RELATIVE ENTRY AGE OF LEARNERS AND ITS INFLUENCE ON

ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF PUPILS IN PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL IN

GARISSA TOWN SUB COUNTY, GARISSA COUNTY, KENYA

SHUKRI ABDULLE BULLE

E300/P1154/19

A RESEARCH PROPOSAL PAPER SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF

EDUCATION IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE AWARD OF MASTER IN EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION AND
MANAGEMENT OF GARISSA UNIVERSITY

OCTOBER, 2022

i
 DECLARATION
I declare that the proposal is my original work and was not presented to any other

university for any other award.

Signature…………………………… Date………………………………….
SHUKRI ABDULLE BULLE
E300/P1154/19

The proposal was student by the student under my supervision as the duly appointed
supervisor.
Signature………………………………. Date…………………………

Name of the Supervisor:

Department
School
University

ii
 DEDICATION
I dedicate the proposal to my family members…………………………….

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I thank the almighty God for the gift of life. I appreciate the support from
supervisors……………………. For their relentless efforts to help me develop the
proposal.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION.........................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION............................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.........................................................................................................iv
LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................................vii
ACRONYMS............................................................................................................................viii
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................ix
CHAPTER ONE..........................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................1
1.1 Overview............................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Background Information......................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Statement of the Problem........................................................................................................ 4
1.4 Purpose of the study................................................................................................................5
1.5 Research Objectives................................................................................................................ 5
1.7 Research Hypothesis...............................................................................................................7
1.8 Significance of the Study........................................................................................................ 8
1.9 Theoretical Framework..........................................................................................................8
1.9.1 Mathew Effect Theory/Residual Bias..................................................................................8
1.9.2 Pygmalion Effect Theory..................................................................................................... 9
1.10 Conceptual Framework......................................................................................................10
1.11 Assumptions of the Study................................................................................................... 11
1.12 Limitations of the Study................................................................................................... 11
1.12Delimitations of the Study....................................................................................................11
1.13Definition of Terms..............................................................................................................11
CHAPTER TWO.......................................................................................................................13
LITERATURE REVIEW.........................................................................................................13
2.1 Chapter Overview................................................................................................................. 13
2.2 Relative Age Effect............................................................................................................... 13
2.2 Birth Month Difference and Academic Performance.......................................................14
2.3 Annual Age Groupings and Academic Performance....................................................... 15
2.4 Late School Entry Requirements and Academic Performance........................................ 17
2.5 Relative Age Disadvantages and Academic Performance............................................... 18
2.6 Research Gaps.................................................................................................................. 19
CHAPTER THREE.................................................................................................................. 20
RESEARCH METHDOLOGY................................................................................................20
3.1 Research Overview............................................................................................................... 20
3.2 Research Paradigm................................................................................................................20
3.3 Research Design....................................................................................................................20
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 3.4 Location of the Study ............................................................................................................ 21
3.5 Target Population .................................................................................................................. 21
3.5 Sampling Procedure .............................................................................................................. 21
3.6 Sample Size ........................................................................................................................... 21
3.7 Data Collection Instrument ................................................................................................... 22
3.8 Validity of Research Instruments.......................................................................................... 22
3.10 Pilot Study ........................................................................................................................... 23
3.11 Data Collection Procedure .................................................................................................. 23
3.12 Data Analysis Method......................................................................................................... 23
3.12.1 Operationalization of Study Variables ............................................................................. 24
3.13 Ethical Consideration .......................................................................................................... 24
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 25
APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE ......................................................................................... 32
APPENDIX II: WORK PLAN ................................................................................................ 34
APPENDIX III: BUDGET PLAN ........................................................................................... 35

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 LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Operationalization of Study Variables........................................................................24

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 ACRONYMS
ANCOVA: Analysis of Covariance

