PR 1 Module Activities and Assignemnts

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1
TABLES OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I Nature of Inquiry and Research

Lesson 1 Nature of Inquiry
Lesson 2 Nature of Research
CHAPTER II Qualitative Research and Its Importance in Daily Life

Lesson 3 Qualitative Research
Lesson 4 Qualitative Research in Different Areas of Knowledge
CHAPTER III Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the Problem

Lesson 5 Subject Matter of the Inquiry or Research
Lesson 6 Research Problem and Research Question
CHAPTER IV Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature

Lesson 7 Review of Related Literature (RRL)
Lesson 8 The Process of Review of Related Literature
Lesson 9 Standard Styles in Review of Related Literature
CHAPTER V Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data

Lesson 10 Qualitative Research Designs
Lesson 11 Sampling
CHAPTER VI Finding Answers through Data Collection
Lesson 12 Observation
Lesson 13 Interview
CHAPTER VII Analyzing the Meaning of the Data and Drawing Conclusions
Lesson 14 Data Analysis
Lesson 15 Drawing of Conclusions
CHAPTER VIII Reporting and Sharing the Findings
Lesson 16 Reporting and Sharing the Findings
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Chapter I: Nature of Inquiry and Research
Introduction
Inquiry and Research are two terms that are almost the same in meaning. Both
involve investigative work in which you seek information about something by searching
or examining the object of your search. Inquiry is to look for information by asking
various questions about the thing you are curious about while research is to discover
truths by investigating on your chosen topic scientifically; meaning, by going through a
systematic way of doing things wherein you are to begin from the simplest to the most
complex modes or patterns of thinking.
LESSON 1 Nature of Inquiry
INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING
Meaning of Inquiry
Learning is your way of obtaining knowledge about your surroundings. This takes
place in many ways, and one of these is inquiry, which many people in the field of
education consider effective. Inquiry is a learning process that motivates you to obtain
knowledge or information about people, things, places, or events. You do this by
investigating or asking questions about something you are inquisitive about. It requires
you to collect data, meaning, facts, and information about the object of your inquiry,
and examine such data carefully. In your analysis, you execute varied thinking
strategies that range from lower-order to higher-order thinking skills such as inferential,
critical, integrative, and creative thinking. These are top-level thinking strategies that
you ought to perform in discovering and understanding the object of your inquiry.
Engaging yourself in many ways of thinking, you come to conclude that inquiry is an
active learning process.
Putting you in a situation where you need to probe, investigate, or ask questions
to find answers or solutions to what you are worried or doubtful about, inquiry is a
problem-solving technique. Solving a problem by being inquisitive, you tend to act like
scientists who are inclined to think logically or systematically in seeking evidence to
support their conclusions about something. Beginning with whatever experience or
background knowledge you have, you proceed like scientists with your inquiry by
imagining, speculating, interpreting, criticizing, and creating something out of what you
discovered.
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Inquiry elevates your thinking power. It makes you think in different ways,
enabling you to arrive at a particular idea or understanding that will motivate you to
create something unique, new, or innovative for your personal growth as well as for the
world. Inquisitive thinking allows you to shift from one level of thought to another. It
does not go in a linear fashion; rather, it operates in an interactive manner.
Solving a problem, especially social issues, does not only involve yourself but
other members of the society too. Hence, inquiry, as a problem-solving technique,
includes cooperative learning because any knowledge from members of the society can
help to make the solution. Whatever knowledge you have about your world bears the
influence of your cultural, sociological, institutional, or ideological understanding of the
world. (Badke 2012)
Governing Principles or Foundation of Inquiry
Inquiry-based Learning gets its support from these three educational theories
serving as its foundation: John Dewey’s theory of connected experiences for exploratory
and reflective thinking; Lev Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) that
stresses the essence of provocation and scaffolding in learning; and Jerome Bruner’s
theory on learners’ varied world perceptions for their own interpretative thinking of
people and things around them. Backed up by all these theories, inquiry, as a way of
learning, concerns itself with these elements: changing knowledge, creativity,
subjectivity, socio-cultural factors, sensory experience, and higher-order thinking
strategies. All of these are achievable through the inquiry methods of fieldwork, case
studies, investigations, individual group project, and research work. (Small 2012)
Benefits of Inquiry-Based Learning
In conclusion, you can say that Inquiry-based Learning gives you the following
advantages:
1. Elevates interpretative thinking through graphic skills
2. Improves student learning abilities
3. Widens learners’ vocabulary
4. Facilitates problem-solving acts
5. Increases social awareness and cultural knowledge
6. Encourages cooperative learning
7. Provides mastery of procedural knowledge
8. Encourages higher-order thinking strategies
9. Hastens conceptual understanding
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Educators, businessmen, and other professionals consider all these benefits of

Inquiry-based Learning in various fields of knowledge to be crucial to the success of
anyone in the 21st Century.
Therefore, knowing the ins and outs of Inquiry-based Learning will greatly guide
you in deciding which learning method will guarantee successful learning in the present
world, which is tagged by many as the Era of Globalization, Age of Knowledge
Explosion, Age of Consumerism, Digital Age, Age of Instant World, etc.
Directions: Explain your understanding of inquiry by answering the following questions

intelligently. (Write your answer on the space provided below)
1. Compare and contrast the three foundation theories behind Inquiry-based
Learning.
2. Describe one who thinks in a linear fashion.
3. How do you learn something through inquiry?
4. Why is inquiry a scientific way of thinking?
5. In your opinion, is this an effective learning method? Why or why not?
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LESSON 2 Nature of Research
Meaning of Research
In college, you involve yourself in varied school activities such as academic

contests, sports fests, elocution contest, music festivals, college week celebrations, art
exhibits, research work, debate competitions, and many more. All of these activities are
aimed to let you develop a well-rounded personality. But one or two of them gave
emphasis in honing a particular ability (e.g., making you excel in mathematics, science,
arts, music, and many more).
One school activity that every college student has to excel in is research. This is
a hallmark of a university or college education. Your research abilities reflect the quality
of your school. If you graduate from a school with superb knowledge of research work,
you can tell yourself that, ―I am a product of a quality college or university.‖ Hence, the
greatness of a higher education institution depends on how knowledgeable its faculty
and students are about the ins and outs of research; more so, on the application of this
to their everyday life for the progress of the whole world.
What is research? A number of books on research define this term in many ways,
but such varied definitions boil down to the primary meaning of this word, which is:
Research is a process of executing various mental acts for discovering and examining
facts and information to prove the accuracy or truthfulness of your claims or
conclusions about the topic of your research. Research requires you to inquire or
investigate about your chosen research topic by asking questions that will make you
engage yourself in top-level thinking strategies of interpreting, analyzing, synthesizing,
criticizing, appreciating, or creating to enable you to discover truths about the many
things you tend to wonder about the topic of your research work. (Litchman 2013)
Research is analogous to inquiry, in that, both involve investigation of something
through questioning. However, the meaning of research is more complicated than
inquiry because it does not center mainly on raising questions about the topic, but also
on carrying out a particular order of research stages. Each stage of the research
process is not an individual task because the knowledge you obtain through each stage
comes not only from yourself but other people as well. Thus, similar to inquiry, research
involves cooperative learning.
Central to research is your way of discovering new knowledge, applying
knowledge in various ways as well as seeing relationships of ideas, events, and
situations. Research then puts you in a context where a problem exists. You have to
collect facts or information, study such data, and come up with a solution to the
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problem based on the results of your analysis. It is a process requiring you to work
logically or systematically and collaboratively with others.
To sum up your concepts about the nature of research, the following will give you the
characteristics, purposes, classification, types of, and approaches to research. (Badke
2012; Silverman 2013; De Mey 2013)
Characteristics of Research
1. Accuracy. It must give correct or accurate data, which the footnotes, notes, and
bibliographical entries should honestly and appropriately documented or
acknowledged.
2. Objectiveness. It must deal with facts, not with mere opinions arising from
assumptions, generalizations, predictions, or conclusions.
3. Timeliness. It must work on a topic that is fresh, new, and interesting to the
present society.
4. Relevance. Its topic must be instrumental in improving society or in solving
problems affecting the lives of people in a community.
5. Clarity. It must succeed in expressing its central point or discoveries by using
simple, direct, concise, and correct language.
6. Systematic. It must take place in an organized or orderly manner.
Purposes of Research
1. To learn how to work independently

2. To learn how to work scientifically or systematically
3. To have an in-depth knowledge of something
4. To elevate your mental abilities by letting you think in higher-order thinking
strategies (HOTS) of inferring, evaluating, synthesizing, appreciating, applying,
and creating
5. To improve your reading and writing skills
6. To be familiar with the basic tools of research and the various techniques of
gathering data and of presenting research findings
7. To free yourself, to a certain extent, from the domination or strong influence of a
single textbook or of the professor’s lone viewpoint or spoon feeding
Types of Research
1. Based on Application of Research Method
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Is the research applied to theoretical or practical issues? If it deals with

concepts, principles, or abstract things, it is a pure research. This type of re-
search aims to increase your knowledge about something. However, if your
intention is to apply your chosen research to societal problems or issues, finding
ways to make positive changes in society, you call your research, applied
research.
2. Based on Purpose of the Research
Depending on your objective or goal in conducting research, you do any of
these types of research: descriptive, correlational, explanatory, exploratory, or
action.
Descriptive Research – This type of research aims at defining or giving a

