International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering

Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 7, Issue 7, July 2017)

Contribution of Remote Sensing to the Structural Mapping of

Aquifers with Large Water Flows in the Crystalline Hard-Rock
in the Department of Donga (North-West of Benin)
Bertrand Houngnigbo Akokponhoué1,2, Nicaise Yalo1, Théophile Lasm2, Marc Youan Ta2, 3, Abdoukarim Alassane1,
Jean Kan Kouamé2,3, Nesny Yanonvoh Akokponhoué1, Charles Comlan Hounton1, Fidèle Suanon1
1
Laboratory of Applied Hydrology (LHA), National Institute of Water (INE), University of Abomey-Calavi, 01BP: 526 Cotonou
(Benin)
2
Department of Water Sciences and Techniques, U.F.R of Earth Sciences and Mineral Resources, University of Cocody, 22 B.P.
582 Abidjan 22 (Côte d’Ivoire),
3
University Centre for Research and Application in Remote Sensing (CURAT), U.F.R of Earth Sciences and Mineral Resources,
University Félix Houphouët Boigny, 22 B.P. 801 Abidjan 22, (Côte d'Ivoire)
Abstract— The exploration of groundwater resources to The satisfaction of this high demand requires the
satisfy the water needs of the populations is a challenging optimization of the knowledge of the resource. However,
topic in the department of Donga (North-West of Benin). The this department is located in an area consisting of
purpose of this study is to map the fracture networks of crystalline and metamorphic hard rocks; where most of the
northwestern Benin from Landsat-8 satellite images and to
groundwater reservoirs are located in fractured aquifers.
characterize them using statistical and geostatistical methods.
The specific processing techniques applied to the OLI images Especially with the effects of variability and climate
made it possible to map the different geological discontinuities change, with the corollary of the gradual decline in rainfall
and to establish the detailed lineamentary map of the study and the continuing degradation of environmental factors,
area. There are approximately 13857 fractures after this region is experiencing serious problems in the supply
validation. The validation of these different structures of drinking water, especially during the dry season, waters
identified from the images was made on the basis of the are rare.
existing geological maps and the various ground works. The A more detailed knowledge of fractured reservoirs is
analysis of the fracture networks indicates that their length is therefore necessary for a better exploitation, protection and
spread over three orders of magnitude, highlighting the
efficient management of their resources [1]. This
heterogeneity of the geological formations of the study area.
The distribution of fracture lengths according to the power knowledge of fractured underground reservoirs thus
law reveals that the Donga fracture networks have reached an appears as a major issue in hydrogeology, and especially in
advanced stage of development according to the value of α (α the exploration of new groundwater resources. The
= 2.98). Fracture spacing is better adjusted to the gamma mapping and characterization of fracturing networks
distribution. The geostatistical analysis emphasizes that the associated with different geological formations is an
fracturing density behaves like a regionalized variable. The inescapable means for a better knowledge of fracture
analysis of the structural domains makes it possible to identify ground aquifers. Because it conditions the formation of
the main flow corridors and reservoirs of the groundwater. reservoirs and is the preferred way of accessing to
These identified reservoirs are strongly related to the high
groundwater resources [2], [3]. The study of fracture
fracture densities and the main rivers in the region with which
they overlap more or less. This suggests an easy recharge of networks therefore oriented the prospecting of groundwater
these fracture aquifers. resources. One of the undeniable approaches today in the
study of fracturing is remote sensing. Indeed, remote
Keywords— groundwater, lineaments, statistics, sensing constitutes a powerful and indisputable tool in the
geostatistics, structural domains. study of even the most discrete tectonic discontinuities for
hydrogeological prospecting and for the detection of
I. INTRODUCTION groundwater in fractured environments. This has been
In the department of Donga, groundwater is heavily demonstrated in the works of [4], [5], [6]. Nowadays, the
stressed to meet the growing water needs of populations, processing of satellite data has become indispensable in the
especially those living in rural areas. evaluation of natural resources and the mapping of surface
states [15]; hence the importance of its use in this study.

392
 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 7, Issue 7, July 2017)
The main objectives in this study are the mapping and
characterization of fracture networks capable of forming
underground aquifers at high flow rates in the crystalline
and metamorphic hard rocks of north-western Benin. The
contribution of this study in the determination of the
geometric parameters of fracturing makes it possible to
better understand the organization of the fracture networks.
It will make it possible to envisage on the one hand the
simulation of underground flows which will lead to the
determination of the main flow axes and on the other hand
the assessment of the groundwater resources available for a
better management.