KCPE: Kenya Certificate of Primary Education

NACOSTI: National Commission of Science, Technology and Innovation

RAE: Relative Age Effect

RA: Relative Advantage

RSA: Republic of South Africa

STAR: Student Teacher Achievement Ratio

SPSS: Statistical Package of Social Sciences

TIMSS: Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study

USA: United States of America

US: United States

viii
 ABSTRACT
Academic performance of pupils in public primary schools in Garissa county has been
on the decline. The decline has been attributed to relative age effect among other factors.
However, there is no empirical evidence to support the relationship between relative
entry age of learners on academic performance of pupils in public primary schools in
Garissa County. The purpose of this study will be to determine the influence of relative
entry age of learners on academic performance of pupils in public primary school in
Garissa town sub county, Garissa county, Kenya. Research Objectives will be;to
determine the effect of birth month difference on academic performance of Pupils in the
public primary school in Garissa town sub county,to determine the effect of annual age
groupings on academic performance of pupils in the public primary school in Garissa
town sub county, Garissa county, Kenya, to assess the effect of school entry
requirements on academic performance of Pupils in the public primary school in Garissa
town sub county, Garissa county and to assess effect of relative age disadvantages on
academic performance of Pupils in the public primary school in Garissa town sub
county, Garissa county, Kenya.The study will use positivism philosophy. This study will
use a descriptive research design to achieve the set specific objective. The study will be
located in Garissa town sub county, Garissa county, Kenya.The target population of the
study will consist of 39 public primary schools in Garissa town sub county, Garissa
County. The unit of analysis will 16,524 pupils in public primary schools targeted. 39
teachers from each of the 39 school will help in getting data from 391 class one pupils.
Simple random sampling will be used to get data from a sample size of 391 class one
pupils. A questionnaire will be used collect primary data. Construct and content validity
will be tested. The data from the pilot test will be analyzed using Cronbach's alpha (α)
which determines the internal consistency or average correlation of items in a survey
instrument to gauge its reliability. A coefficient value of above 0.7 implies that the
research instruments the questionnaire is reliable thus appropriate for use in this study.
This study will employ both quantitative and qualitative approach to data collection
through questionnaires, data will be examined using suitable data analysis tools with the
help of SPSS version 24. Data will be presented in tables and figures. Confidentiality and
consent of the participants will be protected. The researcher will adhere to ethical
standard of research work.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview

The paper presents the background information relating to relative age difference and

academic performance of Pupils. The paper also presents a summary of statement of

problem, objectives, research questions, assumptions and limitations. Additionally,

theoretical foundation, empirical review and conceptual framework are presented. The

proposal culminates by presenting the research methodology.

1.2 Background Information

Early scholars indicated that people of eminence tend to be born within the spring calendar

months with trivial disparities based on the particular population being surveyed (Barnsley

et al., 1985). While the basis was to comprehend the human species gestational patterns, it

laid the foundation for more contemporary inquiry associating performance to birth date in

various developmental milieus like education and sport (Billari & Pellizzari, 2012; Eckstein

et al., 2010).

The improvement of public policies focused at enhancing the teaching and learning

processes inherent in any educational system has fueled the development of cognitive,

motor, and emotional abilities in schoolchildren around the world in recent decades (Dhuey,

Figlio, Karbownik, & Roth, 2019). The goal of this measure is to ensure that student

differences are as small as possible. For instance, the Australian school organization bases

its policies on date of birth when grouping pupils in the same academic year. Students who

were born in the same year are typically enrolled in the same course (Pehkonen, et al.,

1
2015).

The United States, Britain, Norway, and Belgium are the countries that have published

studies on the effects of relative age differences and age differences in learners on academic

achievement (Wattie, Schorer, and Baker, 2015, for example). The pattern is that younger

children throughout the school year suffer more challenges than relatively older students,

regardless of the distinctions between these studies, such as the age of the participants,

diverse origins, students with special educational needs, and different sample sizes. In the

Spanish educational system, which divides each school year into groups according to those

born in a particular year, students born in January will be the "relatively older" while

students born in December would be the "relatively younger." The country's deadline is the

subject of the second (Wattie, Schorer & Baker, 2015).

Additionally, pupils are divided into groups in Spain based on the calendar year, which runs

from January 1 to December 31. Students born between September 1 and August 31 of the

following year are enrolled in the same course in Britain, England, and Wales (Roberts &

Fairclough, 2012). Due to the varied maturation rhythms of the pupils, this results in

biological age discrepancies of up to one year in children who are the same age

chronologically.Older kids do substantially better in academic contexts as a result of their

experiences and development (Wattie, Cobley & Baker, 2015). In order to assess the

significance of relative age in the integral development of the subject, it is necessary to

examine the prevalence and long-term effects of the RAE on child development in the

educational domain, taking these aspects into consideration.

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The factors that influence academic achievement, which are the focus of the current study,

have been studied by a number of writers over the previous 50 years. Researchers in

Singapore found that older kids in the classroom were more likely to succeed in school

when it came to RAE and success in formal education (Barnsley, Thompson & Legault

2017).Test scores in the class are greater for the older kids than the younger ones. Sherar et

al. (2017) found that in Israel, delaying enrollment by a year raises students' language and

math scores in the eighth grade. According to a French study (Vaeyens et al., 2014), one of

the consequences of this mismatch is that younger students are more likely to repeat the

same grade for an additional year based on their relative age. Early physical and cognitive

development variations cause the gap, which persists for years.

The Republic of South Africa (RSA), like many other African nations, encounters

difficulties with academic achievement in primary school as a result of age inequalities.

Despite these contextual factors, South African society views participation in sports—

outside of academic achievement—as being crucial (Sharp et al., 2019). In order to provide

their children a comparative edge in school since they are older and, therefore, more mature

than the other students in the cohort, many parents or guardians in Uganda, especially the

wealthy ones, want to delay their children's entry into formal education (Douglas, 2017).

Evidently, certain subgroups are more likely than others to enter school later. Boys are far

more likely to be held back than girls, according to a number of studies conducted in

Uganda. Numerous situations where social interactions are likely have drawn significant

attention to the subject of whether group makeup affects an individual group member's

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performance, particularly in educational settings (Pehkonen et al., 2015).