verbal portrayal or picture of a person, thing, event, group, situation, etc. This
is liable to repeated research because its topic relates itself only to a certain
period or a limited number of years. Based on the results of your descriptive
studies about a subject, you develop the inclination of conducting further studies
on such topic.
Correlational Research – A correlational research shows relationships or
connectedness of two factors, circumstances, or agents called variables that
affect the research. It is only concerned in indicating the existence of a
relationship, not the causes and ways of the development of such relationship.
Explanatory Research – This type of research elaborates or explains not just the
reasons behind the relationship of two factors, but also the ways by which such
relationship exists.
Exploratory Research – An exploratory research’s purpose is to find out how
reasonable or possible it is to conduct a research study on a certain topic. Here,
you will discover ideas on topics that could trigger your interest in conducting
research studies.
Action Research – This type of research studies an ongoing practice of a
school, organization, community, or institution for the purpose of obtaining
results that will bring improvements in the system.
3. Based on Types of Data Needed
The kind of data you want to work on reflects whether you wish to do a
quantitative or a qualitative research. Qualitative research requires non-
numerical data, which means that the research uses words rather than numbers
to express the results, the inquiry, or investigation about people’s thoughts,
beliefs, feelings, views, and lifestyles regarding the object of the study. These
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opinionated answers from people are not measurable; so, verbal language is the
right way to express your findings in a qualitative research.
Meanwhile, quantitative research involves measurement of data. Thus, it
presents research findings referring to the number or frequency of something in
numerical forms (i.e., using percentages, fractions, and numbers). The data you
deal with in research are either primary or secondary data. Primary data are
obtained through direct observation or contact with people, objects, artifacts,
paintings, etc. Primary data are new and original information resulting from your
sensory experience. However, if such data have already been written about or
reported on and are available for reading purposes, they exist as secondary data.
Approaches to Research
After choosing your topic for research, what is your next move? In other words,
how are you going to approach or begin your research, deal with your data, and
establish a connection among all things or activities involved in your research? There
are three approaches that you can choose from.
The first is the scientific or positive approach, in which you discover and measure
information as well as observe and control variables in an impersonal manner. It allows
control of variables. Therefore, the data gathering techniques appropriate for this
approach are structured interviews, questionnaires, and observational checklists. Data
given by these techniques are expressed through numbers, which means that this
method is suitable for quantitative research.
The second approach is the naturalistic approach. In contrast to the scientific
approach that uses numbers to express data, the naturalistic approach uses words. This
research approach directs you to deal with qualitative data that speak of how people
behave toward their surroundings. These are non-numerical data that express truths
about the way people perceive or understand the world. Since people look at their
world in a subjective or personal basis in an uncontrolled or unstructured manner, a
naturalistic approach happens in a natural setting.
Is it possible to plan your research activities based on these two approaches?
Combining these two approaches in designing your research leads you to the third one,
called triangulation approach. In this case, you are free to gather and analyze data
using multiple methods, allowing you to combine or mix up research approaches,
research types, data gathering, and data analysis techniques. Triangulation approach
gives you the opportunity to view every angle of the research from different
perspectives. (Badke 2012; Silverman 2013)
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Directions: GROUP WORK. Form a group of three to five. Think of your own topics for
each research type. Keeping in mind what you have learned from this lesson, come to
an agreement about the reasons to justify the specific research type for each chosen
topic (for modular students just write your chosen topic on the space
provided below).
Assessing the Extent of Concept Learning

Directions: Grade yourself on how well you have learned each topic below. Rank it
from 3.0 (lowest) to 1.0 (highest).
Classification of research types

School reputation vs. Research
Scientific thinking
The role of higher-order thinking in research
Approaches to research
Why people do a research
Inquiry in Research
Triangulation
Determining the quality of research
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Chapter II Qualitative Research and Its Importance in Daily Life
Introduction
Around you are different people, things, and places. All these vary from one
another as regards character or qualities. Curious about a person or a thing, you are
inclined to conduct a qualitative research to discover such individual’s thoughts,
feelings, and attitudes about a certain topic, or to find out something beneath the
surface of an inanimate thing or the effects of such object or place to some people. To
discover facts and information about the object of your interest is to work
collaboratively with some people, for the answers to your questions about your topic do
not come only from yourself but from others as well. Here lies the importance of
qualitative research. It promotes people’s interdependence or interpersonal
relationships that the world needs for solving its societal problems.
LESSON 3 Qualitative Research
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
As a curious student, you want to know so many things about your surroundings
as well as the people, places, and things you find interesting, intriguing, mysterious, or
unique. Try looking at the people around you. Perhaps, you are interested in knowing
these people’s ideas, views, feelings, attitudes, or lifestyle. The information these
people give you reflect their mental, spiritual, emotional, or social upbringing, which in
turn, show how they view the world.
Resulting from internal aspects, people cannot measure worldviews but can
know them through numbers. Obtaining world knowledge in this manner directs you to
do a research called Qualitative Research. This is a research type that puts premium or
high value on people’s thinking or point of view conditioned by their personal traits. As
such, it usually takes place in soft sciences like social sciences, politics, economics,
humanities, education, psychology, nursing, and all business-related subjects.
Subjectivity in qualitative research is true, not only for an individual or a group
under study, but also for you, the researcher, because of your personal involvement in
every stage of your research. For instance, during interviews, you tend to admire or
appreciate people’s ideas based on their answers or your observations and analysis of
certain objects. By carefully looking at or listening to the subject or object in a natural
setting, you become affected by their expressions of what they think and feel about a
topic. (Coghan 2014)
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In a qualitative research, the reality is conditioned by society and people’s

intentions are involved in explaining cause-effect relationships. Things are studied in
their natural setting, enough for you to conclude that qualitative research is an act of
inquiry or investigation of real-life events. Giving you more concepts about a qualitative
research are the following paragraphs that comprehensively present the elements or
characteristics, types, and advantages of this kind of research (Silverman 2013;
Litchman 2013; Walliman 2014; Suter 2012):
Characteristics of a Qualitative Research
1. Human understanding and interpretation

Data analysis results show an individual’s mental, social, and spiritual
understanding of the world. Hence, through their worldviews, you come to know
what kind of human being he or she is, including his or her values, beliefs, likes,
and dislikes.
2. Active, powerful, and forceful
A lot of changes occur continuously in every stage of a qualitative research. As
you go through the research process, you find the need to amend or rephrase
interview questions and consider varied ways of getting answers, like shifting
from mere speculating to traveling to places for data gathering. You are not
fixated to a certain plan. Rather, you are inclined to discover your qualitative
research design as your study gradually unfolds or reveals itself in accordance
with your research objectives.
3. Multiple research approaches and methods
Qualitative research allows you to approach or plan your study in varied ways.
You are free to combine this with quantitative research and use all gathered data
and analysis techniques. Being a multi-method research, a qualitative study
applies to all research types: descriptive, exploratory, explanatory, case study,
etc.
4. Specificity to generalization
Specific ideas in a qualitative research are directed to a general understanding of
something. It follows an inductive or scientific method of thinking, where you
start thinking of particular or specific concept that will eventually lead you to
more complex ideas such as generalizations or conclusions.
5. Contextualization
A quantitative research involves all variables, factors, or conditions affecting the
study. Your goal here is to understand human behavior. Thus, it is crucial for you
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to examine the context or situation of an individual’s life—the who, what, why,

how, and other circumstances—affecting his or her way of life.
6. Diversified data in real-life situations
A qualitative researcher prefers collecting data in a natural setting like observing
people as they live and work, analyzing photographs or videos as they genuinely
appear to people, and looking at classrooms unchanged or adjusted to people’s
intentional observations.
7. Abounds with words and visuals
Words, words, and more words come in big quantity in this kind of research.
Data gathering through interviews or library reading, as well as the presentation
of data analysis results, is done verbally. In some cases, it resorts to quoting
some respondents’ answers. Likewise, presenting people’s world views through
visual presentation (i.e., pictures, videos, drawings, and graphs) are significantly
used in a qualitative research.
8. Internal analysis
Here, you examine the data yielded by the internal traits of the subject
individuals (i.e., emotional, mental, spiritual characteristics). You study people’s
perception or views about your topic, not the effects of their physical existence
on your study. In case of objects (e.g., books and artworks) that are subjected
to a qualitative research, the investigation centers on underlying theories or
principles that govern these materials and their usefulness to people.
Types of Qualitative Research
1. Case Study
This type of qualitative research usually takes place in the field of social care, nursing,
psychology, rehabilitation centers, education, etc. This involves a long-time study of a
person, group, organization, or situation. It seeks to find answers to why such thing
occurs to the subject. Finding the reason/s behind such occurrence drives you to also
delve into relationships of people related to the case under study. Varieties of data
collection methods such as interviews, questionnaires, observations, and documentary
analysis are used in a case study.
2. Ethnography
Falling in the field of anthropology, ethnography is the study of a particular cultural
group to get a clear understanding of its organizational set-up, internal operation, and
lifestyle. A particular group reveals the nature or characteristics of their own culture
through the world perceptions of the cultural group’s members.
3. Phenomenology
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Coming from the word ―phenomenon,‖ which means something known through
sensory experience, phenomenology refers to the study of how people find their
experiences meaningful. Its primary goal is to make people understand their
experiences about death of loved ones, care for handicapped persons, friendliness of
people, etc. In doing so, other people will likewise understand the meanings attached to
their experiences. Those engaged in assisting people to manage their own lives
properly often do this qualitative kind of research.
4. Content and Discourse Analysis
Content analysis is a method of quantitative research that requires an analysis or
examination of the substance or content of the mode of communication (letters, books,
journals, photos, video recordings, SMS, online messages, emails, audio-visual
materials, etc.) used by a person, group, organization, or any institution in
communicating. A study of language structures used in the medium of communication
to discover the effects of sociological, cultural, institutional, and ideological factors on
the content makes it a discourse analysis. In studying the content or structures of the
material, you need a question or a set of questions to guide you in your analysis.
5. Historical Analysis
Central to this qualitative research method is the examination of primary documents to
make you understand the connection of past events to the present time. The results of
your content analysis will help you specify phenomenological changes in unchanged
aspects of society through the years.
6. Grounded Theory
Grounded theory takes place when you discover a new theory to underlie your study at
the time of data collection and analysis. Through your observation on your subjects,
you will happen to find a theory that applies to your current study. Interview,
observation, and documentary analysis are the data gathering techniques for this type
of qualitative research.
Advantages or Strengths of Qualitative Research
1. It adopts a naturalistic approach to its subject matter, which means that those
involve in the research understand things based on what they find meaningful.
2. It promotes a full understanding of human behavior or personality traits in their
natural setting.
3. It is instrumental for positive societal changes.
4. It engenders respect for people’s individuality as it demands the researcher’s
careful and attentive stand toward people’s world views.
5. It is a way of understanding and interpreting social interactions.
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6. It increases the researcher’s interest in the study as it includes the researcher’s

experience or background knowledge in interpreting verbal and visual data.
7. It offers multiple ways of acquiring and examining knowledge about something.
Disadvantages or Weaknesses of Qualitative Research
1. It involves a lot of researcher’s subjectivity in data analysis.