II. FRAMEWORK OF STUDY, GEOLOGICAL AND

HYDROGEOLOGICAL CONTEXT
The study area is located in north-western Benin,
between 08°28 and 10°02 north latitude and between 1°20
and 2°14 east longitude (Figure 1).
At the geological level (Figure 2), the study area is
between the outer and inner zone of the Pan-African chain
of Dahomeyides, comprising the structural unit of Atacora
and the structural unit of Benin’s pen plain. On the
lithological plane, these units are constituted respectively
by three large groups (quartzites, schists, prasinites and
sandstones) and four large groups (migmatites, granulites,
Figure 1: Location of the study area [10]
meta-sediments, high-grade metamorphic gneisses) [7], [8].
Structurally, the study area has been affected by several
phases of tectonic deformations, the most important of
which are the Eburnean and Pan-African orogenesis. The
panafrican orogenesis (650-600 M.a) is the major tectono-
metamorphic event, which most affected these formations
of the North-West of the fault of Kandi. These various
events have affected the territory by numerous fractures
generally structured N00-20° and N20-30° of which the
most important is the fault of Kandi which is a
transcontinental lithospheric fracture crossing all the
territory of Benin. The work of [9] and [10] have shown the
complexity of this area, both locally and regionally. In
addition to tectonics, other processes such as alteration,
superficial decompression, etc. can facilitate fracturing [1],
[11], [12], [13].
At the hydrogeological level, two aquifer types are
found, which are the aquifers of the alterites, and that of the
fractures. The alterites have an essentially capacitive
function and are often subjected to seasonal fluctuation
whereas the fractures have a conductive function because
the deepest ones. The alterites and fractures are captured
respectively through wells and boreholes.
Figure 2: Geological map of the department of Donga [7]