Although the majority of authors have shown how relative age affects academic

achievement (Huang, 2016), relative age is still not a factor that is taken into account in

Kenya when setting up school groups or evaluating academic results (Keith, Wasanga,

Wanderi, Somerset, 2017). Given that the RAE on child development exists in Kenya, it is

crucial to monitor its prevalence and long-term effects in the educational field, taking these

elements into consideration in order to establish the significance of relative age in the

overall academic performance. In view of the above, this systematic review will aim to

examine the Relative Age Effect and academic performance for pupils in public primary

school in Garissa Town sub county, Garissa County, Kenya

1.3 Statement of the Problem

Kenya's government has pledged to extend its public education system to encourage wider

involvement. The fundamental reason for doing this, as stated in the Policy Framework for

Education Training and Research Sessional Paper No. 1 on African Socialism and its

Application to Planning in Kenya, is the goal to fight illiteracy, disease, and poverty.

Consequently, the government is required to give its citizens the chance to participate in the

socio-economic and political development of their country and to achieve a respectable

quality of living. Every child in Kenya has the right to access to basic welfare provisions,

including education. Academic performance of pupils in public primary schools in Garissa

county has been on the decline. The decline has been attributed to relative age effect among

other factors. However, there is no empirical evidence to support the relationship between

relative age effect on academic performance of pupils in public primary schools in Garissa

County.

4
A study by Laura, Jacqueline and Karim (2020) used a unique dataset of 17,000 working

professionals enrolled in business skills training courses offered by an elite U.S. business

school over a three year period, we show that age similarity has a positive effect on

individual course completion: an individual’s likelihood of course completion increases by

3% for every 10 same-age cohort peers. A study by Larsen, Little, and Coventry (2020)

established that a child's age in comparison to the age of her or his classmates (relative age)

in has been found to be an influential factor on academic achievement, particularly but not

exclusively at the beginning of formal schooling. The two studies reviewed(Laura et al.,

2020 & Larsen et al., (2020) were done in developed countries. In addition Laura et al

(2020) study concept was on achievement of working professional while Larsen (2020)

study considered academic achievement on certain subjects only. Therefore, the reviewed

studies presents contextual, conceptual and methodological research gaps. To close this gap,

the present study analyzes the effect of relative entry age of learners on academic

performance of pupils in public primary school in Garissa town sub county, Garissa county,

Kenya

1.4 Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study will be to determine the effect of relative entry age of learners on

academic performance of pupils in public primary school in Garissa town sub county,

Garissa county, Kenya.

1.5 Research Objectives

i) To determine the relationship between birth month difference and academic performance

of Pupils in the public primary school in Garissa town sub county.

ii) To determine the relationship between annual age groupings and academic performance

5
 of pupils in the public primary school in Garissa town sub county, Garissa county,

Kenya

iii) To evaluate the relationship between school entry requirements and academic

performance of pupils in the public primary school in Garissa town sub county, Garissa

county, Kenya

iv) To assess the relationship between relative age disadvantages and academic performance

of Pupils in the public primary school in Garissa town sub county, Garissa county,

Kenya.

v) To determine the intervening influence of government policy on the relationship

between relative age entry of learners and academic performance of Pupils in the public

primary school in Garissa town sub county, Garissa county, Kenya.

vi) To evaluate the intervening influence of teachers turnover on the relationship between

relative age entry of learners and academic performance of Pupils in the public primary

school in Garissa town sub county, Garissa county, Kenya.

1.6 Research Questions

i) What is the relationship between birth month difference and academic performance of

pupils in the public primary school in Garissa town sub county, Garissa county, Kenya?

ii) What is the relationship between annual age groupings and academic performance of

pupils in the public primary school in Garissa town sub county, Garissa county, Kenya?

iii) What is the relationship between school entry requirements and academic performance

of pupils in the public primary school in Garissa town sub county, Garissa county,

Kenya?

iv) What is the relationship between relative age disadvantages and academic performance

of pupils in the public primary school in Garissa town sub county, Garissa county,

6
 Kenya?

v) What is the intervening influence of government policy on the relationship between

relative age entry of learners and academic performance of pupils in the public primary

school in Garissa town sub county, Garissa county, Kenya?

vi) What is the intervening influence of teacher’s turnover on the relationship between

relative age entry of learners and academic performance of pupils in the public primary

school in Garissa town sub county, Garissa county, Kenya?

1.7 Research Hypothesis

H01: There is no significance relationship between birth month difference and academic

performance of pupils in the public primary school in Garissa town sub county.

H02:There is no significance relationship between annual age groupings and academic

performance of pupils in the public primary school in Garissa town sub county, Garissa

county, Kenya

H03: There is no significance relationship between late school entry requirements and
academic performance of pupils in the public primary school in Garissa town sub

county, Garissa county.

H04: There is no significance relationship between relative age disadvantages on academic

performance of pupils in the public primary school in Garissa town sub county, Garissa

county, Kenya.

H05: Government policy has no intervening influence on the relationship between relative

age entry of learners and academic performance of pupils in the public primary school in

Garissa town sub county, Garissa county, Kenya.

