Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

ARH1207 Construction Technology I

Types of Walls
Following are various types of walls used in building construction:

Load Bearing Wall

It carries loads imposed on it from beams and slabs above including its own weight and transfer it to the
foundation. These walls supports structural members such as beams, slabs and walls on above floors
above. It can be exterior wall or interior wall. It braces from the roof to the floor.

Types of Load Bearing Wall

 Precast Concrete Wall

 Retaining Wall
 Masonry Wall
 Pre Panelized Load Bearing Metal Stud Walls
 Engineering Brick Wall (115mm, 225mm)
 Stone Wall

As the height of the building increased, required thickness of wall and resulting stress on foundation will
also increase and cause it to be uneconomical.

Able To Carry Other Structure Weight Beside Its Own Weight.

Removing a section of a load bearing wall to create a pass-through requires adding a new beam and
columns to support the floor above.
Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

Non-Load Bearing Wall

Non-load bearing walls only carry their own weight and does not support any structural members such
as beams and slabs. These walls are just used as partition walls or to separate rooms from outside. It is
known as interior wall (does not carry other load than its own load.

Types of non-load bearing wall

 Hollow Concrete Block

 Façade Bricks
 Hollow Bricks
 Brick Wall (115mm, 225mm)

Cavity Walls

It is a wall constructed in Two (2) leaves / skins with a space / cavity between them. A type of building
wall construction consisting of an outer wall fastened to inner wall separated by an air space. Cavity
walls helps to prevent the penetration of rain to the internal surface of the wall.

Shear Wall

A shear wall is an RCC structural member used in a frame structure to resist the lateral forces develop by
winds or seismic forces generated due to the earth quicks. Shear walls are typically light-framed or
braced wooden walls with shear panels, reinforced concrete walls, reinforced masonry walls, or steel
plates.

Partition Wall

Partition wall is an interior non-load bearing wall to divide the larger space into smaller spaces. The
heights of a partition wall depends on the use which may be one storey or part of one storey. These
walls are made up of glass, fiber boards or brick masonry.

Panel Wall

Panel wall is generally made of wood and is an exterior non-load bearing wall in framed construction. It
is used for aesthetics of the buildings both inside and outside. It remains totally supported at each
storey but subjected to lateral loads.
Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

Veneered Walls

Masonry veneer walls is a single non-structural external masonry wall made of brick, stone or
manufactured stone. A facing laid against the front side of an exterior wall but not bonded to it;
provides a decorative, durable wall surface.

Functional Requirements of Walls in Building Construction

The main purpose of walls in building construction is not only to protect buildings from damage but also
to divide them for different rooms or spaces. There are various functional requirements of walls that
should satisfy to perform its functions adequately.

Following are the functional requirements of walls in a building construction:

1. Strength
2. Stability
3. Weather and ground moisture resistance
4. Durability
5. Fire safety
6. Resistance to heat passage
7. Sound resistance

Strength Requirements of Walls

Strength requirements of walls in building construction is governed by strength of material that is

employed to build the wall and how materials are fitted together. The strength of materials is
determined by its compressive and tensile strength which can be achieved from tests.

Material ultimate strengths at failure are obtained from testing samples and strength reduction factor is
applied for the ultimate strength to compute allowable material strength. This factor is used to consider
both material strength variations and their response under stresses.

Stone, brick, steel and concrete are examples of materials that could be used to construct
walls. Generally, the entire compressive strength of bricks and stones are not employed in small building
such as houses by functional stability of the building.
Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

Stability Requirements of Walls

Stability of walls greatly depends on stability of its foundation, load eccentricity, temperature effects,
lateral loads such as earthquake and wind loads, and changing in moisture.

Overturning tendency of the wall is due to loads that are not acting on the center of the wall like loads
from roofs and floors and l0ateral loads. If both lateral loads and eccentric loads increases wall
deformation is increasing and thus the wall will be unstable.

Building codes provide recommendation for wall height and width to prevent instability resulted from
loads. Moreover, horizontal restrictions such as tie between walls and roofs and intersection between
walls and piers prevent deformation due to lateral loads.

Furthermore, walls with irregular configurations as shown in Figure-1 are more stable than regular
straight walls because buttress actions come into effect in the former.

Weather and Ground Moisture Resistance of Walls

Walls should have enough resistance against moistures (water vapor and liquid water) that might
penetrate through foundation walls by absorbing water from ground or by falling of rain on the walls.

Damp-proof layer with a thickness of 150 mm can be employed above ground level for all foundation
walls. This could prevent water absorption from the ground which could have a detrimental effect if it is
not dealt with properly.

The water that might penetrate walls from the rainfall depends on many factors such as quality of
materials and the way of assembling those materials together and prevailing winds.