393
 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 7, Issue 7, July 2017)
III. MATERIAL
The materials used in this study are composed of images,
maps and field data. The image data consists of three (3)
scenes of Landsat 8 OLI images. These are the scenes:
(path 192, row 053); (Path 193, row 053) and (path 192,
row 054) each composed of nine (9) bands. These images
were acquired respectively on Wednesday January 05 th,
2016 for the first two scenes and on February 08 th, 2016 for
the last. The cartographic collections all established at
1/200000 are geological maps [7], photogeological and
topographical edited by the National Centre for Remote
Sensing and Ecological Monitoring of Benin (CNATEL).
The evaluation and validation phase of lineaments
extracted from digital image processing is essential to
judge the relevance of the method used, in order to give
structural significance to these lineaments [2], [14], [15].
The structures identified from the Landsat 8 OLI images
were subjected to a frequency analysis in which the
principal directions were compared with those of the
accidents recorded on the photogeological and geological
map and the measures taken during the earthworks.
In order to achieve the objectives, set in accordance with
the methodological approach adopted, several software
have been used. The pre-processing and processing of the
OLI image which resulted in the realization of the detailed
lineaments map was carried out using ENVI 5.1 software.
The characterization of the geometry of the fractured
aquifers and the study of their hydrodynamic operation
required the use of several software such as MapInfos 11.0,
Linwin 2.0, RAFESP, RU3, Statistica 7.1.
IV. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH FOR DATA PROCESSING
The methodological approach adopted in this study is
based on two main points. First, the remote sensing method
applied to OLI images and finally the methods of geometric
characterization and hydrodynamic analysis of fractured
reservoirs.
A. OLI Image pre-processing
The pre-processing phase of satellite imagery consists in
eliminating radiometric noise in the bands, enabling a wide
range of transformed images to be available and to
facilitate their interpretation.
The OLI images are previously geo-referenced and
geometrically corrected. Only radiometric corrections were
made on these images. This correction eliminated
radiometric noise in the OLI bands.
394
Radiometric correction was performed on the one hand
by the application of the Fourier transform [16] on the
panchromatic channel of OLI and the band OLI 4 of
Landsat and on the other hand by the use of low pass filters
[17], [18].
The correction of the atmospheric effect and of the relief
has been made to reduce the effect of dry haze, assimilated
to an additive factor on the radiometric signal, of these
bands was performed. To this end, the technique proposed
by [2], [19] was adopted in this study. In order to
homogenize the image radiometry [20] and to attenuate the
effects of shading due to relief, the following ratios were
obtained: OLI4/OLI5, OLI6/OLI5, OLI5/OLI7 and
OLI5/OLI8. In addition, the pixel resampling of the
panchromatic strips (OLI8) was required to reduce the
pixels from 60 m to 30 m sideways. The bilinear
interpolation method was used. The corrected images were
further processed to improve their visual perception for a
better mapping of geological accidents in the study area.
B. Digital image processing for mapping geological
accidents
The various radiometrically processed images are
subjected to dynamic spreading operations, mathematical
combinations, information syntheses and texture analyzes.
The use of several digital processing methods applied to
OLI images using image fusion techniques, namely
selective Principal Component Analysis (SPCA),
combinations of images, colored compositions on the one
hand, and spatial-directional filtering techniques on the
other hand, have increased the perception of the image by
improving it and making it more expressive and clearer.
In order to map the maximum discontinuities affecting
the department of Donga, the selective Principal
Component Analysis (SPCA) technique was applied. It
consisted initially of performing a first SPCA with OLI’s
visible bands 2, 3 and 4, resulting in three components:
PCA1234, PCA2234 and PCA3234. Then a second SPCA was
performed with the infrared bands 6, 7 and the
panchromatic band (OLI 8), which also resulted in
obtaining three other components: PCA1678, PCA2678 and
PCA3678. This technique was inspired by that used by [21]
and [22] in the Precambrian hard rock of Cote d’Ivoire.
Several colored compositions were made from the RGB
(red green blue) system on the components derived from
the two selective PCA methods, some raw images and band
ratios (OLI4/OLI5), (OLI5/OLI6) and standardized indices
(OLI6-OLI5/OLI6+OLI5) were performed in order to
highlight some of the low contrast details contained in the
image.
 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 7, Issue 7, July 2017)
Spatial filters represent another digital processing
method used to enhance an image. These filters have been Table I.
applied in several studies [2], [21], [22]. In this study, the Sobel and gradient filter matrices [2]
mobile window filtering technique was used to accentuate
the structural discontinuities by means of spatial filters
designed for this purpose. In order to better enhance the
major image discontinuities, several directional filter
operators (type Sobel, Prewitt and [18] of size 7 x 7) were
applied to the OLI4, OLI6, OLI5/OLI6, PCA2 234 and
PCA1678 bands. These directional filters are presented in
Table I. Other methods such as the analysis of textural
attributes were applied in this study on the results of
standardized indices, some raw images (OLI4 and OLI5)
SPCA. The parameters which best define local and regional
lineaments have been selected in order to discriminate
them.
C. methodology for the characterization of discontinuous
aquifers, structural areas and underground flood
corridors