H06: Teacher’s turnover has no intervening influence on the relationship between relative

7
age entry of learners and academic performance of pupils in the public primary school in

Garissa town sub county, Garissa county, Kenya.

1.8 Significance of the Study

The study sheds light on age difference implication for learners in the same cohort among

the public primary school in Kenya. More specifically the study will be beneficial to the

educational policy makers, researchers and teachers in establishing the effect of age

difference on educational achievement, motor skills and social emotional skills. The study

contributes to the body of knowledge and literature related to relative age effect on academic

achievement. It will build additional literature for researchers and academicians to identify

research gaps. It will also be a source of knowledge to the scholars and students in

understanding the implication of relative age effects and its effect on academic achievement.

1.9 Theoretical Framework

The study variables will be guided by the following theories;

1.9.1 Mathew Effect Theory/Residual Bias

Useful to several fields such as politics, economics and technology, the Matthew effect was

devised by Merton (1968) to illustrate a tendency in the scientific reward system. Matthew

effects demonstrate settings where people begin with benefits that several of their colleagues

do not obtain and those benefits endure over time. Williams and Reilly (2000) proposed this

as a ―residual bias‖, which describes a snowballing of advantages, whereby athletes known

to selectors earlier on are likely to be considered in the future (Vincent & Glamser, 2006).

8
Confirmation of this hypothesis could account for the findings of Barnsley and colleagues

(Barnsley et al.,1985; Barnsley & Thompson, 1988), with respect to their studies on 8- to

19-year-old ice hockey players. Specifically, relatively older participants appeared to be

intuitively better coordinated, stronger, faster, bigger and performed better in comparison to

relatively younger participants (Barnsley & Thompson, 1988; Musch & Grondin, 2001;

Müller et al., 2017; Cumming et al., 2018). They had a higher chance of maintaining their

participation status since they performed better and received bigger rewards for their efforts

(Helsen et al., 2005; Schorer et al., 2013). On the other hand, participants who are relatively

younger encounter discrimination and frequently stop playing sports to pursue other leisure

activities with a higher probability of success (Barnsley & Thompson, 2004). This

contributes to the fact that RAE is still prevalent at the academic achievement levels.

1.9.2 Pygmalion Effect Theory

This theory was developed by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968). Primarily, the ―Pygmalion

effect‖ denotes to the insight that the higher the expectation placed on an individual the

superior the outcome that said individual will realize (Hancock et al., 2013Examples of self-

fulfilling prophecies abound. For instance, Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) misinformed

teachers in a classroom environment that some students were talented while others weren't.

In reality, learners with and without skill were chosen at random. Therefore, teachers'

unintentional preferential treatment (such as a string of verbal and nonverbal exchanges)

accidentally affected the learner's subsequent achievement behavior, causing the "gifted"

kids to do better than and outperform other students (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968; Musch &

Hay, 1999; Dixon et al., 2011).

9
Such effects frequently result from power dynamics, such as those between a coach and an

athlete, a teacher and a student, or a parent and a child. They may also account for parental

support, biases in coach or teacher hiring, and subsequent behaviors and interactions. It is

clear that teachers and coaches help to foster the Pygmalion effect in both athletics and

academics (Musch & Grondin, 2001). First of all, even before being chosen as a coach,

coaches may set specific standards for participants that endure throughout tryouts and

throughout the course of the season (Ashworth & Heyndels, 2007). Second, even after

choosing a coach, whether in individual or team sports, high-expectancy athletes may still

receive organized group practices and interactions during competition (such as praise,

feedback, or directions). The implication is that athletes with low expectations might get

more generic instructions, and the outcomes that follow are more likely to be subpar (Pea-

González et al., 2018). Therefore, those who gain the most from an initial RA advantage are

likely to be mistakenly thought of as the most talented members of their cohort (Dixon et al.,

2011; Pea-González et al., 2018). In light of this, the Pygmalion effect might maintain and

reinforce this RA advantage if peers, parents, and coaches act in ways that are consistent

with how the person is first perceived to be capable (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968; Hancock

et al., 2013).

1.10 Conceptual Framework

Independent Variables Intervening Variables Dependent Variable


Birth month difference  

Annual age groupings 
Teachers’ Turnover
Government Policy
Academic
Performance

School entry requirements
 Relative age disadvantages

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1.11 Assumptions of the Study

The study will have the following assumptions;

i) That there is some variation in age difference amongst the cohorts’ peer composition

ii) That similarly aged children share similar abilities and learner characteristics

1.12 Limitations of the Study

The study will be conducted in public primary schools in only one sub county in Garissa out

of all the seven sub counties. This may reduce the scope of generalization of the findings to

all the public primary schools. There is anticipated delay in filling the questionnaire due to

distances between schools, reluctance to fill the questionnaire and busy schedules of

teachers.

1.12Delimitations of the Study

The researcher will recruit local research assistants who will have a letter from the ministry

of education as a prove that the data will be used for education purposes. Comprehensive

data on the selected few schools will be collected to represent all public primary schools in

Kenya.