There are several solutions for situations such as using greater thickness for walls, construction brick,
stone, or block walls in two skins with 50 mm cavity between them, protecting wall outer face by
cladding or plastering, and utilizing a glass sheet as a curtain wall.

Moreover, environmental features such as hills, trees, or other constructed buildings around should be
taken into consideration in determining proper solutions, because these can change severity of
exposure conditions to prevailing winds that direct rain on the walls

Durability Requirements of Walls

Durability of walls is determined by frequency and the amount of work that is required to make the wall
meet the minimum requirements functionally and aesthetically acceptable. Functional requirements
might include the wall capability to resist rain and thermal properties.

It is difficult to specify standard acceptable appearance of walls especially in cases where unusual
materials such as glass and plastic sheets are used. This is because the minimum acceptable appearance
can be varied from person to another. However, this not the case when familiar materials are employed
such as high quality bricks or stones which are chosen with good judgments.
Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

The wall that is constructed with bricks will be durable and need not be repairing over its lifespan if good
burned bricks and high quality mortars is used, proper attentions is paid to wall openings, and exposure
conditions is considered.

When lime mortar is used for brick wall construction is will be necessary to repoint the lime mortar to
avoid moisture penetration and regain good appearance.

Fire Safety Requirements of Walls

The first and most important measure against fire is providing a convenient way to escape from it
because at early stages of breaking out life of occupant will be in danger because of fumes and smokes.

Safety against spreading of fire is the second measures which include restricting lining, structural,
external fire spread in addition to provide access for fire fighters. The restrictions are carried out by
providing fire resistance for walls and specify level of flammability of materials used to cover inside walls
and floors.

Thermal Properties

It is very important to contain heat and prevent its loss because it leads to obtain cost effective,
desirable, and comfortable thermal conditions in buildings. Therefore, it is recommended to construct a
wall that is thermally insulated to avoid too much loss of heat.

The loss of heat can be prevented by using light weight and low conductive materials. Moreover, dense
high conductive materials have great capacity for thermal storing compare with lightweight materials
with low conductivity.

If a building has a continuous source of heating it would be useful to apply low density materials for the
outside face of the wall and high density material for inside face. In contrary, using light weight material
is advantageous when the building is heated intermittently.

Sound Resistance of Walls

Impact and airborne are the two ways of transmitting sounds. The latter is induced as cyclical
disturbances of air from a source such as radio while the former is generated because of an impact on
solid surfaces for example footsteps that induce floor vibration and in return the air around is vibrated
and heard as sound.

High density materials can be used to resist airborne sounds such as concrete walls, cavity wall, and
solid wall. However, impact sounds are transmitted quickly through dense materials therefore, materials
which can cushion or interrupt path of the impact sound should be employed.
Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

Masonry
Masonry is a term used to indicate the part of the construction that uses brick, concrete block, structural
clay tile, and stone. These materials are held together with mortar. Mortar for masonry is not cement
mix, the material used for sidewalks, patios, or driveways. Mortar mix contains lime, sand, and gypsum,
each in the proper proportions. Cement mix, on the other hand, has stones in the sand and does not
contain lime.

Types of Masonry Walls in Building Construction

There are various types of masonry walls used in building construction. Masonry walls are the most
durable part of any building or structure. They provide strength, durability to the structure and also
helps to control indoor and outdoor temperature. It separates a building from outside world.

Masonry is the word used for construction with mortar as a binding material with individual units of
bricks, stones, marbles, granites, concrete blocks, tiles etc. Mortar is a mixture of binding material with
sand. Binding materials can be cement, lime, soil or any other.

The durability and strength of masonry wall construction depends on the type and quality of material
used and workmanship.

Types of Masonry Walls in Building Construction

Based on the type of individual units used for masonry walls and their functions, the types of masonry
walls are:

Load Bearing Masonry Walls

Load bearing masonry walls are constructed with bricks, stones or concrete blocks. These walls directly
transfer loads from the roof to the foundation. These walls can be exterior as well as interior walls. The
construction system with load bearing walls are economical than the system with framed structures.

Reinforced Masonry Walls

Reinforced masonry walls can be load bearing walls or non-load bearing walls. The use of reinforcement
in walls helps it to withstand tension forces and heavy compressive loads. The un-reinforced masonry
walls are prone to cracks and failure under heavy compressive loads and during earthquakes. They have
little ability to withstand lateral forces during heavy rain and wind. Cracks also develop in un-reinforced
masonry walls due to earth pressure or differential settlement of foundations.

To overcome such problems, reinforced masonry walls are used. Reinforcement in walls are at required
intervals both horizontally and vertically is used. The size of reinforcement, their quantity and spacing
are determined based on the loads on the walls and structural conditions.
Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

Hollow Masonry Walls

Hollow or Cavity masonry walls are used to prevent moisture reaching the interior of the building by
providing hollow space between outside and inside face of the wall. These walls also helps in
temperature control inside the building from outside wall as the hollow space restricts heat to pass
through the wall.