The geometric parameters of the fracturing were
analyzed using the techniques of statistical and
geostatistical analysis.
The statistical analysis focused on the study of
distribution laws (log-normal, exponential, gamma and
power) on the parameters length and spacing of fractures.
Parameters such as the number and size of fractures, the
characteristic exponent of the power law, the fracturing
density which is one of the main factors that determines the
flow of groundwater in cracked base terrain are also
analyzed.
The geostatistical study was based on the theory of
regionalized variables, and its first objective was to
demonstrate, when it exists, the spatial structuring of the
phenomenon studied. The mathematical tool of
geostatistics which is the experimental variogram has been
defined by the equation (1):
Figure 3: Graphical representation of the variogram [15]
γ (h) = VAR [Z(x+h) – Z(x)] (1)
The hydrodynamic analysis in this study was carried out
With: Var [Z (x)]: variance at the point x, h: module by characterizing the structural domains through a spatially
vector (x-x’), γ (h): semi-variogram. referenced hydrogeological system (SRHS). The data from
Figure 3 shows the graph of the theoretical variogram. the linear density maps (in number and cumulative length
The geostatistical study of the fracturing of the department per mesh) were combined by coding in the SRHS to
of Donga was done at the level of the all-round fracturing generate the map of the structural domains. Thus, the
able to play an important role in the hydrogeology of the approach consisted first of all of codifying the main themes
fractured reservoirs. The spherical model has been retained contained in the two maps: very weak, weak, medium,
as suggested [14] and [23]. strong and very strong. By the main of the attribute tables,
spatial requests have been made. Finally, the processing of
all the requests made it possible to define the conditions
and the different spatial combinations.
395
 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 7, Issue 7, July 2017)
The use of the latter has made it possible to highlight the
"fracturing corridors" which give the fractured reservoir
sufficient permeability to be the seat of the underground
flows [2], [21], [24].
V. RESULTS
A. Mapping of Linear Structures
Sobel’s filters and gradient of dimension 7 x 7 of Prewitt
and [18] applied to the OLI4, OLI6 and OL6/OLI5 bands
resulted in the major accidents in the study area being
elevated with an average concentration of 16 accidents per
100 km2 (Figure 4b). These accidents generally have a
N10° to N20° direction which is identified with certain
faults such as Pélébina and Yarakéou or with corridors such
as Bayakou (Figure 4b). When the Sobel filters show the
lineaments or contours perpendicular to their convolution
direction, Prewitt's and [18] enhance the lineaments in all
possible directions (Figure 5). These filters made it possible
to map a large number of regional and local lineaments
(Figures 4 and 5). The analysis of textural attributes such as
the "homogeneity" parameter with the OLI6 raw band has
enhanced many local and regional lineaments in all
directions. These lineaments are perceptible in this figure
(Figure 6) in a black tone in a more or less gray tone.
Figure 7 shows the final result obtained after the manual
extraction of the lineaments carried out on the processed
OLI images. The lineaments of the detailed map (Figure 7)
have different sizes and directions. The interconnections
between its lineaments are very dense and the very
fractured aspect of the study area testify to the intensity of
the tectonic movements that took place in this part of the
country and which led to the pronounced fragmentation of
the geological formations Pan-African and Eburnean ages.
The analysis of Figure 7 reveals that all the lineages of
pluri-kilometric size follow the direction NS (Pan-African),
or direction NE-SO (Eburnean).
396
These fractures are highly sought after in
hydrogeological surveys for groundwater research because
their large size favours their interconnection with other
fractures, thus facilitating the formation of a good aquifer.
The validation of the lineaments resulting from the
treatment of the images was carried out by the
superposition of the fractures extracted from the map
geology. Indeed, nearly 65% of the fractures noted on the
geological map, is superimposed on the lineaments
resulting from the image processed. The study of the
directional distribution of the lineaments generated on these
supports (geological and image) also allows an overall
validation of the fracturing map obtained from the images.
The principal directions of the fractures identified on the
geological map were compared with those obtained from
the satellite images covering the same area (Figure 8a and
b). The analysis of these data makes it possible to validate
the lineamentary map of the department of Donga, mapped
from an OLI image of Landsat 8. The different lineaments
will be considered as fractures.
B. Statistical analysis of fracture networks
The fracture map obtained after treatment has
approximately 13857 fractures of variable sizes, in the
interval [0.318 km; 71.5 km] with an average length of 3.16
km. The total length of the fractures is approximately
43873.543 km. The largest of the fractures measures 71.5
km and is oriented N-S. Apart from this accident, all the
others have a size less than 40 km. More than 72% of
fractures in the department of Donga have the lengths
between 0 and 10 km. There is therefore a very strong
predominance of small fractures. The sizes of the fractures
are thus spread over several orders of magnitude, thus
indicating the heterogeneity of the geological formations.
The treatment of the fracturing field also gave about
2072 spacing measurements. These measurements range
from 0.09 m to 30632.98 m, with an average of 740.75 m.
More than 80% of lineaments have spacing of less than 1
km. These values also range over several orders of
magnitude.
 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 7, Issue 7, July 2017)