1.13Definition of Terms

Academic Performance: Extent in which the pupils and the teachers were able to attain

their academic goals.

Annual Age Groupings: This where all pupils are grouped according to their year of birth

County: A division of population in Kenya headed by a county governor.

Birth Month Difference: This where all pupils are grouped according to their month of

birth

Primary School: A school for children of ages five to around twelve years

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Pupils: A School child attending primary school

Relative age disadvantages: The status of lower age group compared to the statusand

happiness of higher age group.

Relative Age Effect: It is used to describe a bias, evident in the upper echelons of youth

sport and academia, where participation is higher amongst those born earlier in the relevant

selection period than would be expected from the distribution of births.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Chapter Overview

The chapter presents empirical literature related to the study variables. The later is presented

with an aim to indicate the research gaps.

2.2Relative Age Effect

Findings of the effects of relative age on learning achievement suggest that older pupils in

class generally outperformed their younger counterparts in developed countries while the

opposite is mostly the case in developing countries. Sharp et al. (2019) analyzed 18 research

conducted in Australia, Chile, the UK, and the USA and published from 2010 to 2018 that looked at

the impact of relative age on success. In practically every topic, including reading, numeracy, and

writing, older students performed better than younger ones, according to Sharp and her colleagues'

analysis of the research.

According to some research, the effects of age on achievement persist across grades, but

they are less noticeable in the higher primary school grades (Lin et al., 2009; Bedard and

Dhuey, 2006; Yesil-Dagli, 2006). For instance, Bedard and Dhuey (2006) found that older

children performed better on the TIMSS tests in grades 4 and 8 and that the age effects at

grade 8 were less than at grade 4, using data from the Trends in International Mathematics

and Science Study (TIMSS) that involved almost 300,000 students between 1995 and 1999.

Studies have produced inconsistent results regarding the age or grade level at which the

effects of aging are no longer significant. For instance, a research by Perry (2010) found that

after grade 4, age effects totally vanish. In addition, several studies have found that older

kids perform better on tests than younger pupils in primary schools, indicating that relative

13
age effects exist (Moussa, 2012; Cobley et al., 2009).

Rubio, Mateo, and Olivares (2018) examined the impact of relative age on the level of

fitness among 14- to 15-year-old schoolchildren in Chile. Measurements of muscular and

skeletal fitness included the standing wide jump, sit-and-reach, crunches, and push-up tests,

as well as the 20-meter shuttle run test. Analysis was done on data from 12 817 kids (47%

girls, age=14.370.43; 53% boys, age=14.410.46). The ANCOVA analysis of covariance was

performed individually for the two genders and the two age groups. Results showed

differences between 14-year-old boys and girls in all tests (p 0.05), with the exception of the

20-meter shuttle run in girls, however the extent of the effect was small. The impact of RAE

peaked among 15-year-olds. These findings support the notion that birth date should be

taken into account when evaluating fitness in order to increase the accuracy of the

assessment and establish the presence of RAE among Chilean kids.

2.2 Birth Month Difference and Academic Performance

In their 2007 study, Cascio and Schanzenbach used data from the Project STAR (Student-

Teacher Achievement Ratio) that included more than 6000 students in 79 schools in

Tennessee, USA, to examine how age affected test scores. The researchers found no proof

that older students do better on tests. It's interesting to note that younger students from low-

income families had a lower likelihood of attending college. They claimed that the practice

of delaying enrollment in school did not also benefit academic achievement and, in fact, was

economically detrimental because it might indicate the development of human capital.

Additionally, a second American study by Linrove and Painter (2006) using data from the

National Education Longitudinal Survey demonstrated that students who enter school later

14
do not benefit in the long run. According to this study, which followed 25,000 grade 8

students through high school and college, younger pupils performed about on par with older

students. Contrarily, the majority of studies conducted in underdeveloped nations

(particularly in Africa) have found that younger students outperform older students in the

majority of academic areas, including literacy and numeracy. For instance, a study by Kunje

et al. (2009) that examined test data from 6000 grade 7 students in Malawi discovered that

younger students consistently received higher test results than older students in the subjects

of English literacy, arithmetic, and Chichewa (a local language). In 12 of the 14 nations

included in the SACMEQ II Project, younger students were judged to do significantly better

in reading literacy than older students in the 2002 SACMEQ survey. In five SACMEQ

countries, it was discovered that the age of the students had a significant impact on their

academic performance. In reading and mathematics, younger students outperformed older

students in 12 and 9 of the 15 countries that participated in the SACMEQ III Project in

2007. Furthermore, an analysis of data from a national test taken by over 740,000 students

conducted by Keith et al. (2011) revealed that older students did significantly worse than

younger students in the 2010 Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) examination.

2.3 Annual Age Groupings and Academic Performance

Datar (2006) found that students who entered preschool a year older than their classmates achieved

higher learning scores when looking at test scores of over 13000 students gathered at the start of

preschool and at the conclusion of the first grade in the USA. Interestingly, Datar's study also

revealed that older students made greater progress than younger students, as seen by the fact that

their learning scores improved more quickly for them throughout grade levels. Regardless of race,

gender, or socioeconomic position, older students outperformed younger students, according to a

2006 American study by Yesil-Dagli. Additionally, a different American study discovered that age

15
was a better predictor of reading and math scores than gender or race.