2. It is hard to know the validity or reliability of the data.
3. Its open-ended questions yield ―data overload‖ that requires long-time analysis.
4. It is time-consuming.
5. It involves several processes, which results greatly depend on the researcher’s
views or interpretations.
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Explain the concepts you have learned by answering
the following questions.
1. What comes to your mind the moment you hear qualitative research?
2. If you want to conduct a research study about your favorite restaurant in town,
what method of qualitative research is appropriate for your study? Explain your
choice.
3. Differentiate subjectivity from objectivity.
4. Explain the connection between subjectivity/objectivity and your research work.
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5. How is grounded theory different from other qualitative research methods?
6. Is the researcher himself the data gathering instrument? Why? Why not?
7. Can all research methods be used in one research study? Give reasons for your
answer.
8. Pretend you are the subject of a phenomenological study, how will the
researcher obtain data through you?
9. Given the chance to research, would you right away choose qualitative research?
Give reasons for your answers.
10. If you will do a qualitative research about the area in which your house is
situated, what could be your research problem or topic?

Directions: Enter in the right column the topic that corresponds to the right headword
indicating how much you have learned.
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Topic Poor Good Better Best

s
1. Definition of Qualitative
Research
2. Types of Qualitative
Research
3. Characteristics of
Qualitative Research
4. Advantages of
Qualitative Research
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LESSON 4 Qualitative Research in Different Areas of Knowledge
Subject Area Research Approaches
Research studies happen in any field of knowledge. Anthropology, Business,

Communication, Education, Engineering, Law, and Nursing, among others, turn in a big
number of research studies that reflect varied interests of people. Don’t you wonder
how people in these areas conduct their research studies?
Belonging to a certain area of discipline, you have the option to choose one
from these three basic research approaches: positive or scientific, naturalistic, and
triangulation or mixed method. The scientific approach gives stress to measurable and
observable facts instead of personal views, feelings, or attitudes. It can be used in
researches under the hard sciences or STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering,
Medicine) and natural sciences (Biology, Physics, Chemistry). The positive or scientific
approach allows control of variables or factors affecting the study. (Laursen 2010)
To become positivist or scientific in conducting your research study, you must
collect data in controlled ways through questionnaires or structured interviews. For
instance, in the field of medicine, to produce a new medicine, a medical researcher
subjects the data to a controlled laboratory experiment. These factual data collected are
recorded in numerical or statistical forms using numbers, percentages, fractions, and
the like. Expressed in measurable ways, these types of data are called quantitative
data.
The naturalistic approach, on the other hand, is people-oriented. Data collected,
in this case, represent personal views, attitudes, thoughts, emotions, and other
subjective traits of people in a natural setting. Collecting data is done in family homes,
playground, workplaces, or schools. In these places, people’s personal traits or qualities
naturally surface in the way they manage themselves or interact with one another. The
naturalistic approach focuses on discovering the real concept or meaning behind
people’s lifestyles and social relations.
Unlike the scientific approach that makes you express and record your findings
quantitatively, which means in numerical forms, the naturalistic approach lets you
present things qualitatively through verbal language. Using words rather than numbers
as the unit of analysis, this second research approach concerns itself with qualitative
data—one type of data that exists in abundance in social sciences, which to others
exists as soft sciences. Considered as soft sciences are Anthropology, Business,
Education, Economics, Law, Politics, and all subjects aligned with business and all those
focused on helping professions such as, Nursing, Counseling, Physical Therapy, and the
like. (Babbie 2013)
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Having the intention to collect data from people situated in a natural setting, social
researchers use unstructured interviews and participant observations. These two data
gathering techniques yield opinionated data through the use of open-ended questions
and actual participation of the researcher in the subjects’ activities. Collecting data
through these subjective-prone research methods indispensably results in the gathering
of qualitative data.
All in all, from a social science researcher’s viewpoint, these qualitative data
resulting from naturalistic approach of research serves as the basis for determining
universal social values to define ethical or unethical behavior that society ought to
know, not only for the benefit of every individual and community but also for the
satisfaction of man’s quest for knowledge. (Sarantakos 2013; Ransome 2013)
In the field of Humanities, man’s social life is also subjected to research studies.
However, researchers in this area give emphasis not to man’s social life, but to the
study of the meanings, significance, and visualizations of human experiences in the
fields of Fine Arts, Literature, Music, Drama, Dance, and other artistically inclined
subjects. Researches in these subjects happen in any of the following humanistic
categories:
1. Literature and Art Criticism where the researchers, using well-chosen language
and appropriate organizational pattern, depend greatly on their interpretative
and reflective thinking in evaluating the object of their study critically.
2. Philosophical Research where the focus of inquiry is on knowledge and principles
of being and on the manner human beings conduct themselves on earth.
3. Historical Research where the investigation centers on events and ideas that took
place in man’s life at a particular period.
Hard Sciences vs. Soft Science
Just like in other subjects under soft sciences such as marketing, man’s thoughts
and feelings still take center stage in any research studies. The purposes of any
researches in any of these two areas in business are to increase man’s understanding of
the truths in line with markets and marketing activities, making him more intelligent in
arriving at decisions about these aspects of his life. Research types that are useful for
these areas are the basic and applied research. (Feinberg 2013)
A quantitative or qualitative kind of research is not exclusive to hard sciences or

soft sciences. These two research methods can go together in a research approach
called triangulation or mixed method approach. This is the third approach to research
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that allows a combination or a mixture of research designs, data collection and data
analysis techniques.
Thus, there is no such thing as a clear dichotomy between qualitative and
quantitative research methods because some authorities on research claim that a
symbiotic relationship, in which they reinforce or strengthen each other, exists between
these two research methods. Moreover, any form of knowledge, factual or opinionated,
and any statistical or verbal expression of this knowledge are deduced from human
experience that by nature is subjective. (Hollway 2013; Letherby 2013)
Directions: With the same partner, check the right column representing your decisions
about each statement in the first column. Accomplish the last column, too.
Statements Agree Disagree Reasons/Reactions/Comments
1. Reasons happen in just
one field of knowledge.
2. All research types apply
to all data collecting
techniques.
3. Sticking to one data
collection technique is the
best research method
4. Subjectivity exists in
any social science
research.
5. Subjectivity and objectivity
are inseparable.
6. Quantitative research
tends to be more objective
than subjective.
7. Past events in a person’s
life are the focus of
triangulation.
8. Biology and Chemistry
are hard sciences.
9. It is necessary for the
qualitative researcher to
conduct his or her research
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in a laboratory.
10. The mixed method of

research happens only in a
quantitative research.

Directions: Put a check mark (/) under the heading that speaks of the extent of your
concept learning.
Concep Very To a certain Not at all

ts Much extent
1. I can now differentiate
quantitative and qualitative
research.
2. I have learned the essence of
participant observation in social
science researches.
3. Now, I know the difference
between hard sciences and soft
sciences.
4. I could compare and contrast the
different humanistic research
methods.
5. I learned about the primary
goals of social science researchers.
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Chapter III Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the Problem
Inquiry or research drives you to a thorough or an in-depth analysis of a certain

subject matter. This kind of study involves several stages that require much time and
effort. You need to spend some time in finalizing your mind about a particular topic to
research on or in determining the appropriateness of such topic, in obtaining
background knowledge about it, and in raising some specific questions that you want
your research work to answer. Focusing seriously on these aspects of your study is
laying a good foundation or beginning of your research work.
LESSON 5 Subject Matter of the Inquiry or Research
You begin your research work with a problem; that is, having a problem or topic
to work on. Mulling over a topic for your research work drives you to perform HOTS or
higher-order thinking strategies of inferential, critical, integrative, and creative thinking
in finalizing your mind on one topic among several choices. A topic is researchable if the
knowledge and information about it are supported by evidence that is observable,
factual, and logical. Here are some pointers you have to keep in mind in selecting a
research topic (Babbie 2013):
Guidelines in Choosing a Research Topic
1. Interest in the subject matter

Your interest in a topic may be caused by your rich background knowledge about it and
by its novelty; meaning, its unfamiliarity to you. Curious about a subject, like a
conundrum or a puzzle, makes you determined to unravel the mystery or intriguing
thing behind it. Your real interest in a subject pushes you to research, investigate, or
inquire about it with full motivation, enthusiasm, and energy.
2. Availability of information
Collecting a lot of information as evidence to support your claims about your subject
matter from varied forms of literature like books, journals, and newspapers, among
others, are a part and parcel of any research work. Hence, in choosing a research topic,
visit your library to check the availability of reading materials on your chosen topic.
Included in your investigation of the availability of reading materials are questions on
how updated and authoritative the materials are. Let these questions linger as you tour
the library: What are the copyright dates of the materials? How old or new are they?
How expert or qualified the writers are in coming out with such kind of reading
materials about your topic?
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3. Timeliness and relevance of the topic