Figure 6: Fractures enhanced by the homogeneity parameter realized

with OLI band

Figure 4: a) OLI5/OLI4 index enhancing the main major accidents b)

accidents enhanced by Sobel NE filtering applied to the OLI5/OLI4
index.

Figure 7: Detailed map of Donga lineaments from Landsat 8 OLI

images

Figure 5: Major accidents enhanced by the gradient filtering of Yésou

et al (1993) applied to the OLI image

397
 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 7, Issue 7, July 2017)
Indeed, the good interconnection of fractures promotes
the perfect circulation of groundwater. For values less than
2.75 km, we move very significantly from the theoretical
linear line showing the limits of resolution with a certain
slope break.
The spacing of all-round fractures was analyzed from a
statistical point of view, that is, by studying distributions
(log-normal, exponential and gamma). Statistical studies
have shown that only the gamma distribution (Figure 11)
provides the best fit for fracture spacing measurements in
the hard rocks of the department of Donga. Indeed, the chi-
a : Rosace of fractures from b : Rosacea of fractures
the geological map from satellite imagery square test at the 10% significance level is negative for
these first two laws.
Figure 8: Comparison of fracture orientation patterns from the
geological map and satellite images of the northwest sector of the C. Geostatistical analysis of fracture networks
study area: (a) geological map; b) satellite imagery
The geostatistical study was carried out only at the level
The result of the analysis of the directional histograms of of all-round fracturing playing an undeniable role in the
the fractures mapped is illustrated in Figure 9a. The flow of groundwater. The variable studied is the fracture
distribution frequencies range from 2 to 8%. No class of density in cumulated lengths per square mesh of 5 x 5 km².
family fractures exceeds 10% in frequency. The families The all-out fracturing of the department of Donga has the
N00-10, N10-20, N70-80, N80-90 stand out with following characteristics: the existence of a 40.34 km² sill.
frequencies close to 8%. The distribution of the cumulative It corresponds to the value around which the variogram
lengths (CL) of the fracture is represented in Figure 9b, in stabilizes; the existence of a range of 67.2 km. The value
which no fracture family exceeds 10% but the families from which the bearing is reached. This value is equivalent
N00-10, N10-20, N20-30, N30-40, N40- 50 differ with to the autocorrelation distance; the existence of a nugget
frequencies that oscillate between 4 and 7%. In view of the effect more or less marked of 15.54 km².
results obtained, the distribution of fracturing in Donga can
be described as homogeneous. These families of fractures
can be grouped into three main families: N-S (N00-10), E-
W (N80-90), NE-SW (N10-60). The first represents Pan-
African direction in reference to the major tectono-
metamorphic deformation (the Pan-African orogenesis) that
most marked the crystalline hard rock of Benin. The latter
is akin to the birimian direction (the Eburnean orogenesis)
prior to the pan-African orogenesis.
The fracture lengths of the department of Donga better
fits the power law. The result of this adjustment is
presented in the Figure 10. Indeed, in this Figure, we
distinguish a linear portion ( ≥ 2.75 km) on which it is
possible to adjust a power law.
This power law is defined by the expression (2):
N () = 24149× –2.976 (2)
With: R² = 0.97 (R² being calculated for  ≥ 2.75 km).
The characteristic exponent of the power law is 2.98 (α =
2.98); this value of α is very close to 3). This result shows
that the characteristic fracture network (km) identifies itself
with a percolating network having a great interest in
structural hydrogeology.
Figure 9: Diagrams of distribution of fracture orientation of the study
area: a) frequency in number b) frequency in cumulative length.
398
 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 7, Issue 7, July 2017)
Figure 10: Log-log diagram of frequency distribution of fracture
lengths. Adjustment to a power law
Figure 11: Spacing distribution. Adjustment to a gamma law
The nugget effect corresponds to the value of γ (h) when
h tends to 0. These various parameters thus reveal a good
spatial distribution of the fracturing field of the study area
for the fractures distant from 15.54 to 62. 7 km. In other
words, the spatial distribution of fracturing, support of
groundwater circulation in the department of Donga, is not
random.
The analysis of the variogram (Figure 12) of the Donga
fracturing field, has a sill with an incomplete second, the
first after reaching a plateau, change slope. This change of
slope occurs at around 67.2 km. This explains the existence
of a multi-regionalization already reported. Such structures
are due to the variability of different causes on different
scales [14]. The structuring of fracture networks is
therefore important. Indeed, within a radius of 67.2 km,
fracturing (azimuth) is deployed in a structured way. A
perfect correlation therefore exists between the values of
the fracturing density located at a distance ≤ 67.2 km from
each other.
399
The area circumscribed by this radius could define the
validity zone of underground flow models incorporating the
all-round fracturing density as the input parameter. This
multi-regionalization of the overall fracturing of the
department of Donga is explained by the fact that the
Donga region is heterogeneous. Indeed, this department has
been affected by four orogenesis, the most important of
which is the Pan-African orogenesis marked by the NS
structural directions. The equation of modeling of the
variogram of azimuth after adjustment to the spherical
model is given by the expression below.
Figure 12: Variogram of the fracturing density in the department of
Donga
D. Contribution of the map of the structural domains to the
identification of the preferential axes of underground
flows
The coding combination of the number fracturing