Data from Vaeyens et al. (2005) among Belgian athletes showed that the cut-off date is

undoubtedly a significant, possibly causal, factor behind the RAE. The Royal Belgian

Football Association joined other European nations and changed their cut-off date from 1

August to 1 January in 1997, which was one of the main reasons this study was important.

As a result, it is one of the rare studies that explicitly investigated the prevalence of RAE in

individuals before and after a change in a cut-off date, or the lack thereof. The study also

examined the RAE in connection to two game-related factors (i.e., minutes played and

number of matches selected).The overrepresentation of comparatively older players in both

squad composition and game involvement variables, according to the data, further supported

the prevalence of RAE. Surprisingly, this study found that the Novem System's suggested

method of recycling the cut-off dates is not a viable way to eliminate or significantly reduce

RAEs. The authors hypothesized that the issue is simply being transferred, therefore next

research should focus on educational or social remedies (such as increasing knowledge of

this phenomena at academies, sports clubs, federations, etc). (Vaeyens et al., 2005; Hill &

Sotiriadou, 2016).

Earlier studies concerning the RA and maturity status of elite adolescent athletes have

essentially been observational with little indication on why biological and chronological age

biases exist (Sherar et al., 2007; Carling et al., 2009). However, due to problems associated

with colleting the data, biological age was rarely accounted for in the past (Malina et al.,

2004; Baker & Logan, 2007; Vaeyens et al., 2008). Nonetheless, new insights have

suggested non-invasive practical techniques to assess biological

16
maturity status of youth athletes (Malina et al., 2015). Athletes have puberty at specific

times and then experience growth spurts at various ages (Helsen et al., 2005; Beunen &

Malina, 2008; Cumming et al., 2018). These variances go hand in hand with variations in

height, weight, strength, and speed that may have an impact on performance and could sway

the coaches' selection decisions (Musch & Grondin, 2001; Cobley et al., 2009; O'Neill et al.,

2016). Early maturation with its associated physical size advantage (i.e., height and weight)

and being born relatively earlier in the selection year improve the likelihood of selection, as

was proven by Sherar et al. (2007) by an estimation of maturity status.

2.4 Late School Entry Requirements and Academic Performance

Nolan and Howell (2010) aimed to determine whether some of the developments over the

past 25 plus years, including assorted rule modifications to speed up the game and the

globalization of the sport, had changed the pattern of the data. According to the statistics, the

link did not seem to have changed significantly since the initial analysis, and the RAE is still

a reality in professional ice hockey. Helsen et al. (2005) examined the birthdate distribution

of national youth soccer players for the u/15, u/16, u/17, and u/18 age groups for the

1999/2000 season across 10 European countries (e.g., Belgium, Denmark, England, France,

Germany, Italy, Portugal, Sweden, Spain and The Netherlands). All national youth

selections in the analyzed sample showed a clear RAE, with 43.41% of births occurring in

the first quarter and only 9.32% occurring in the fourth (Helsen et al., 2005).In their

discussion, the argument given was that youth team coaches should shift their focus by

putting less emphasis on physical attributes and focus more on the tactical and technical

qualities of young players.

17
2.5 Relative Age Disadvantages and Academic Performance

In a meta-analysis of junior (11 to 14 years), teenage (15 to 18 years), and senior (19 years

and older) recreational athletes and elite athletes competing in a variety of sports, Cobley et

al. (2009) found strong evidence in favor of biases favoring relatively older athletes. Cobley

and colleagues used research from 1984 to 2008 to show that birthday may have an impact

on athletic success across 14 sports and 16 countries. This, together with other birthdate

effects related to season cut-off times, offer solid evidence that in many sports and around

the world, competitors have an advantage if they are relatively the oldest in the pertinent

sports year. Since then, numerous studies (Helsen et al., 2005; Ashworth & Heyndels, 2007;

Cobley et al., 2009; Müller et al., 2018) have verified the RAE in numerous young and elite

soccer competitions at both national and international levels.

The strong preference for superior athletic talents has been noticed in studies on the

identification and development of talent (Larkin & O'Connor, 2017). As a result, a biased

selection process for teams seems to favor members with stronger physical and mental

capacities (McCarthy & Collins, 2014). It may be argued that successful athletes in some

sports are often distinguished by their size, strength, power, speed, and technical proficiency

(Elferink-Gemser et al., 2004; Davids & Baker, 2007; Vaeyens et al., 2008). Although it has

not been proven empirically, it has been hypothesized that athletes may appear more

talented and are chosen at certain ages due to maturity-related advantages in body size,

strength, endurance, and speed (Sherar et al., 2007; Carling et al., 2009), favorably affecting

opportunities, coaching, game time, and access to resources (Cobley et al., 2009; McCarthy

& Collins, 2014).