The topic is relevant if it yields results that are instrumental in societal improvement. It
is timely if it is related to the present. For instance, unless it is a pure or historical
research, a research on the ins and outs of people’s revolutionary acts will prosper
more if it tackles the contemporary revolutionary actions rather than those in the
ancient time.
4. Limitations on the subject
This makes you link your choosing with course requirements. For example, to make you
complete the requirements, your teacher instructs you to submit a paper that will apply
the key principles you learned in business, psychology, education, and so on. In this
case, you have no freedom to choose your topic based on your interest, but has to
decide on one topic to finish your course.
5. Personal resources
Before sticking fully to your final choice, assess your research abilities in terms of your
financial standing, health condition, mental capacity, needed facilities, and time
allotment to enable you to complete your research. Imagine yourself pouring much time
and effort into its initial stage, only to find out later that you are unable to complete it
because of your failure to raise the amount needed for questionnaire printing and
interview trips. (Barbour 2014)
Research Topics to be Avoided
1. Controversial topics. These are topics that depend greatly on the writer’s opinion,
which may tend to be biased or prejudicial. Facts cannot support topics like
these.
2. Highly technical subjects. For a beginner, researching on topics that require an
advanced study, technical knowledge, and vast experience is a very difficult task.
3. Hard-to-investigate subjects. A subject is hard to investigate if there are no
available reading materials about it and if such materials are not up-to-date.
4. Too broad subjects. Topics that are too broad will prevent you from giving a
concentrated or an in-depth analysis of the subject matter of the paper. The
remedy to this is to narrow or limit the topic to a smaller one.
5. Too narrow subjects. These subjects are so limited or specific that an extensive
or thorough searching or reading for information about these is necessary.
6. Vague subjects. Choosing topics like these will prevent you from having a
clear focus on your paper. For instance, titles beginning with indefinite adjectives
such as several, many, some, etc., as in ―Some Remarkable Traits of a Filipino‖
22 | P a g e
or ―Several People’s Comments on the RH Law,‖ are vague enough to decrease

the readers’ interests and curiosity.
Sources of Research Topics
This time, you already have ideas on some factors that affect your process of
choosing a researchable topic. It is also necessary for you to know where a good
research topic may come from. Knowing some sources of probable research topics
could hasten your choosing; thereby, freeing you from a prolonged time of pondering
over a problem of knowing which problem is good for you to research on. The following
can help you generate ideas about a good research topic. (Silverman 2013)
1. Mass media communication – press (newspapers, ads, TV, radio, films, etc.)
2. Books, Internet, peer-reviewed journals, government publications
3. Professional periodicals like College English Language Teaching Forum, English
Forum, The Economist, Academia, Business Circle, Law Review, etc.
4. General periodicals such as Readers’ Digest, Women’s Magazine, Panorama
Magazine, Time Magazine, World Mission Magazine, etc.
5. Previous reading assignments in your other subjects
6. Work experience – clues to a researchable topic from full-time or part-time
jobs, OJT (on-the-job training) experience, fieldwork, etc.
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Identify the word or phrase referred to by the

following expressions. (Write your answer after the phrase)
1. A descriptive word for a topic useful to society’s progress

2. The effect of a topic you like so much or find close to your heart
3. Topics appealing solely to a person’s thoughts and feelings
4. Topics needing an intensive reading in the library
5. A remedy against a very broad topic
6. The effect of working on a vague or not-so-clear topic
7. The reason behind a topic hard to investigate
8. Very easy research topics
9. Topics not needing factual data
10. An adjective for a topic attuned to current happenings
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LESSON 6 Research Problems and Research Question
Meaning of Research Problem
The ultimate goal of the research is not only to propose ways of studying things,
people, places, and events, but also to discover and introduce new practices, strategies,
or techniques in solving a problem. The word ―problem‖ makes you worry and pushes
you to exert considerable effort in finding a solution for it. When you feel perplexed or
anxious about what to do about something you are doubtful of or about a question you
are incapable of answering, you then come to think of conducting research, an
investigation, or inquiry. You consider research as the remedy for getting over any
problem.
When you decide to do research, you begin with a problem that will lead you to
a specific topic to focus on. For instance, you are beset by a problem of year-by-year
flash floods in your community. This problem drives you to think of one topic you can
investigate or focus on for the solution to your community’s flood problem. Perhaps,
you can research only one aspect of the flood problem, like examining only the
neighborhood lifestyle in relation to floods in the area, the need to construct anti- flood
structures, or the practicability of more footbridges in the area. (Gray 2013)
Background of the Problem
You must not rush into gathering ideas and information about your topic. First,
spend time getting background knowledge about the problem that triggered off your
research topic to discover its relation to what the world, particularly the experts,
professionals, and learned people know about your topic. Also, reading for rich
background ideas about the problem is also another way to discover some theories or
principles to support your study. (Braun 2014; Woodwell 2014)
Research Questions
The research problem enables you to generate a set of research questions.
However, your ability to identify your research problem and to formulate the questions
depends on the background knowledge you have about the topic. To get a good idea of
the problem, you must have a rich background knowledge about the topic through the
RRL (Review of Related Literature), which requires intensive reading about your topic.
Apart from having a clearer picture of the topic, it will also help you in adopting an
appropriate research method and have a thorough understanding of the knowledge
area of your research.
A research problem serving as an impetus behind your desire to carry out a
research study comes from many sources. Difficulties in life are arising from social
relationships, governmental affairs, institutional practices, cultural patterns,
24 | P a g e
environmental issues, marketing strategies, etc. are problematic situations that will lead
you to identify one topic to research on. Centering your mind on the problem, you can
formulate one general or mother problem of your research work. (Punch 2014)
To give your study a clear direction, you have to break this big, overreaching,
general question into several smaller or specific research questions. The specific
questions, also called sub-problems, identify or direct you to the exact aspect of the
problem that your study has to focus on. Beset by many factors, the general question
or research problem is prone to reducing itself to several specific questions, seeking
conclusive answers to the problem.
The following shows you the link among the following: research problem,
research topic, research question, and the construction of one general question and
specific questions in a research paper.
Research Problem: The need to have a safer, comfortable, and healthful walk or
transfer of students from place to place in the UST campus
Research Topic: The Construction of a Covered Pathway in the UST Campus
General Question: What kind of covered path should UST construct in its campus?
Specific Questions:
1. What materials are needed for the construction of the covered pathway in the
UST campus?
2. What roofing material is appropriate for the covered path?
3. In what way can the covered pathway link all buildings in the campus?
4. What is the width and height of the covered path?
5. How can the covered path realize green architecture?
Research questions aim at investigating specific aspects of the research problem.

Though deduced from the general or mother question, one specific question may lead
to another sub-problem or sub-question, requiring a different data-gathering technique
and directing the research to a triangulation or mixed method approach. Referring to
varied aspects of the general problem, a set of research questions plays a crucial part in
the entire research work. They lay the foundation for the research study. Therefore,
they determine the research design or plan of the research. Through sub-questions,
you can precisely determine the type of data and the method of collecting, analyzing,
and presenting data.
Any method or technique of collecting, collating, and analyzing data specified by
the research design depends greatly on the research questions. The correct formulation
of research questions warrants not only excellent collection, analysis, and presentation
of data, but a credible conclusion as well. (Layder 2013)
25 | P a g e
Hence, the following are things you have to remember in research question formulation.
(Barbie 2013; Litchman 2013; Silverman 2013)
Guidelines in Formulating Research Questions
1. Establish a clear relation between the research questions and the problem or
topic.
2. Base your research questions on your RRL or Review of Related Literature
because existing published works help you get good background knowledge of
the research problem and help you gauge the people’s current understanding or
unfamiliarity about the topic, as well as the extent of their knowledge and
interest in it. Convincing solutions to research problems or answers to research
questions stem from their alignment with what the world already knows or what
previous research studies have already discovered about the research problem or
topic.
3. Formulate research questions that can arouse your curiosity and surprise you
with your discoveries or findings. This is true for research questions asked about
a problem that was never investigated upon.
4. State your research questions in such a way that they include all dependent and
independent variables referred to by the theories, principles, or concepts
underlying your research work.
5. Let the set of research questions or sub-problems be preceded by one question
expressing the main problem of the research.
6. Avoid asking research questions that are answerable with ―yes‖ or ―no‖ and use
the ―how‖ questions only in a quantitative research.
7. Be guided by the acronym SMART (specific, measurable, attainable, realistic,
time-bound) in formulating the research questions. Applying SMART, you must
deal with exact answers and observable things, determine the extent or limit of
the data collected, be aware of the timeframe and completion period of the
study, and endeavor to have your research study arrive at a particular conclusion
that is indicative of what are objective, factual, or real in this world.
Discussion
Directions: WHOLE-CLASS ACTIVITY. Share with your classmates your

understanding of the following expressions.
1. Research questions are comparable to a compass.
26 | P a g e
2. Research questions are inseparable from the research problem.

3. There are two kinds of questions to be asked in a research work.
4. The keyword in research question formulation is SMART.
5. You cannot ask any question in your research study.
6. Your research questions are linked to your RRL (Review of Related Literature).
7. No research problem means no research questions.
8. Data not referred to by the research questions can be collected.
9. Collecting data immediately comes after pondering on the research problem.
10. You derive your research topic from your research questions.
Question Hour for Speculative Thinking
Ask one another thought-provoking questions about the text you have read. Your
recitation grade will depend on the quality of your questions and answers. Thus,
remember the HOTS (higher-order thinking strategies) of interpretative, critical,
integrative/synthesis, and creative thinking as you formulate your questions. Have a
draft of your questions on the lines provided to prepare yourself for asking questions
worth 10 points each. (For modular students you can write question on the
space provided)
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Using the range of 50% to 100%, rate how much you learned the concepts behind the
following topics.
1. Research problem
2. Research questions
3. Research problem in relation to research topic
4. Background knowledge about the topic
5. Formulating research questions
6. Sources of research problems
7. Importance of RRL to research question formulation
8. Link between the RRL and the research problem
9. Link between the research design and research questions
10. General questions vs. Research questions
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Chapter IV Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature
Introduction
You want to discover truths about an animate creature or an inanimate thing you
find wonderful or puzzling. Thinking speculatively, you tend to bombard your mind with
varieties of questions about the object of your curiosity. Where do you get the answers
to your questions? Get them from yourself and from other published written works
containing people’s ideas, facts, and information about your subject matter. Aligning
what you already know with what others know or have already done about your chosen
topic indicates the timeliness and relevance of your work. Moreover, reading extensively
about your subject matter enables you to obtain a rich background knowledge that will
help you establish a good foundation or direction of your research work.
LESSON 7 Review of Related Literature (RRL)
Meaning of Review of Related Literature
Literature is an oral or written record of man’s significant experiences that are

artistically conveyed in a prosaic manner. Embodied in any literary work like essay,
novel, journal, story, biography, etc. are man’s best thoughts and feelings about the
world. These recorded or preserved world perceptions of man are expressed directly
and indirectly. Direct expressions of man’s knowledge of the world are in books,
periodicals, and online reading materials. Indirect expressions are his inferences or
reflections of his surroundings that are not written or spoken at all. (Ridley 2012)
A review of related literature is an analysis of man’s written or spoken knowledge
of the world. You examine representations of man’s thinking about the world to
determine the connection of your research with what people already know about it. In
your analysis or reading of recorded knowledge, you just do not catalog ideas in your
research paper, but also interpret them or merge your thinking with the author’s ideas.
Hence, in doing the RRL, you deal with both formal or direct and informal or indirect
expressions of man’s knowledge. Fusing your world understanding with the authors’
world perceptions enables you to get a good analysis of existing written works that are
related to your research study. (Wallman 2014)
Purposes of Review of Related Literature (RRL)
1. To obtain background knowledge of your research
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2. To relate your study to the current condition or situation of the world

