MODULE 4: Nanotechnology in Energy storage and conversion 22EMTC15B

Solar cells
Solar cells are semiconductor devices that convert sunlight into direct current electricity. As long as
light falls on the solar cell it generates electrical power. Solar cells never need recharging.

Solar cells are usually divided into three main categories called generations. The first generation
contains solar cells that are relatively expensive to produce and have a high efficiency. The second
generation contains types of solar cells that have lower efficiency, but are much cheaper to produce,
such that the cost per watt is lower than in first generation cells. The term third generation is used
about cells that are very efficient. Most technologies in this generation are not yet commercial, but
there is a lot of research going on in this area. The goal is to make third generation solar cells cheap
to produce.

Classification of Solar Cells Technologies

Solar cell

First Generation Second Third Generation

Generation

Monocrystalline CdTe thin film Organic solar Dye sensitized Quantum Dot
Pervoskite
Silicon solar cells cells solar cells Sensitized

Copper Indium
Gallium
Polycrystalline Diselenide (CGIS)
Silicon solar cells

Si Thin film

Single crystal and poly crystal solar cells are the two types of first generation solar cells,
respectively. These are the oldest and most widely utilized solar cells due to their high efficiency. first
generation solar cells are produced on wafers. Although efficiency of mono crystal solar cells is higher
than polycrystal solar cells, production of polycrystal wafer is easier and cheaper. So, they are
competitive with monocrystals.
Second generations solar cells are focused on thin film. Although they are less efficient than
the first generation, they are less expensive. These thin films can be grown on flexible substrates. As
an advantage of thin film solar cells, they can be grown on large areas up to 6 m2 . They are much
more applicable on windows, cars, building integrations etc.
Third generation solar cells are much more efficient and less expensive compared to other two
generations. These can be split into two categories, organic heterojunctions and dye-sensitized solar

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 MODULE 4: Nanotechnology in Energy storage and conversion 22EMTC15B

cells. Dye sensitized solar cells (DSSC) are based on dye molecules between electrodes. Electron hole
pairs occur in dye molecules and transport through TiO2 nanoparticles. In organic heterojunctions he
charge separation occurs at the electron donor and acceptor organic polymers.
Advantages & Disadvantages
Generation First Second Third
Advantages High efficiency High absorption co-efficient. Raw materials are easy to find.
Low defect Can occupy both vacuum and non- Easier fabrication process rather
High quality vacuum process. than other two technology
Lower cost in comparison of Si based Cost is minimal
solar cell.
Low-cost substrate
Disadvantages Expensive. Environment Contamination starts from Liquid electrolyte (low
fabrication process. temperature)
Materials are hard to find.

Construction and Working of Dye Sensitized Solar cells (DSSCs)

Two conducting glass electrodes, sensitizer (dye), electrolyte are the key parameters for a DSSC. The
anode of a DSSC consists of a glass plate which is coated with a transparent conductive oxide (TCO)
film. Indium tin oxide (ITO) or fluorine doped tin oxide are most widely used. A thin layer of titanium
dioxide (TiO2) is applied on the film. The anode is soaked with a dye solution which bonds to the TiO2.

The dye should be luminescent, and the

absorption spectra of the dye should lie in
ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) regions. The
lowest unoccupied molecular orbital
(LUMO) of dye should be higher than the
conduction band of TiO2.
The cathode of a DSSC is a glass plate with
a thin Pt film which serves as a catalyst. An
iodide/triiodide (I-/I3-) solution is used as
the electrolyte. Both electrodes are pressed
together and sealed so that the electrolyte
does not leak. An external load can be
powered when light shines on the anode of
the dye solar cell.

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Working Principle: The working principle of DSSC involves the following steps.
1. Firstly, the incident light (photon) is absorbed by a photosensitizer(dye), and thus, due to the
photon absorption, electrons get promoted from the ground state (S) to the excited state (S*) of
the dye.
S S*

2. Now, the excited electrons are injected into the conduction band of nano porous TiO2 which lies
below the excited state of the dye, As a result, the dye gets oxidized.

S* S+ + e- (TiO2)

3. These injected electrons are transported between TiO2 nanoparticles and diffuse towards the back
contact (transparent conducting oxide [TCO]). Through the external circuit, electrons reach at
the counter electrode. The electrons at the counter electrode reduce I3- to I-.

I3- + 2e- 3I-

4. Dye regeneration or the regeneration of the ground state of the dye takes place due to the
acceptance of electrons from I− ion, and I− gets oxidized to I3- (oxidized state).

S+ + 3/2 I- S + 1/2 I3-

5. Again, I3- diffuses towards the counter electrode and reduces to I- ion.

Advantages
• Manufacturing of DSCs is simple, mostly low cost, and incorporate environmentally friendly
materials.
• They have a good efficiency (about 10-14 %) even under low flux of sunlight.

Disadvantages
• Since liquid electrolytes are used in its composition, it is sensitive to high and low temperatures.
• It has less efficiency than other solar cells.
• There is also the issue of durability since the electrolyte can peel off the organic dyes adsorbed
on titanium dioxide.

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Construction and working of Quantum dot sensitized solar cells.

It comprises of two conducting glass electrodes with electrolyte and quantum dots sandwiched
between them. In QDSSCs, the thin film of electron acceptor (e.g., TiO2 or ZnO) is coated with
colloidal quantum dots. The work function is similar to DSSC except the replacement of dye with
QDs. Quantum Dots when illuminated get excited and results in the formation of electron-hole pairs.
During this process, the electrons enter into the conduction band (CB) in the QDs and the holes remain
in the valence band (VB). The excited QDs inject the electrons from their CB into the CB of the wide
band gap semiconductor and during the process in doing so, it gets oxidized itself with a hole,
remaining in the valence band. The ejected electron from the QDs diffuses through the semiconductor
network and eventually reaches the
conducting glass, from there it travels
through the external circuit leading to the
completion of the circuit by entering back
thorough the counter-electrode and
generating electricity. QDs are better
electron generator; therefore, substitution
of dye with comparatively more stable QDs
is a better option. Thin films have been
used as they are cost-effective and
provides a large surface area. QDSSC
works with electrolyte like polysulfide
instead of Iodide base electrolytes as in the
case of DSSC. It is because the corrosive
nature of the iodide electrolytes for the
semiconductor material ultimately restrict
photoelectricity generation.

Advantages
QD has confined band gap, which allows the electron to be excited more easily than in case of a dye
molecule. Most importantly, the tunability in band gaps of every single QD is possible. The tunability
in band gap by just changing the size of the dot can provide accession to the whole VIBGYOR region,
which is not possible in dye molecules.
The synthesis of these QDs are easy and cost-effective.
Both n-type and p-type QDs can be achieved for the same material of semiconductor QDs by changing
the ligand. Therefore, there is no need of incorporation of different materials.
In case of QDs, extinction coefficient is high, which improves the performance of the QDSSC.

Disadvantages
Toxicity of QDs can be an issue, as metal chalcogenides consist of heavy metals (viz, Cadmium) can
be harmful for human health as well as nature, if effective surface passivation is not done.