18
2.6 Research Gaps

The Studies reviewed clearly indicates a contradicting results on the effect of Relative Age

Effect on academic performances. This could be attributed to diverse operationalization of

study variables which presents conceptual gaps. Majority of the studies were also done in

developed nations were conceptualization of study variables were diverse. Majority of the

study presented contextual gap prompting the need to carry out a study to determine the

effect of Relative Age Effect on academic performance. The research design and

methodology used in majority of the studies reviewed presented gaps which the current

study will fill by using descriptive research design.

19
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHDOLOGY

3.1 Research Overview

This chapter presents the methods that will be followed to attain the objectives of the study.

It presents a brief overview of the research design, the overall population of the study,

sampling procedures, data collection instruments and the analysis procedures that will be

used.

3.2 Research Paradigm

Positivism, social constructionism, the critical paradigm, and postmodernism are the

research philosophies (some books refer to them as positivism, realism, interpretivism, and

pragmatism) (Kombo & Tromp, 2006). Positivism will be used in the investigation. When

considering empirical investigations, positivism is typically the first philosophy that comes

to mind. Positive theory is predicated on deductive reasoning, objectivity, and knowability.

The positivist framework is based on the idea that society can and should be studied

empirically and scientifically. Positivism calls for a science free of biases and values as part

of its quest for an objective, factual, and knowable truth (Carey, 1993). Both quantitative

and qualitative research methods will be used in the study. This is due to the usage of both

quantitative and qualitative data.

3.3 Research Design

According to Kombo and Tromp(2006) study design is a thorough plan for information

collecting in an empirical studies project that aims to provide answers to particular research

topics. This study will use a descriptive research design to achieve the set specific objective.

A descriptive study, according to Kombo andTromp, (2006) provides a detailed explanation

20
of the features of the population or circumstance under investigation.

3.4 Location of the Study

The study will be located in Garissa town sub county, Garissa county, Kenya.

3.5 Target Population

As per Kombo and Tromp (2006) the total group of units about which survey data are to be

utilized to draw conclusions is the primary audience for a study. As a result, it specifies the

units in which the survey's results are intended to be generalized. The target population of

the study will consist of 39 public primary schools in Garissa town sub county, Garissa

County. The unit of analysis will 39 teachers in public primary schools targeted representing

16524 pupils in class one in the year 2022.

3.5 Sampling Procedure

Simple random sampling will be used. Sample size will involve selecting a representation of

the entire population were every class one child will have equal and known chance of being

selected.

3.6 Sample Size

A sample is a representation of the study population. The following factors will be

considered when determining the sample size: population size, margin of error (confidence

level), and standard deviation. Slovin's formula will be used to calculate the sample size.

Where by: n =Size of the sample

N =Population E=Margin

of Error (0.05)

21
 n = 391

As a result, the sample size will be 391 respondents. From each school an average of 10

pupils will be selected using simple random sampling until 391 pupils data in 39

schools will be obtained.

3.7 Data Collection Instrument

A questionnaire will be used collect primary data (Appendix i). A structured questionnaire

will be to collect quantifiable data from 391 pupils in class one guided by their class teacher.

Kothari (2004) describes a questionnaire as a data-gathering tool that includes a variety of

questions and instructions used to elicit replies from participants. According to Kothari

(2003), one advantage of questionnaires is that it is easier to get responses from a big group

of people. As a result, conclusions that are more broadly applicable can be drawn from the

data that was gathered. Additionally, Kothari (2004) asserts that the use of questionnaires in

research is based on providing direct access to information that is already present in the

respondent's thinking and can result in data that gives some surprising insights.

3.8 Validity of Research Instruments

Validity discusses how an instrument measures what it’s designed to measure (Mugenda

2003). To eliminate biasness and unclear phrases a piloted questionnaire will be tested for

content, construct and face validity. The piloted questionnaire will be tested to ensure that it

can collect data to support the research topic in the final version. Construct validity will be

utilized to determine whether the questionnaire measures the underlying construct in the

operation framework. Managers and supervisors will be given these questionnaires in order

to verify the validity of the structured surveys. Those that are found to be invalid queries

will be removed after they have been examined.

22
3.9 Reliability of Research Instruments

When the same test is repeated again, consistent results are referred to as being reliable in a

study's findings. Cronbach's alpha (), which establishes the internal consistency or average

correlation of items in a survey instrument to assess its reliability, will be used to analyze

the data from the pilot test. The Cronbach's alpha () measures how dependable a set of

research instruments is, making it suitable for the study (Ventura, 2018). A coefficient

value of greater than 0.7 denotes the reliability of the research instrument, making it eligible

for use in this study (Kothari, 2004).

3.10 Pilot Study

An evaluation of the questionnaire's reproducibility will be performed as part of a pilot

study. The pilot data will come from 10% (39) of the total sample number (10 percent of

391). The 39 respondents will not be included in the main study.

3.11 Data Collection Procedure

Data will be collected within 14 days through drop and pick method. Five (5) research

assistants will be used to help gather data from the sampled respondents.