3. To show the capacity of your research work to introduce new knowledge
4. To expand, prove, or disprove the findings of previous research studies
5. To increase your understanding of the underlying theories, principles, or
concepts of your research
6. To explain technical terms involved in your research study
7. To highlight the significance of your work with the kind of evidence it gathered
to support the conclusion of your research
8. To avoid repeating previous research studies
9. To recommend the necessity of further research on a certain topic
Styles or Approaches of RRL or Review of Related Literature
1. Traditional Review of Literature

To do a review of literature in a traditional way is to summarize present forms of
knowledge on a specific subject. Your aim here is to give an expanded or new
understanding of an existing work. Being necessarily descriptive, interpretative,
evaluative, and methodically unclear and uncertain, a traditional review is prone to your
subjectivity. This kind of review does not require you to describe your method of
reviewing literature but expects you to state your intentions in conducting the review
and to name the sources of information. You experience much freedom or flexibility in
doing a traditional RRL, so as an undergraduate student taking BA, BSE, BSEED, or any
four-year bachelor degree and lacking much knowledge and expertise in research work,
this is the appropriate method for you. Attaining mastery in doing a traditional RRL is an
excellent preparation for the more demanding, second style of RRL called systematic
review that is required at the graduate level. Hence, being unprepared for a systematic
review, you have no other way but to do the traditional review to complete the
requirements of your course. (Jesson 2011)
Traditional review is of different types that are as follows:
1. Conceptual review – analysis of concepts or ideas to give meaning to some

national or world issues
2. Critical review – focuses on theories or hypotheses and examines meanings
and results of their application to situations
3. State-of-the-Art review – makes the researcher deal with the latest research
studies on the subject
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4. Expert review – encourages a well-known expert to do the RRL because of the

influence of a certain ideology, paradigm, or belief on him/her
5. Scoping review – prepares a situation for a future research work in the form of
project making about community development, government policies, and health
services, among others
2. Systematic Review of Literature
As indicated by its name, systematic, which means methodical, is a style of RRL

that involves sequential acts of a review of related literature. Unlike the traditional
review that has no particular method; systematic review requires you to go through the
following RRL steps (Ridley 2012):
1. Have a clear understanding of the research questions . Serving as the

compass to direct your research activities, the research questions tell you what to
collect and where to obtain those data you want to collect.
2. Plan your manner of obtaining the data. Imagining how you will get to
where the data are, you will come to think also of what keywords to use for easy
searching and how to accord courtesy and respect to people or institutions from where
the data will come such as planning how to communicate your request to these sources
of data.
3. Do the literature search. Using keywords, you look for the needed information
from all sources of knowledge: Internet, books, journals periodicals, government
publications, general references, and the like.
4. Using a certain standard, determine which data, studies, or sources of
knowledge are valuable or not to warrant the reasonableness of your decision to take
some data and junk the rest.
5. Determine the methodological soundness of the research studies. Use a
checklist or a certain set of criteria in assessing the ways researchers conduct their
studies to arrive at a certain conclusion.
6. Summarize what you have gathered from various sources of data . To
concisely present a synthesis of your report, use a graph such as a table and other
presentation formats that are not prone to verbosity.
A systematic review of literature is a rigorous way of obtaining data from written

works. It is a bias-free style that every researcher wanting to be a research expert
should experience. Limiting itself to peer-reviewed journals, academically written works,
30 | P a g e
and quantitative assessment of data through statistical methods, this style of literature
review ensures objectivity in every stage of the research. (Fraenbell 2012)
The following table shows the way several books on RRL compare and contrast the two
styles of RRL.
Standards Traditional Review Systematic Review
Purpose To have a thorough and clear To meet a certain objective based on

understanding of the field specific research questions
Scope Comprehensive, wide picture Restricted focus

Review Design Indefinite plan, permits creative Viewable process and paper trail
and exploratory plan
Choice of studies Purposeful selection by the Prepared standards for studies

Reviewer selection
Standards Traditional Review Systematic Review
Nature of studies Inquiry-based techniques involving Wide and thorough search for all
several studies Studies
Quality appraisal Reviewers’ views Assessment checklists
Summary Narrative Graphical and short summary

Answers
Structure of the RRL
The structure of the whole literature review indicates the organizational pattern
or order of the components of the summary of the RRL results. For the traditional
review, the structure of the summary resembles that of an essay where series of united
sentences presents the RRL results. However, this structure of traditional review varies
based on your subject and area of specialization. For the systematic review, the
structure is based on the research questions; so much so, that, if your RRL does not
adhere to a certain method to make you begin your RRL with research questions, your
RRL is headed toward a traditional literature review structure.
Regardless of what RRL structure you opt to use, you must see to it that the
organizational pattern of the results of your review contains these three elements: an
introduction to explain the organizational method of your literature review; headings
and subheadings to indicate the right placement of your supporting statements and a
summary to concisely restate your main point. (Ridley 2013)
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Directions: Explain each expression the way you understood them in relation to
research.
1. Related Literature
2. Review of Related Literature
3. Traditional review of Literature
4. Systematic review of related literature
5. Structure of literature review results
Directions: Put a check mark (✓) under the heading that speaks of how much you
learned the concepts behind each topic.
Topics Very much Average Little Zero

Definition of RRL
Purpose of RRL
Systematic Review
Traditional review
RRL structure
Difference between Systematic and
Traditional review
Research questions in relation to RRL
The purposes of review of related literature
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LESSON 8: The Process of Review of Related Literature
Curious about a person or a thing, you want to know more about the ins and
outs of this object of your interest. In your quest of becoming knowledgeable about the
―apple of your eyes,‖ you are inclined to find all ways and means to get a full view,
knowledge, or understanding of the center of your attention. And if there is one activity
of yours that really pushes you to continue searching knowledge up to a certain period
of time about the focus of your attention, it is research. From the start up to the end of
your research, you are prone to searching answers to the many things you are curious
about.
Your search for knowledge happens in every stage of your research work, but it
is in the research stage of review of related literature where you spend considerable
time searching knowledge about the topic. Exposed to various sources of knowledge
and conditioned by a timeframe of the research work, it is necessary that you adopt a
certain method in reviewing or reading varied works of literature that are related to
your research problem or topic. Going methodical in your review of related literature
means you have to go through the following related stages of the process of review of
related literature that are true for any style of review (traditional or systematic) that
you want to adopt. (Lappuci 2013; Robyler 2013; Freinbell 2012)
Stage 1: Search for the Literature
This is the stage of review of related literature where you devote much of your
time in looking for sources of knowledge, data, or information to answer your research
questions or to support your assumptions about your research topic. Generally, there
are three basic types of literature sources: general references that will direct you to the
location of other sources; primary sources that directly report or present a person’s own
experiences; and secondary sources that report or describe other people’s experiences
or worldviews. Secondary sources of knowledge give the most number of materials
such as the Internet, books, peer-reviewed articles in journals, published literary
reviews of a field, grey literature or unpublished and non-peer reviewed materials like
these, dissertations, conference proceedings, leaflets and posters, research studies in
progress, and other library materials.
Websites introducing materials whose quality depends solely on every individual,

social media networks (Twitter, Facebook, blogs, podcasts, YouTube, video, etc.) and
other online encyclopedia such as Wikipedia, are the other sources of information that
you can consult during this stage. You may find these reading materials valuable,
especially, the Wikipedia, because of their timeliness, diversified knowledge or
33 | P a g e
information, varied presentation formats (texts, sounds, animation) and 24-hour

availability. But they are not as dependable as the other sources of knowledge. Some
consider the information from these as not very scholarly in weight because it is
susceptible to anybody’s penchant for editing. Since any person is free to use the
Internet for displaying information that is peer-reviewed or not, you need to be careful
in evaluating online sources. (Mc Leod 2012)
You can have an access to these various sources of data in two methods:
manually, or getting hold of the printed form of the material, and electronically or
having a computer or online reading of the sources of knowledge. Regardless of which
method you use, all throughout your literature search, your mind must be focused on
the essence and purposes of the library because most of the data you want to obtain
are in this important section of your school. Having familiarity with the nature of your
library will facilitate your literature search.
Here are the pointers you have to remember in searching for the best sources of
information or data: (Fraenbell 2012)
1. Choose previous research findings that are closely related to your research.
2. Give more weight to studies done by people possessing expertise or authority in

the field of knowledge to which the research studies belong.
3. Consider sources of knowledge that refer more to primary data than to

secondary data.
4. Prefer getting information from peer-reviewed materials than from general

reading materials.
Stage 2: Reading the Source Material
Reading, understanding, or making the materials meaningful to you is what will