Composite Masonry Walls

These walls are constructed with two or more units such as stones or bricks and hollow bricks. This type
of masonry wall construction is done for better appearance with economy.

In composite masonry walls, two wythes of masonry units are constructed bonding with each other.
While one wythe can be brick or stone masonry while the other can be hollow bricks. A wythe is a
continuous vertical section of masonry one unit in thickness. These wythes are interconnected either by
horizontal joint reinforcement or by using steel ties.

Post-tensioned Masonry Walls

Post-tensioned masonry walls are constructed to strengthen the masonry walls against the forces that
may induce tension in the wall such as earthquake forces or wind forces.

These walls are constructed from the foundation level and post-tensioning rods are anchored into the
foundation. These rods are run vertically between the wythes or in the core of concrete masonry units.

After the masonry wall construction is completed and cured, these rods are tensioned and anchored on
the steel place at the top of the wall.
Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

Brickwork

Brick masonry is a highly durable form of construction. It is built by placing bricks in mortar in a
systematic manner to construct solid mass that withstand exerted loads. There are several types of
bricks and number of mortars which can be used to construct brick masonry. Bricks may be
differentiated from blocks by size.

The bond in brick masonry, which adheres bricks together, is produced by filling joints between bricks
with suitable mortar. Special cautions shall be practiced while mortar is mixed and placed since it greatly
affect the performance and durability of masonry structure.

Types of Brick Masonry Work

Brick Work in Mud

 The mud is used to fill up various joints brick masonry work.

 Thickness of the mortar joint is 12 mm.
 it is the cheapest type of brick masonry
 employed for construction of walls with maximum height of 4 m.

Brick Work in Cement

This type of brick masonry is construction by laying bricks in cement mortar rather than mud which is
used in brick work in mud. There are three major classes of brick work in cement which are summarized
in Table 1.

Table 1 Different classes of brick work in cement and their descriptions

Classes Descriptions

Cement of lime mortar is used, The surface and edges of bricks are sharp and the
First Class
thickness of mortar joints doesn’t exceed 10mm

Ground moulded bricks are used, Bricks are rough and shape is slightly irregular,
Second Class
The thickness of mortar joint is 12 mm.

Bricks are not hard, rough surface with distorted shape, Used for temporary
Third Class
structures, Used in places where rainfall is not heavy.
Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

Types of Bricks

There are different types of brick used in the construction of brick masonry, which include:

 Common Burnt Clay Bricks

 Concrete Bricks
 Sand Lime Bricks (Calcium Silicate Bricks)
 Fly ash Clay Bricks
 Engineering Bricks
 Other Brick Types include bullnose, channel, coping, cownose and hollow bricks

Blockwork

Concrete block masonry which is also known as concrete masonry unit (CMU) have advantages over
brick and stone masonry. Concrete blocks are manufactured in required shape and sizes and these may
be solid or hollow blocks. The common size of concrete blocks is 39cm x 19cm x (30cm or 20 cm or
10cm) or 2 inch, 4 inch, 6 inch, 8 inch, 10 inch and 12-inch unit configurations.

Cement, aggregate, water is used to prepare concrete blocks. The cement-aggregate ratio in concrete
blocks is 1:6. Aggregate used is of 60% fine aggregate and 40% coarse aggregate. Their Minimum
strength is about 3N/mm2. ASTM C-90-91 specifies the compressive strength requirements of concrete
masonry units.

Types of Concrete Blocks or Concrete Masonry Units

Depending upon the structure, shape, size and manufacturing processes concrete blocks are mainly
classified into two types and they are

 Solid concrete blocks

 Hollow concrete Block

Solid Concrete Blocks

Solid concrete blocks are commonly used, which are heavy in weight and manufactured from dense
aggregate. They are very strong and provides good stability to the structures. So for large work of
masonry like for load bearing walls these solid blocks are preferable. They are available in large sizes
compared to bricks. So, it takes less time to construct concrete masonry than brick masonry.

Hollow Concrete Blocks

Hollow concrete blocks contains void area greater than 25% of gross area. Solid area of hollow bricks
should be more than 50%. The hollow part may be divided into several components based on our
requirement. They are manufactured from lightweight aggregates. They are light weight blocks and easy
to install.
Department of Architecture Faculty of Technology University of Guyana Dip (Architecture) 2019/2020

Types of Hollow Concrete Blocks:

 Stretcher block
 Corner block
 Pillar block
 Jamb block
 Partition block
 Lintel block
 Frogged brick block
 Bull nose block