density map and the cumulative length fracture density map
enabled the map of the structural domains to be generated.
Thus, the superimposition in a single plane, within a SRHS
of the map of the structural domains and the map of the
main rivers has made it possible to highlight the flow
corridors of the groundwater reservoirs (Figure 13). The
characteristics of the structural domains reside in a very
high density of fractures (> 41 fractures per mesh 5 x 5
km2), average length greater than 35 km/mesh and major
orientation NS (N00-10), NE-SW (N10-60). The preferred
underground flow axes have been defined within the
structural domains with a very high fracturing density of
4671 km2 (42.06%) of the 11105 km2 covered by the study
area and having a dominant orientation of lineaments and a
permeability greater than 12.10-6 m/s.
 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 7, Issue 7, July 2017)
The direction of flow is a function of the variation of the
hydraulic gradient. Thus, from the map of the structural
domains of the department of Donga, "fracturing corridors"
were detected which give the cracked reservoir a sufficient
permeability to be the seat of the underground flows.
Moreover, these corridors are superimposed perfectly on
the different rivers of the region. Thus, in the Northeast of
the study area we have the Yorossonga corridor in Donga,
entirely occupied by the Donga catchment. This confirms
the large flows recorded in the villages of Koua and Donga
which are respectively 18.1 m3/h and 30 m3/h. A south-east
flow channel, which is related to the N-S directional
Kandi’s fault shear corridor occupied by Mylonite and
Blastomylonites. A third NE-SW steering axis corresponds
to that of the Karhup-Malero area bounded by the Corridor
from Singré to Karhup-Malero and returning to Togo,
located to the northwest of the study area. Two other
corridors, one beginning a little before Biguina and
extending to Daringa in a NE-SO direction are located in
the biotite granitoid migmatites and the other beginning at
Pénéssoulou and ending at Yorossonga Sud were mapped.
Figure 13: Map of structural domains and running corridors of
groundwater of the department of Donga
400
VI. DISCUSSION
A. Remote sensing and structural discontinuity mapping
The processing of OLI satellite images using image
reports (OLI 6)/(OLI 5) and the use of directional filters
(Sobel, Préwitt and gradient of [18] of the department of
Donga, such as the Kandi’s Shear Corridor, which has a
strong structural tendency along the southeast flank of the
Blastomylonites and Mylonites of the department of
Donga, from the Pélénan to Pénéssoulou (PP), The accident
from Yorossonga to Kpébouko). Some of these accidents
are hitherto poorly known, as they have never been
recorded or reported previously. The use of remote sensing
techniques in this study has facilitated the detection and
mapping of these fractures not known to date. Thus, the
beam of accident forming a corridor going from Singré to
Karhup-Malero and returning to Togo with a direction NE-
SO which we will call the fault of Singré has been mapped.
This fault was mapped by the BRGM [7], with a length
much less than that determined on the images processed. In
the department of Donga, several large linear structures of
tectonic origin were mapped using the band ratio (OLI
6)/(OLI 5). This index has also produced very good results
in several regions in West Africa and in the World, in
Korhogo [21], in Bondoukou [22], in Dan and Toura [2]
and on the mountainous terrain of the Island of Naxos in
Greece [4]. The mapping of image discontinuities was
more perfect, by the main of the application of the
technique of texture analysis and directional filters (Sobel,
Préwitt and gradient of [18]. These methods were used and
they gave very good results in the Man region [2], in
Korhogo [21], in Bondoukou [22] in Côte d’Ivoire.
Fracturing undoubtedly contributes to the formation of
aquifers in crystalline and metamorphic terrain.
B. Statistical analysis
In this study, none of the models (exponential, log-
normal, gamma) significantly explains the distribution of
the fracture lengths of the Northwest of Benin except the
power law. This power law shows that only the lengths
between 2.75 and 25.87 km are adjusted. Below 2.75 km,
the power law does not account for small fractures. The
characteristic exponent of this power law (α) is equal to
2.98 and is in agreement with literature data generally
between 1 and 3 [1], [15], [25]. The variations of the
characteristic exponent (α) of the power law are the sign
that the networks observed in nature are at different stages
of development [14], [21], [22], [26].
 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 7, Issue 7, July 2017)
Determining the nature of the distribution of fracture
lengths is primarily a problem of sampling and
measurement, which is explained by the variability of
distribution law: lognormal, exponential, gamma, power,
and so on [14], [26]. The characterization of a power law,
by its very nature, requires data measured over a minimum
of two or three orders of magnitude and a number of
(effective) elements of the order of a few hundred [27].
This is the case of the networks studied with 13857
fractures and whose sizes are spread over 3 orders of
magnitude. The distribution of the fracture lengths of the
department of Donga according to the power law indicates
that these fracture networks would have reached a very
advanced stage of development as argued by [1], [14], [22],
[26], [27]. For these authors, all networks of natural
fractures at the end of their development must have their
lengths of fractures distributed according to a law of power.
This is the case of fracturing in the hard rocks of Donga.
Different authors have obtained similar results in the
previous works, [1], [14], [21], [22], [25], [27].
In spite of the numerous studies carried out to date on
the spacing of fractures, the law of distribution of this
parameter remains very controversial in the literature:
negative exponential law [28], lognormal law [29], normal