preoccupy you on the second stage of reading RRL. You can only benefit much from
your reading activities if you confront the reading materials with the help of your HOTS.
In understanding the sources of knowledge with your HOTS, you need to think
interpretatively through these ways of inferential thinking: predicting, generalizing,
concluding, and assuming. On top of these should be your ability to criticize or
evaluate, apply, and create things about what you have read. Hence, reading or making
sense of the source materials does not only make you list down ideas from the
materials, but also permits you to modify, construct, or reconstruct ideas based on a
certain principle, theory, pattern, method, or theme underlying your research.
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Stage 3: Writing the Review
You do a great deal of idea connection and organization in this last stage of RRL
to form an overall understanding of the material by paraphrasing or summarizing it. In
doing either of these two, you get to change the arrangement of ideas, structures of
the language, and the format of the text using appropriate organizational techniques of
comparison-contrast, chronological order, spatial relationship, inductive-deductive
order, and transitional devices. Also, you make effective changes not only on language
structures and format but also the quality of ideas incorporated into the summary or
paraphrase as well. This means that in writing the review, based on the focus, theme,
or theory underlying your research, you are free to fuse your opinions with the author’s
ideas. (Corti 2014)
A simple presentation of the findings or argumentations of the writers on

a particular topic with no incorporation of your own inferential, analytical, and
comparative- contrastive thinking about other people’s ideas indicates poor literature
review writing. This mere description, transfer, or listing of writer’s ideas that is devoid
of or not reflective of your thinking is called dump or stringing method. Good literature
review writing shuns presenting ideas in serial abstracts, which means every paragraph
merely consists of one article. This is a source-by-source literature writing that fails to
link, compare, and contrast series of articles based on a theory or a theme around
which the research questions revolve. (Remlen 2011)
Juxtaposing or dealing with studies with respect to each other is your

way of proving the extent of the validity of the findings of previous studies
vis-a-vis the recent ones. Reading the source material and writing the review
analytically, argumentatively, or critically, you give yourself the chance to express your
genuine or opinionated knowledge about the topic; thereby, increasing the enthusiasm
of people in reading your work. (Radylyer 2013)
Another good approach to writing an excellent review is adopting good

opening sentences of articles that should chronologically appear in the
paper. Opening an article with a bibliographical list that begins with the author’s name
like the following examples is not good.
Aquino (2015) said...
Roxas (2016) stated…
Perez (2017) wrote...
Mendoza (2018) asserted...
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Examples of better article openings manifesting critical thinking through

analysis, comparison and contrast of ideas and findings are as follows:
One early work by (Castro, 2017) proves that...
Another study on the topic by (Torres, 2017) maintains that... The latest study
by (Gomez, 2018) reveals that...
A research study by (Rivera, 2017) explains that...
Coming from various books on literature review writing are the following
transitional devices and active verbs to link or express authors’ ideas in your paper.
Using correct words to link ideas will make you synthesize your literature review, in a
way that evidence coming from various sources of data, will present an overall
understanding of the context or of the present circumstances affecting the research
problem.
Transitional devices – also, additionally, again, similarly, a similar opinion,

however, conversely, on the other hand, nevertheless, a contrasting opinion, a different
approach, etc.
Active verbs – analyze, argues, assess, assert, assume, claim, compare,

contrast, conclude, criticize, debate, defend, define, demonstrate, discuss, distinguish,
differentiate, evaluate, examine, emphasize, expand, explain, exhibit, identify, illustrate,
imply, indicate, judge, justify, narrate, outline, persuade, propose, question, relate to,
report, review, suggest, summarize.
Directions: Write T if the sentence is true and F, if it is false. Then, underline the part
that makes the sentence false and write the correct word/s on the line provided.
1. Doing a literature search alone proves that literature review writing is an

interconnected process.
2. Editing by readers contributes to the inferiority of Wikipedia as a source of

information.
3. Much editing by readers happens in grey literature.
4. Bibliographical list is not a good way to begin an article.
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5. A researcher is discouraged from using this opening: One study by (Lim,

2017) asserts that...
6. Being an interconnected process, literature review stages affect one

another.
7. HOTS take place extensively in Literature-review reading and writing.
8. Primary source is better than secondary source.
9. Similarly, also, on the other hand are good article openings.
10. You begin your review of related literature by peer-reviewed journals.
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LESSON 9 Standard Styles in Review of Related Literature, Citation, or

References
In reviewing related literature, you come to read varieties of reading materials

containing knowledge related to your research. It is a fact that these ideas, including
the language structures to express these ideas, belong to other people. They are not
yours. One cardinal principle in research is acknowledging or recognizing the owners of
any form of knowledge you intend to include in your research paper. Doing this practice
signals not just honesty and courtesy to learned people whose ideas lend information to
your paper, but also indicates your appreciation for their contribution to the field.
(Hammersely 2013)
The following are the three terms used to express your appreciation for or recognition
of people’s ownership of borrowed ideas (Sharp 2012):
1. Acknowledgment – the beginning portion of the work that identifies individuals

who have contributed something for the production of the paper
2. References or Bibliography – a complete list of all reading materials,

including books, journals, periodicals, etc. from where the borrowed ideas came
from
3. Citation or In-text Citation – references within the main body of the text,
specifically in Review of Related Literature
The third one, citation, is the focus of this lesson. Citation, also called in-text citation,
has many purposes and style, which are as follows (Badke 2012):
Purposes of Citation
1. To give importance and respect to other people for what they know about the
field
2. To give authority, validity, and credibility to other people’s claims, conclusions,

and arguments
3. To prove your broad and extensive reading of authentic and relevant materials
about your topic
4. To help readers find or contact the sources of ideas easily
5. To permit readers to check the accuracy of your work
6. To save yourself from plagiarism
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Styles of Citation
1. Integral Citation
This is one way of citing or referring to the author whose ideas appear in your
work. You do this by using active verbs like claim, assert, state, etc. to report the
author’s ideas. Using these types of verbs somehow expresses the author’s mental
position, attitude, stand, or opinion in relation to the information referred to. This is the
reason integral citation is often used in social sciences or any subjects belonging to the
soft sciences.
Examples of Integral Citation:
APA MLA
One study by Manalo (2015) reveals... One study by (Manalo 70) The latest work by
(Lee, 2015) asserts... The latest work by (Lee 123) According to Abad et al. (2015)
context is... According to (Abad et al.: 54)
2. Non-integral Citation
In contrast to integral citation that reflects the author’s personal inclinations to a certain
extent, this second citation style downplays any strength of the writer’s personal
characteristics. The stress is given to the piece of information rather than to the owner
of the ideas.
Examples of Non-integral Citation:
a. The Code of Ethics for Intercultural Competence give four ways by which people
from different cultural background can harmoniously relate themselves with one
another. (De la Cruz, 2015)
b. Knowledge is one component of not only Systemic Functional Grammar but

Intercultural competence as well. It is the driving force beyond any successful
collaborative activities to develop interpersonal relationships and communicative
competence. (Smith 2015)
c. The other components of Intercultural Competence which are also present in

SFG are: context (Harold, 2015), appropriateness (Villar, Marcos, Atienza, 2016;
Santos, and Daez, 2016), and emotions (Flores, 2016).
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Patterns of Citation
1. Summary. The citation in this case is a shortened version of the original text
that is expressed in your own language. Making the text short, you have to pick
out only the most important ideas or aspects of the text.
2. Paraphrase. This is the antithesis of the first one because, here, instead of
shortening the form of the text, you explain what the text means to you using
your own words. In doing so, it is possible that your explanations may decrease
or exceed the number of words of the original text.
3. Short Direct Quotation. Only a part of the author’s sentence, the whole
sentence, or several sentences, not exceeding 40 words, is what you can quote
or repeat in writing through this citation pattern. Since this makes you copy the
exact words of the writer, it is necessary that you give the number of the page
where the readers can find the copied words.
Example:
A context is influenced by these four factors: ―language, culture, institutions, and

ideologies.‖ (Aranda, 2015, p.8)
4. Long Direct Quotation or Block Quotation, or Extract. Named in many

ways, this citation pattern makes you copy the author’s exact words numbering
from 40 up to 100 words. Under APA, the limit is eight lines. Placed at the center
of the page with no indentation, the copied lines look like they compose a stanza
of a poem.
Example:
The latest study by (Hizon, 2015) reveals the social nature of language.
Stressing this nature of language, he says:
Language features result from the way people use language to meet their social
needs. In their interactions, they use language to describe, compare, agree,
explain, and disagree, and so on. Each language function requires a certain set
of language features like nouns for naming, adjectives for comparing, verbs for
agreeing, prepositions for directing, and conjunctions for connecting ideas. (p.
38)
You should quote judiciously because having so many quoted words or lines in
your paper signals your lack of understanding of such part of the text. Besides, frequent
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copying of the author’s words indicates your lack of originality in conducting your
research work. To avoid negative connotations about direct quotations in your paper,
have in mind the following reasons to justify your act of quoting or repeating in writing
other people’s words. (Ransome 2013)
1. The idea is quite essential.
2. The idea is refutable or arguable.
3. The sentence is ambiguous or has multiple meanings.
4. There’s a strong possibility that questions may be raised about the citation.
5. It is an excellent idea that to make it a part of your paper will bring prestige and
credibility to your entire work.
There are two basic methods of referencing, pointing to, or identifying the exact
author referred to by your paper. These are the APA (American Psychological
Association and the MLA (Modern Language Association). Each of these two methods
has its own in-text citation style. The following shows the difference between them as
regards citation format.
APA – (Ramos, 2015) or Ramos (2016) (Manalo, 2015) or Manalo (2016)
MLA – (Bautista 183), Flores et.al. 150-158) (Acosta, Hizon, Lopez 235-240) (Velarde
4: 389-403) – for periodicals
5. Tense of verbs for reporting
Active verbs are effective words to use in reporting authors’ ideas. Present their ideas in
any of these tenses: present, simple past, or present perfect tense. The APA
system, however, prefers the use of present perfect tense.
Examples:
Present tense – Marcos explains... Past tense – Marcos explained...
Present perfect tense – Marcos has explained...
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is an act of quoting or copying the exact words of the writer and
passing the quoted words off as your own words. The leading act of plagiarism is using
the words of the original text in expressing your understanding of the reading material.
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The right way to avoid plagiarism is to express the borrowed ideas in your own words.
(Ransome 2013)
Taking ownership of what do not belong to you is a criminal act that is