3.12 Data Analysis Method

Data analysis is a procedure whereby unprocessed data is examined to reveal the meaning

(Kothari, 2006). Since this study will use questionnaires to collect both qualitative and

quantitative data, the data will be analyzed using the proper data analysis techniques. With

the use of SPSS version 24, the results from the surveys will be analyzed and compared to

the current theoretical framework. Descriptive analysis will be used were data will be

interpreted through the use of mean, frequency, standard deviation, numbers. Data will be

presented in tables and figures.

23
3.12.1 Operationalization of Study Variables
Table 3.1 Operationalization of Study Variables
Variable Variable type Indicator Measurement

Birth month difference

Independent

Month Range Interval
Annual age groupings
Independent

Number of years Scale 1 to 5
School entry requirements
Independent

Minimum age Scale 1 to 5
Relative age disadvantage
Independent

Strength Interval

Height levels
Government policy Intervening

Ministry of Education Interval
Policy on age
Teachers’ Turnover Intervening  Teachers attrition rate Scale 1 to 5

Academic Performance Dependent  Mean Score Scale 1 to 5

Source: Researcher (2022)

3.13 Ethical Consideration

The Garissa University research code of conduct will serve as the researcher's guide. I will

go to the field to collect data after reaching an agreement with my supervisors, acquiring the

data collection letter from the university, and receiving a permit from NACOSTI.

Participants' permission and confidentiality will be safeguarded. The researcher will follow

the ethical guidelines for doing study. A official letter outlining the study's goal and aim will

be submitted by the researcher in order to obtain authorization to conduct it. Before starting

the research, the researcher will get the respondent's agreement, confirming that the data

would be kept private and used exclusively for educational purposes.

24
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mathematics achievement from kindergarten through third grade. (Unpub-lished Ph.D.
Thesis)Florida State University. Retrieved from: http://etd.lib.fsu.edu/
theses/available/etd-05012006-113623/unrestricted/UYD_dissertation.pdf.

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 APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE
Please help answer the following questions on behalf of the pupils in class 8 in your primary
school. Please use a ( X ) to indicate the level you agree with the statements given. Absolute
confidentiality will be upheld. Your names will not be included in the study's findings.
PART A: Back ground Information
School
Questionnaire Number
PART B: Relative Entry Age of Learners
The following section includes data related to specific learner’s relative entry age. Questions
relating to birth month, annual age, entry requirements and age disadvantage will be asked.

Section one: Birth month difference

Using the Key in the table below indicate which month the pupil was born
Month Range Jan to March April to July to sept Oct to Dec
June

Section two: Annual Age Grouping

Using the Key in the table below indicate which the pupil’s years range

Years 3 to 5 years 5 to 7 Years More than 7 years

Section three: Entry Requirements

Kindly tick the key requirements for learners’ entry to class one in your school.
a) Age( ) indicate…………………
b) Height ( ) indicate ……………….
c) Weight ( ) indicate …………………
d) Health ( ) indicate…………………
e. Any other please indicate………………………………….

Section four: Relative age Disadvantages

Indicate the extent with which you agree with the statements presented in the table below
using the key; 1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=Neutral, 4=agree and 5=strongly
agree

Statements 1 2 3 4 5
1 Those pupils who are older are more physical
2 The pupils who are older are more emotionally stronger
3 The pupils who are older are more cognitively developed than
those who are young

Part C: Intervening Variables

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The section contains questions relating to government policy and teachers turnover rate.
Section one: Government Policy
The following section presents questions relating to government policy. Use the key 1=
strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=Neutral, 4=agree and 5=strongly agree.

Statements 1 2 3 4 5
1 In order to end exclusion, we acknowledge and meet the
different needs of all learners (age, gender, culture, special
needs and disabilities)
2 Non-discrimination policy assures that there are systems,
arrangements, and modifications in place to guarantee that no
student faces prejudice or is left behind.
3 Government policies offers the finest chances for all students
to realize their full potential.

Section two: Teachers’ Turnover

Indicate the teacher’s attrition rate in your school for the last one year 2021/2022.

0 to 5% 6 to 10% 11 to 15% More than 15%

Part D: Academic Performance

Please indicate the average score of the pupil.
Average Score (for all 0 to 29% 30 to 49% 50 to 69% 70 to 100
subjects)

Thank you for your participation

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 APPENDIX II: WORK PLAN
Activities 2022

Augto October October October November Dec

Sep

Concept paper

Proposal
development

Presentation of
proposal

Corrections

Development of
Research findings

Final submission

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 APPENDIX III: BUDGET PLAN
No. Item/s Quantity Cost per Unit Totals
1 laptop 1 70,0000.00 70,000.00
2 Internet costs 10,000.00 10,000.00
3 Telephone Calls 5,000.00 5,000.00
4 Transport 15,000.00 15,000.00
5 Printing costs 10,000.00 10,000.00
6 Binding 10 200.00 2,000.00
7 Publication 1 10,000.00 10,000.00
Miscellaneous (10% of the
8 12,000 12,000.00
Total)
Grand Total 134,000.00

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