and gamma laws [30], power law [31], [21], [25]. In this
study, we considered the spacing between all-round
fractures. The distribution of spacing in the Upper
Proterozoic hard rocks of the department of Donga obeys
the gamma law at the 10% significance level. Similar
results have been obtained by [30], [14], [21]. As with size
parameters, spacing can be affected by edges-related biases
and the exact positioning of fractures [14], [19], [32] [33].
C. Geostatistical analysis
The geostatistical study of fracturing in the Donga
region has shown that the cumulative length fracturing
density (CL) is unambiguously similar to a regionalized
variable. This variable is irregular with the existence of a
nugget effect representing 38.52% of the total variance of
the data. The dispersion recorded here is less important
than that encountered in other studies carried out in West
Africa and particularly in Côte d'Ivoire: [14], [21], [22].
After analyzing the variogram of the department of Donga
we have identified a multi-regionalization characterized by
two sills, the last of which is incomplete, reflecting the
complexity and heterogeneity of the fractured system of the
Donga region. The different tectonic events that took place
in this region have in fact intensely fractured this area of
Donga, i.e led to the establishment of a fractured and
highly dense fracturing.
401
D. Contribution of the map of the structural domains
Groundwater circulation should be related to fractures
and their connectivity in discontinuous media. Thus, from
the map of the structural domains, "fracturing corridors"
have been detected which give the cracked reservoir a
sufficient permeability to be the seat of the underground
flows. From these "fracturing corridors" were drawn
flowing corridors [21]. Very high fracturing units occupy
75% of the area of the study area and are found in the south
and north of the study area. The work of [2], [21] in Côte
d’Ivoire has produced excellent results in the determination
of the groundwater flow corridors in their study area.
VII. CONCLUSION
The index (OLI 5)/(OLI 6), the texture analysis and the
techniques of enhancement of the linear structures (Sobel 7
× 7, Prewitt and [24] spatial filters carried out both on the
raw bands and on the neo-canals resulting from the
previous treatments enabled us to extract the lineaments
manually, which resulted in the discrimination of numerous
regional accidents and corridors and the preparation of a
detailed map of lineaments of the department of Donga
comprising 13857 Fractures after validation, so that many
regional accidents that are not materialized on existing
maps have been identified, mapped and some of them have
been improved.
In view of the results, the fracture distribution in the
department of Donga can be described as homogeneous.
However, some of fractures can be grouped into three main
groups: N-S, E-W, NE-SW.
The fracture lengths are described by a power law which
reveals a self-similarity structure. This power law does not
take into account small fractures due to sub-sampling. The
value of the slope is equal to α = 2.98. It characterizes
fractures of lengths ≥ 2.75 km.
Fracture spacing is described by the gamma law. It
shows that the fractures are regularly distributed over the
field of study.
Geostatic analysis reveals that global fracturing is a
regionalized variable, which means that it is deployed in
space in a structured way. It was adjusted using a spherical
model. It presents a multi-regionalization with two stages,
the last of which remains incomplete.
Thus, the combined analysis of the two maps (Structural
domain and main rivers) in the SRHS made it possible to
determine the main axes of the subterranean flows of the
department of Donga.
 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 7, Issue 7, July 2017)
In general, all the knowledge acquired on the fracturing
of the department of Donga contributes to a better
knowledge of the geometry of the fractured system. In view
of the complexity of aquifers of cracks, other approaches
are necessary to explain the hydrodynamic properties of its
fractured reservoirs.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the anonymous
instructors for their criticisms, comments and suggestions
that have contributed to the improvement of this document.
REFERENCES
[1] Lasm, T., Youan Ta, M., Baka, D., De Lasme, O., Jourda, J. P.,
Kouamé, F. K., Yao, T. K., Kouadio, K. E., Yao, F. A. 2014.
Fractures networks organization on Precambrian basement of Côte
d’Ivoire: statistical and geostatistical approaches. International
Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering Vol. 4,
pp. 1-10
[2] Kouamé, K. F. 1999. Hydrogéologie des aquifères
discontinus de la région semi-montagneuse de Man Danané Ouest de
la Côte d’Ivoire). Apport des données des images satellitales et des
méthodes statistique et fractale à l’élaboration d’un système
d’information hydrogéologique à référence spatiale. Thèse de 3ème
cycle, Université de Cocody-Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire, 194 p.
[3] Lasm, T., Kouamé, F., Soro, N., Jourda, J. P., Biémi, J. 2004.
Analyse géostatistique de la fracturation extraite de l'imagerie
spatiale aéroportée et satellitaire. Application à la région de Man-
Danané (Ouest de la Côte d'Ivoire), Revue Ivoirienne des Sciences et
Technologie 5, p.135-154.
[4] Galanos, I., Rokos, D. 2006. A statistical approach in investigating
the hydrogeological significance of remotely sensed lineaments in
the crystalline mountainous terrain of the island of Naxos, Greece,
Hydrogeology journal, vol.14 pp.1569-1581.
[5] Jourda, J. P., Saley, M. B., Djagoua E. V., Kouamé, K., J. Biémi, J.
et Razack M. 2006. Utilisation des données ETM+ de Landsat et
d’un SIG pour l’évaluation du potentiel en eau souterraine dans le
milieu fissuré précambrien de la région de Korhogo (nord de la Côte
d’Ivoire) : approche par analyse multicritère et test de validation.
Télédétection, 5(4), pp. 339-357.
[6] Hoffmann, J., Sander, P. 2007. Remote sensing and GIS in