punishable by imprisonment and indemnity or payment of money to compensate for
any losses incurred by the owners of expressions that you copied without their
permission. The safest way to avoid plagiarism is to be aware of the fact that the
copied words are not yours. If you want these words to appear in your paper, you must
reveal the name of the author in your paper, including the pieces of information (title,
date, place of publication, publisher, etc.) about the book from where you copied the
words. (Hammersely 2013)
Nowadays, due to the proliferation of ―Grey Literature‖ or unpublished reading

materials or of non-peer reviewed online publications, many reading materials as
sources of information for research studies appear questionable as to how qualitative,
credible, and authoritative they are. Notwithstanding the doubtful reputation of these
grey literatures, to free yourself from any guilt of plagiarism, you must identify in your
paper the owners of any idea, word, symbol that you quoted or copied verbatim,
summarized, or paraphrased. (Sharp 2012; Gray 2013)
Directions: Based on what you have finished reading, explain or clarify what you mean
about the following lines.
1. Be judicious in quoting words.
2. Apply honesty and courtesy in Literature-review writing.
3. A stanza-like part of a text possibly appears in your paper.
4. You can’t personally say, ―Thank you‖ to the authors, but can have other ways to
express your gratitude to them.
5. Quotations indicate lack of the paper’s originality.
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6. You don’t have an absolute freedom to quote the words of the author.
7. Produce a condensed form of the reading material.
8. Citation is just one of the many ways to acknowledge the sources of information.
9. Integral citation has a personal touch.
10. There’s a limit to your act of quoting words.
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Chapter V Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data
Spending months or years in gathering facts and information about your

research topic may turn in voluminous amount of data. However, such data of great
size can be valuable only in so far as they result from standard- or criterion-based data-
collection methods. Dealing with a lot of qualitative data such as people’s beliefs,
opinions, views, feelings, or attitudes about a particular topic requires you to devise a
systematic way of identifying, classifying, and organizing facts and information coming
from people you interviewed or observed. Unless you adopt principled methods of
collecting data, you cannot come up with understandable or question-free research
findings.
LESSON 10 Qualitative Research Designs
Definition
Design is a word which means a plan or something that is conceptualized by the

mind. As a result of a mental activity characterized by unfixed formation of something
but an extensive interconnection of things, a design in the field of research serves as a
blueprint or a skeletal framework of your research study. It includes many related
aspects of your research work. A choice of a research design requires you to finalize
your mind on the purpose, philosophical basis, and types of data of your research,
including your method of collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting the data. It
is a plan that directs your mind to several stages of your research work. (De Mey 2013)
There are five research designs that are commonly used in a qualitative
research, but these are also labeled as types of qualitative research by some books on
qualitative research because when you speak of a research design, you plan your
methods or techniques in collecting and analyzing data. Your research design is realized
by any of these types of qualitative research that has its own data collecting technique:
case study, ethnography, historical study, phenomenology, and grounded theory.
Whether you think of them as research types or research designs, just the same, you
get to deal with the same features or aspects involved in each type or design.
Types
In addition to what Lesson 3 has already explained about these research

designs, this present lesson discusses these as qualitative research designs detailing
both your plan and method or technique on doing your research study.
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1. Case Study
To do a research study based on this research design is to describe a person, a

thing, or any creature on Earth for the purpose of explaining the reasons behind the
nature of its existence. Your aim here is to determine why such creature (person,
organization, thing, or event) acts, behaves, occurs, or exists in a particular manner.
Usually, a case study centers on an individual or single subject matter. Your methods of
collecting data for this qualitative research design are interview, observation, and
questionnaire. One advantage of case study is its capacity to deal with a lot of factors
to determine the unique characteristics of the entity. (Meng 2012; Yin, 2012)
2. Ethnography
A qualitative research design called ethnography involves a study of a certain

cultural group or organization in which you, the researcher, to obtain knowledge about
the characteristics, organizational set-up, and relationships of the group members, must
necessarily involve you in their group activities. Since this design gives stress to the
study of a group of people, in a way, this is one special kind of a case study. The only
thing that makes it different from the latter is your participation as a researcher in the
activities of the group.
Ethnography requires your actual participation in the group members’ activities

while a case study treats you, the researcher, as an outsider whose role is just to
observe the group. Realizing this qualitative research design is living with the subjects
in several months; hence, this is usually done by anthropologists whose interests
basically lie in cultural studies. (Winn 2014)
3. Historical Study
This qualitative research design tells you the right research method to determine
the reasons for changes or permanence of things in the physical world in a certain
period (i.e., years, decades, or centuries). What is referred to in the study as time of
changes is not a time shorter than a year but a period indicating a big number of years.
Obviously, historical study differs from other research designs because of this one
element that is peculiar to it, the scope. The scope or coverage of a historical study
refers to the number of years covered, the kind of events focused on, and the extent of
new knowledge or discoveries resulting from the historical study. A clue about the
scope is usually reflected by the title of the study such as the following examples:
1. A Five-Year Study of the Impact of the K-12 Curriculum on the Philippine

Employment System
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2. The Rise and Fall of the Twenty-Year Reign of Former Philippine President,
Ferdinand E. Marcos
3. Filipino-Student Activism from the Spanish Era to the Contemporary Period
4. Telephones from the Nuclear Era to the Digital Age
The data collecting techniques for a study following a historical research design
are biography or autobiography reading, documentary analysis, and chronicling
activities. This last technique, chronicling activities, makes you interview people to trace
series of events in the lives of people in a span of time. However, one drawback of
historical study is the absence, or loss of complete and well-kept old that may hinder
the completion of the study.
4. Phenomenology
A phenomenon is something you experience on Earth as a person. It is a sensory

experience that makes you perceive or understand things that naturally occur in your
life such as death, joy, friendship, caregiving, defeat, victory, and the like. This
qualitative research design makes you follow a research method that will let you
understand the ways of how people go through inevitable events in their lives. You are
prone to extending your time in listening to people’s recount of their significant
experiences to be able to get a clue or pattern of their techniques in coming to terms
with the positive or negative results of their life experiences.
Comparing these two qualitative research designs, phenomenology and

ethnography, the first aims at getting a thorough understanding of an individual’s life
experiences for this same person’s realistic dealings with hard facts of life while the
second aims at defining, describing, or portraying a certain group of people possessing
unique cultural traits.
Focusing on people’s meaning and making strategies in relation to their life

experiences, phenomenology as a qualitative research design finds itself relevant or
useful to people such as teachers, nurses, guidance counselors, and the like, whose
work entails giving physical and emotional assistance or relief to people. Unstructured
interview is what this research design directs you to use in collecting data. (Paris 2014;
Winn 2014)
5. Grounded Theory
A research study adhering to a grounded theory research design aims at

developing a theory to increase your understanding of something in a psycho-social
context. Such study enables you to develop theories to explain sociologically and
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psychologically influenced phenomena for proper identification of a certain educational

process. Occurring in an inductive manner, a research study following a grounded
theory design takes place in an inductive manner, wherein one basic category of
people’s action and interactions gets related to a second category; to third category;
and so on, until a new theory emerges from the previous data. (Gibson 2014; Creswell
2012)
A return to the previous data to validate a newly found theory is a zigzag

sampling. Moving from category to category, a study using a grounded theory design is
done by a researcher wanting to know how people fair up in a process-bound activity
such as writing. Collecting data based on this qualitative research design called
grounded theory is through formal, informal, or semi-structured interview, as well as
analysis of written works, notes, phone calls, meeting proceedings, and training
sessions. (Picardie 2014)
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Circle the letter of the correct answer.
1. A research design is made up of things indicating
a. separation c. singularity
b. relationship d. craftsmanship
2. Wanting to increase your understanding of the burial practices of the Mangyans,

you choose the qualitative research design called
a. historical c. phenomenological
b. ethnographical d. grounded theory
3. Grounded theory involves a series of
a. theories c. designs
b. books d. instructions
4. A great degree of man’s emotionality surfaces in a research design called
a. case study c. historical
b. ethnography d. phenomenology
5. Determining what makes an individual distinct from others is the goal of
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a. case study c. phenomenology
b. historical d. ethnography
6. No research design means no research
a. motivation c. direction
b. title d. data
7. This cliché—When you are in Rome, do what the Romans do—is true for
a. case study c. phenomenology
b. historical study d. ethnography
8. The who, what, why, and how of your research study are determined by your
research
a. data c. question
b. title d. design
9. Zigzag sampling requires data
a. analysis c. recording
b. accumulation d. review
10. A researcher’s personal participation in people’s activities is necessary in
a. historical c. ethnography
b. phenomenological d. case study
Directions: Answer the following questions intelligently and concisely.
1. In what way are the qualitative research designs also called qualitative research
types?
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2. Which aspect of your personality is significantly involved in designing a research

study? Why?
3. What comes to your mind when you think of the word ―research design‖?
4. Are you going to work on old and new data in a grounded theory research
design? Why? Why not?
5. In choosing historical design, what could prevent you from finishing your study?
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LESSON 11 Sampling
Definition
In research, sampling is a word that refers to your method or process of

selecting respondents or people to answer questions meant to yield data for a research
study. The chosen ones constitute the sample through which you will derive facts and
evidence to support the claims or conclusions propounded by your research problem.
The bigger group from where you choose the sample is called population, and sampling
frame is the term used to mean the list of the members of such population from where
you will get the sample. (Paris 2013)
History
The beginning of sampling could be traced back to the early political activities of
the Americans in 1920 when Literary Digest did a pioneering survey about the American
citizens’ favorite among the 1920 presidential candidates. This was the very first survey
that served as the impetus for the discovery by academic researchers of other sampling
strategies that they categorized into two classes: probability sampling or unbiased
sampling and non-probability sampling. (Babbie 2013)
Probability Sampling or Unbiased Sampling
Probability sampling involves all members listed in the sampling frame

