogen production.
Solar Thermochemical Processes:

Thermochemical water splitting uses high temperatures—from concentrated

solar power or from the waste heat of nuclear power reactions—and chemical
reactions to produce hydrogen and oxygen from water. This is a long-term
technology pathway, with potentially low or no greenhouse gas emissions.

How Does It Work?

Thermochemical water splitting processes use high-temperature heat (500°–

2,000°C) to drive a series of chemical reactions that produce hydrogen. The
chemicals used in the process are reused within each cycle, creating a closed
loop that consumes only water and produces hydrogen and oxygen. The
necessary high temperatures can be generated in the following ways:

• Concentrating sunlight onto a reactor tower using a field of mirror

"heliostats," as illustrated in Figure 1. For more information, see Chapter
5 of the SunShot Vision Study.
• Using waste heat from advanced nuclear reactors. For more information,
see the U.S. Department of Energy’s Nuclear Hydrogen R&D Plan.
Numerous solar thermochemical water-splitting cycles have been investigated
for hydrogen production, each with different sets of operating conditions,
engineering challenges, and hydrogen production opportunities. In fact, more
than 300 water-splitting cycles are described in the literature. For more
information, see Solar Thermochemical Hydrogen Production Research:
Thermochemical Cycle Selection and Investment Priority.

Two examples of thermochemical water splitting cycles, the "direct" two-step

cerium oxide thermal cycle and the "hybrid" copper chloride cycle, are
illustrated in Figure 2. Typically, direct cycles are less complex with fewer
steps, but they require higher operating temperatures compared with the more
complicated hybrid cycles.

Why Is This Pathway Being Considered?

Solar- and nuclear-driven high-temperature thermochemical water-splitting

cycles produce hydrogen with near-zero greenhouse gas emissions using water
and either sunlight or nuclear energy.

Research Focuses On Overcoming Challenges

Challenges remain, however, in the research, development, and demonstration

of commercially viable thermochemical cycles and reactors:
 • The efficiency and durability of reactant materials for thermochemical
cycling need to be improved.
• Efficient and robust reactor designs compatible with high temperatures
and heat cycling need to be developed.
• For solar thermochemical systems, the cost of the concentrating mirror
systems needs to be reduced.

Exciting progress continues in this field, leveraging synergies with

concentrated solar power technologies, and with emerging solar-fuel
production technologies.

Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting Processes:

In photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting, hydrogen is produced from

water using sunlight and specialized semiconductors called
photoelectrochemical materials, which use light energy to directly dissociate
water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. This is a long-term technology
pathway, with the potential for low or no greenhouse gas emissions.

How Does it Work?

The PEC water splitting process uses semiconductor materials to convert solar
energy directly to chemical energy in the form of hydrogen. The semiconductor
materials used in the PEC process are similar to those used in photovoltaic
solar electricity generation, but for PEC applications the semiconductor is
immersed in a water-based electrolyte, where sunlight energizes the water-
splitting process. Watch a laboratory-scale demonstration of this process
performed at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory.

PEC reactors can be constructed in panel form (similar to photovoltaic panels)

as electrode systems or as slurry-based particle systems, each approach with its
own advantages and challenges. To date, panel systems have been the most
widely studied, owing to the similarities with established photovoltaic panel
technologies. Click on each figure title to see some different possible
implementations of both the panel and slurry reactor concepts.
FIGURE 1: PEC REACTOR APPROACHES

Figure 1 shows two different approaches to PEC solar hydrogen production reactors:
(a) electrode systems similar to flat-plate photovoltaic panels; and (b) particle systems
comprised of slurries of PEC semiconductor particles.
FIGURE 2: PEC REACTOR DESIGN SCHEMES

Figure 2 shows possible PEC reactor design schemes for (a) electrode systems,
including a flat plate and a tubular reactor (providing moderate solar concentration
onto one electrode strip); and (b) a plastic "baggie" covered dual bed particle reactor
with wide-by-side photocatalyst slurries.

Why Is This Pathway Being Considered?

PEC water splitting is a promising solar-to-hydrogen pathway, offering the

potential for high conversion efficiency at low operating temperatures using
cost-effective thin-film and/or particle semiconductor materials.
Research Focuses on Overcoming Challenges

Continued improvements in efficiency, durability, and cost are still needed for market
viability. Ongoing research and development of PEC materials, devices, and systems
is making important strides, benefiting from strong synergies with contemporary
research efforts in photovoltaics, nanotechnologies, and computational materials.

• Efficiencies are being improved through enhanced sunlight absorption and

better surface catalysis.
• Durability and lifetime are being improved with more rugged materials and
protective surface coatings.
• Hydrogen production costs are being lowered through reduced materials and
materials processing costs.

BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES

Biological processes use microbes such as bacteria and microalgae and can produce
hydrogen through biological reactions. In microbial biomass conversion, the microbes
break down organic matter like biomass or wastewater to produce hydrogen, while in
photobiological processes the microbes use sunlight as the energy source.
Microbial Biomass Conversion

Microbial biomass conversion processes take advantage of the ability of

microorganisms to consume and digest biomass and release hydrogen. Depending on
the pathway, this research could result in commercial-scale systems in the mid- to
long-term timeframe.

How Does it Work?

In fermentation-based systems, microorganisms, such as bacteria, break down

organic matter to produce hydrogen. The organic matter can be refined sugars,
raw biomass sources such as corn stover, and even wastewater. Because no
light is required, these methods are sometimes called "dark fermentation"
methods.

In direct hydrogen fermentation, the microbes produce the hydrogen

themselves. These microbes can break down complex molecules through many
different pathways, and the byproducts of some of the pathways can be
combined by enzymes to produce hydrogen. Researchers are studying how to
make fermentation systems produce hydrogen faster (improving the rate) and
produce more hydrogen from the same amount of organic matter (increasing
the yield).

Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) are devices that harness the energy and
protons produced by microbes breaking down organic matter, combined with
an additional small electric current, to produce hydrogen. This technology is
very new, and researchers are working on improving many aspects of the
system, from finding lower-cost materials to identifying the most effective type
of microbes to use.

Why Is This Pathway Being Considered?

Biomass is an abundant domestic resource, and many microbes have evolved to

efficiently break down biomass to produce hydrogen and other products.
Fermentation has already been used as an industrial technology to generate
biofuels and other products, and many of the challenges to scaling up systems
have been addressed for different products, allowing hydrogen researchers to
focus on the challenges unique to hydrogen production. MEC-based systems
have the potential to produce hydrogen from resources that otherwise can’t be
used for fuel production, and could reduce the large amount of energy normally
needed for wastewater treatment while producing a valuable fuel in the form of
hydrogen. These two pathways can be combined to maximize the hydrogen
yield from the starting biomass feedstock.

Research Focuses on Overcoming Challenges

Research in microbial biomass conversion for hydrogen production has

progressed in recent years, but U.S. Department of Energy efforts are working
to address a number of challenges. Key areas of research and development
include:

• Improving the rates and yields of hydrogen production from

fermentation processes through a number of methods such as microbial
strain improvements, reactor system optimization, and identifying
feedstock sources and processing methods with the highest yields.
• Developing MEC systems that can be scaled up to commercially
relevant sizes while maintaining the production rates and system
efficiencies seen at the bench scale and minimizing the costs of the
reactor components.

Photobiological Processes
The photobiological hydrogen production process uses microorganisms and
sunlight to turn water, and sometimes organic matter, into hydrogen. This is a
longer-term technology pathway in the early stages of research that has a long-
term potential for sustainable hydrogen production with low environmental
impact.

How Does it Work?

In photolytic biological systems, microorganisms—such as green microalgae or

cyanobacteria—use sunlight to split water into oxygen and hydrogen ions. The
hydrogen ions can be combined through direct or indirect routes and released
as hydrogen gas. Challenges for this pathway include low rates of hydrogen
production and the fact that splitting water also produces oxygen, which
quickly inhibits the hydrogen production reaction and can be a safety issue
when mixed with hydrogen in certain concentrations. Researchers are working
to develop methods to allow the microbes to produce hydrogen for longer
periods of time and to increase the rate of hydrogen production.

Some photosynthetic microbes use sunlight as the driver to break down organic
matter, releasing hydrogen. This is known as photo-fermentative hydrogen
production. Some of the major challenges of this pathway include a very low
hydrogen production rate and low solar-to-hydrogen efficiency, making it a
commercially unviable pathway for hydrogen production at this time.

Researchers are looking at ways to make the microbes better at collecting and
using energy to make more available for hydrogen production, and to change
their normal biological pathways to increase the rate of hydrogen production.

Why Is This Pathway Being Considered?

In the long term, photobiological production technologies may provide

economical hydrogen production from sunlight with low- to net-zero carbon
emissions. The algae and bacteria could be grown in water that cannot be used
for drinking or for agriculture, and could potentially even use wastewater.
Research Focuses on Overcoming Challenges

Research in photobiological hydrogen has progressed in recent years, though it

is still in the early stages. There are a number of common challenges to both
photolytic and photo-fermentative biological hydrogen production. Many of
these challenges require further research into basic, fundamental questions,
such as that being done in the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Science,
including:

• Improving the activity of the enzymes that produce the hydrogen, as

well as the metabolic pathways needed for the reactions, to increase the
hydrogen production rates.
• Developing strains that can efficiently use the sunlight and other inputs
to increase the hydrogen yields.
• Developing strains and reactor configurations that can ultimately be
used at large scales for commercial hydrogen production.

Source: https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-fuel-basics