hydrogeology, Hydrogeology journal, n.° 15, pp.1-3.
[7] Affaton, P., Lasserre, J.L., Lawson, L.T., et Vincent, P.L. 1978.
Notice explicative des cartes géologiques au 1/200 000 de la
République du Togo et de la République populaire du Bénin entre
les 9e et 10e de latitude nord (feuille Djougou et feuille Parakou-
Nikki), Rapp. B.R.G.M, n° 78 RDM 055AF, Orléans, Fr, 70 p.
[8] Caen-Vachette, M., Pinto, K.J.M., Roques, M. 1979. Plutons
éburnéens et métamorphisme dans le socle cristallin de la chaîne
pan-africaine au Togo et au Bénin, Revue Géologie Dynamique
Géographie Physique, 21, pp. 351-357.
[9] Affaton, P. 1987. Le bassin des voltas (Afrique de l’ouest) : une
marge passive du protérozoïque supérieur tectonisé au panafricain.
Thèse d’état, volume 2, Université d’Aix-Marseille, 449 p.
[10] Boussari, W.T. 1975. Contribution à l'étude géologique du socle ?
cristallin de la zone mobile Pan-Africaine (Région centrale du
Dahomey), Thèse de doctorat, Université de Besançon, 105 p.
402
[11] Lachassagne, P., Wyns, R. and Dewandel, B. 2011. The fracture
permeability of hard rock aquifer is due neither to tectonics, nor to
unloading, but to weathering processes. Terra, 23 (3), pp. 145-161.
[12] Dewandel, B., Lachassagne, P., Wyns, R., Marechal, J.C. and
Krishnamurthy, N.S. 2006. A generalized 3-D geological and
hydrogeological conceptual model of granite aquifers controlled by
single or multiphase weathering. Journal of Hydrology, 330 (1/2),
pp. 260-284.
[13] Wyns, R., Quesnel, F., Simon-Coinçon, R., Guillocheau, F., &
Lacquement, F. 2003. Major weathering in France related to
lithospheric deformation. Géologie de France, 1, 79–87.
[14] Lasm, T. 2000. Hydrogéologie des réservoirs fracturés de socle :
Analyses statistiques et géostatistique de la fracturation et des
propriétés hydrauliques. Application à la région des montagnes de
Côte d’Ivoire Domaine Archéen. Thèse de doctorat, Université de
Poitiers, 272 p.
[15] Youan Ta, M., Lasm, T., Jourda, J.P.R., Kouamé, K.F. et Razack, M.
2008. Cartographie des accidents géologiques par imagerie
satellitaire Landsat-7 ETM+ et analyse des réseaux de fractures du
socle précambrien de la région de Bondoukou (Nord-Est de la Côte
d'Ivoire). Télédétection, 8(2), pp. 119-135.
[16] Smirnov, M. X. 1992. Digital Filtering of lineament patterns.
Sovietic Remote Sensing, n°.1, pp. 101-111.
[17] Moore, G. K., Waltz, F. A., Objective procedure for lineament
enhancement and extraction. Photogrammetric Engineering and
Remote Sensing, Vol. 49, n°5, pp. 641-647, 1983.
[18] Yésou, H., Pion, J. C., Besnus, Y., et Saint Jean, R. 1993.
Amélioration des données SPOT pour la cartographie structurale en
milieu tropical. Exemple de la région des chapeaux de fer de Pagala
(Togo). IIIèmes Journées Scientifiques du Réseau Télédétection
UREF, Toulouse, 13-16 novembre 1990, pp. 143-164. In.:J.M.
Dubois, F. Blasco dir), Outil microinformatique et Télédétection de
l’évolution des milieux, PUQ/ UREF. Ed., 492 p.
[19] Lavreau, J. 1991. Suppression des aérosols sur l'imagerie Landsat
Thematic Mapper. Proceedings of the 5th Int Col. Physical
measurements in remote sensing, ESA SP-319, pp. 85-88.
[20] Crippen, R. E.1988. The dangers of underestimating the importance
of data adjustment in band rationing. Int. Journ. Remote Sensing,
vol. 9, n°4, pp. 767-776.
[21] Jourda, J. P. 2005. Méthodologie d’application des techniques de
télédétection et des systèmes d’information géographique à l’étude
des aquifères fissurés d’Afrique de l’ouest. Concept de
l’Hydrotechniquespatiale : cas des zones tests de la Côte d’Ivoire.
Thèse de doctorat ès Sciences Naturelles, Université de Cocody-
Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire, 429 p.
[22] Youan Ta, M. 2008. Contribution de la télédétection et des systèmes
d'informations géographiques à la prospection hydrogéologique du
socle précambrien d’Afrique de l’Ouest : Cas de la région de
Bondoukou Nord Est de la Côte d'Ivoire. Thèse de doctorat unique,
Univ de Cocody-Abidjan (Côte d’Ivoire), 236 p.
[23] Razack, M. 1984. Application des méthodes numériques à
l'identification des réservoirs fissurés carbonatés en hydrogéologie,
Thèse Doctorat ès Sci, Univ. Languedoc, 384 p.
[24] Billaux, D. 1990. Hydrogéologie des milieux fracturés. Géométrie,
connectivité, et comportement hydraulique, Thèse Ecole Mines
Paris, 277 p.
 International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459, ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 7, Issue 7, July 2017)
[25] Baka, D. 2012. Géométrie, hydrodynamisme et modélisation des [29] Rouleau, A., Gale J. E. 1985. Statistical characterization of the
réservoirs fracturés du socle protérozoïque de la région d’Oumé fracture system in stripa granite, Sweden‖, Int. J. Rock. Mech.&
(centre-ouest de la Côte d’Ivoire). Thèse Université Félix Houphouët Mining Sc.& Geomech. Abs., 22, pp. 353-367, 1985.
Boigny, 249 p. [30] Huang, Q., Angelier, J.1989. Fracture spacing and its relation to bed
[26] De Dreuzy, J. R. 2000. Analyse des propriétés hydrauliques des thickness. Géol. Mag., n°. 126, Vol. 4, pp. 355-362.
réseaux de fractures, Université de Rennes. Thèse de doctorat, [31] P. A. Gillespie, C. B. Howard, J. J. Walsh, J. Watterson,
Université Rennes 1, Rennes, 101 p. ―Measurement and characterization of spatial distributions of
[27] Darcel, C. 2002. Corrélation dans les réseaux de fractures : fractures‖, Tectophys., Vol. 226, pp. 113-1141, 1993.
caractérisation et conséquences sur les propriétés hydrauliques. [32] Rives, T., Razack, M., Petit, J. P. and Rawnley, K. D. 1992. Joints
Thèse de doctorat, Université Rennes 1, Rennes, France, 223 p. spacing: analogue and numerical simulations. Journal of Structural
[28] Baecher, G. B., Lanney, N. A., & Einstein, H. H. 1977. Statistical Geology, 14(8/9), pp. 925-937.
description of rock properties and sampling. Proc.18th U. S.Symp. [33] Pineau, A. 1985. L’échantillonnage des espacements entre fractures :
on Rock Mech., AIME, 5CI-I à 5CI-B. une distribution exponentielle négative tronquée. C. R. Acad. Sc.
Paris, Sér. II, Vol.301, n°14, pp 1295-1297.

403