representing a certain population focused on by your study. An equal chance of
participation in the sampling or selection process is given to every member listed in
the sampling frame. By means of this unbiased sampling, you are able to obtain a
sample that is capable of representing the population under study or of showing strong
similarities in characteristics with the members of the population.
A sampling error crops up if the selection does not take place in the way it is
planned. Such sampling error is manifested by strong dissimilarity between the sample
and the ones listed in the sampling frame. (P) How numerous the sampling errors are
depends on the size of the sample. The smaller the sample is, the bigger the number of
sampling errors. Thus, choose to have a bigger sample of respondents to avoid
sampling errors. However, deciding to increase the size of your sample is not so easy.
There are these things you have to mull over in finalizing about this such as expenses
for questionnaires and interview trips, interview schedules, and time for reading
respondents’ answers.
The right sample size also depends on whether or not the group is
heterogeneous or homogeneous. The first group requires a bigger size; the second, a
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smaller one. For a study in the field of social sciences requiring an in-depth
investigation of something such as one involving the national government, the right
sample size ranges from 1,000 to 1,500 or up to 2,500. On the other hand, hundreds,
not thousands, of respondents suffice for a study about any local government unit.
(Suter 2012; Emmel 2013)
Types of Probability Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling
Simple random sampling is the best type of probability sampling through which
you can choose sample from a population. Using a pure-chance selection, you assure
every member the same opportunity to be in the sample. Here, the only basis of
including or excluding a member is by chance or opportunity, not by any occurrence
accounted for by cause-effect relationships. Simple random sampling happens through
any of these two methods: (Burns 2012)
1) Have a list of all members of the population; write each name on a card, and
choose cards through a pure-chance selection.
2) Have a list of all members; give a number to member and then use randomized
or unordered numbers in selecting names from the list.
2. Systematic Sampling
For this kind of probability sampling, chance and system are the ones to
determine who should compose the sample. For instance, if you want to have a sample
of 150, you may select a set of numbers like 1 to 15, and out of a list of 1,500 students,
take every 15th name on the list until you complete the total number of respondents to
constitute your sample.
3. Stratified Sampling
The group comprising the sample is chosen in a way that such group is liable to
subdivision during the data analysis stage. A study needing group- by-group analysis
finds stratified sampling the right probability sampling to use.
4. Cluster Sampling
This is a probability sampling that makes you isolate a set of persons instead of
individual members to serve as sample members. For example, if you want to have a
sample of 120 out of 1,000 students, you can randomly select three sections with 40
students each to constitute the sample.
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Non-Probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling disregards random selection of subjects. The subjects

are chosen based on their availability or the purpose of the study, and in some cases,
on the sole discretion of the researcher. This is not a scientific way of selecting
respondents. Neither does it offer a valid or an objective way of detecting sampling
errors. (Edmond 2013)
Types of Non-Probability Sampling
1. Quota Sampling
You resort to quota sampling when you think you know the characteristics of the target
population very well. In this case, you tend to choose sample members possessing or
indicating the characteristics of the target population. Using a quota or a specific set of
persons whom you believe to have the characteristics of the target population involved
in the study is your way of showing that the sample you have chosen closely represents
the target population as regards such characteristics.
2. Voluntary Sampling
Since the subjects you expect to participate in the sample selection are the ones
volunteering to constitute the sample, there is no need for you to do any selection
process.
3. Purposive or Judgmental Sampling
You choose people whom you are sure could correspond to the objectives of your
study, like selecting those with rich experience or interest in your study.
4. Availability Sampling
The willingness of a person as your subject to interact with you counts a lot in this non-
probability sampling method. If during the data-collection time, you encounter people
walking on a school campus, along corridors, and along the park or employees lining up
at an office, and these people show willingness to respond to your questions, then you
automatically consider them as your respondents.
5. Snowball Sampling
Similar to snow expanding widely or rolling rapidly, this sampling method does not give
a specific set of samples. This is true for a study involving unspecified group of people.
Dealing with varied groups of people such as street children, mendicants, drug
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dependents, call center workers, informal settlers, street vendors, and the like is
possible in this kind of non-probability sampling. Free to obtain data from any group
just like snow freely expanding and accumulating at a certain place, you tend to
increase the number of people you want to form the sample of your study. (Harding
2013)
Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. On the line before each number, write the letter of
the expression in the box that corresponds to the expression outside the box.
1. List of names representing the target population
2. Origin of sampling
3. Dissimilarity of sample with those in the sampling frame
4. Requires a big sample size
5. Randomized sample
6. Intentional choosing of sample
7. No specific number of respondents
8. Hindrance to big sample
9. Group-by-group selection of sample
10. Uses sub-groups
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Using the range of 50% to 100%, rate the extent of your learning of concepts behind
each of the following topics:
1. Meaning of sampling
2. History of sampling
3. Probability sampling
4. Non-probability sampling
5. Sample
6. Sample size
7. Sampling errors
8. Sampling frame
9. Population
10. Pure chance selection
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Chapter VI: Finding Answers through Data Collection
In a qualitative research, your interest lies in people’s thoughts and feelings

about a certain subject matter. Your curiosity about such topic bombards your mind
with several questions. Finding answers to your questions is possible through these
theoretically based data-collection methods: observation, interview, or survey through
questionnaires. Obtaining data through these methods requires you to perform
necessary skills or strategies and to follow the right procedure in interviewing,
observing, and conducting a survey through questionnaires.
LESSON 12 Observations
Definition
Observation is a technique of gathering data whereby you personally watch,

interact, or communicate with the subjects of your research. It lets you record what
people exactly do and say in their everyday life on Earth. Through this data gathering
technique, proofs to support your claims or conclusions about your topic are obtained in
a natural setting. Witnessing the subjects manages themselves in a certain situation
and interpreting or expressing your thoughts and feelings about your observation, you
tend to deal with the observation results in a subjective manner. Some say this element
of subjectivity makes observation inferior to other techniques. (Meng 2012)
This is not so, according to others, your presence as the researcher in the area
where the subjects are situated, give authenticity to everything you get to observe
among the subjects. Watching and listening to your subjects then recording what
you’ve observed about them are the reasons many consider observation the foundation
of all research methods. Realistically speaking, this is logical, for sensation precedes
perception. Observation is the central method in qualitative types of research, most
especially, ethnography, in which you observe the lifestyle of a cultural group.
(Letherby 2013; Snort 2013)
Types
1. Participant Observation
The observer, who is the researcher, takes part in the activities of the individual or
group being observed. Your actual involvement enables you to obtain firsthand
knowledge about the subjects’ behavior and the way they interact with one another. To
record your findings through this type of observation, use the diary method or logbook.
The first part of the diary is called descriptive observation. This initial part of the record
describes the people, places, events, conversation, and other things involved in the
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activity or object focused on by the research. The second part of the diary is called the
narrative account that gives your interpretations or reflections about everything you
observed.
2. Non-participation or Structured Observation
This type of observation completely detaches you from the target of your observation.
You just watch and listen to them do their own thing, without you participating in any
of their activities. Recording of non- participation observations happens through the use
of a checklist. Others call this checklist as an observation schedule.
These two observation types, participation and non-participation, can occur in either of
the covert or overt observation models. The first lets you observe the subjects secretly;
that is, you need to stay in a place where the subjects don’t get sight of or feel your
presence, much less, have the chance to converse with you. The second permits you to
divulge things about your research to the participants. (Birks 2014)
Methods of Observation
1. Direct Observation
This observation method makes you see or listen to everything that happens in the area
of observation. For instance, things happening in a classroom, court trial, street
trafficking, and the like, come directly to your senses. Remember, however, that to
avoid waste of energy, time, and effort in observing, you have to stick to the questions
that your research aims at answering. What you ought to focus your attention to during
the observation is specified by your research problem in general as well as your specific
research questions.
2. Indirect Observation
This method is also called behavior archaeology because, here, you observe traces of
past events to get information or a measure of behavior, trait, or quality of your
subject. Central to this method of observation are things you listen to through tape
recordings and those you see in pictures, letter, notices, minutes of meetings, business
correspondence, garbage cans, and so on. Indirect observation takes place in the
following ways. (Peggs 2013; Maxwell 2012)
Methods of Indirect Observation
1. Continuous Monitoring or CM
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Here, you observe to evaluate the way people deal with one another. As such, this is
the main data gathering technique used in behavioral psychology, where people’s
worries, anxieties, habits, and problems in shopping malls, play areas, family homes, or
classrooms serve as the focus of studies in this field of discipline.
2. Spot Sampling
This was done first by behavioral psychologists in 1920 with a focus on researching the
extent of children’s nervous habits as they would go through their regular personality
development. For a continuous or uninterrupted focus on the subjects, you record your
observations through spot sampling in an oral manner, not in a written way.
Named also as scan sampling or time sampling, spot sampling comes in two types: time
allocation (TA) and experience sampling. In TA sampling, what goes into the record are
the best activities of people you observed in undetermined places and time. Experience
sampling, on the other hand, lets you record people’s responses anytime of the day or
week to question their present activities, companions, feelings, and so on. Data
gathering in this case is facilitated by modern electronic and technological gadgets like
cell phone, emails, and other online communication methods or techniques. (Peggs
2013; Ritchie 2014)
Advantages
1. It uses simple data collection technique and data recording method.
2. It is inclined to realizing its objectives because it just depends on watching and

listening to the subjects without experiencing worries as to whether or not the
people will say yes or no to your observation activities.
3. It offers fresh and firsthand knowledge that will help you come out with an easy
understanding and deep reflection of the data.
4. It is quite valuable in research studies about organizations that consider you, the
researcher, a part of such entity.
Disadvantages
1. It requires a long time for planning.
2. Engrossed in participating in the subjects’ activities, you may eclipse or neglect

the primary role of the research.
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3. It is prone to your hearing derogatory statements from some people in the group
that will lead to your biased stand toward other group members.
Directions: WHOLE-CLASS ACTIVITY. Answer each question intelligently.
1. Why is the psychological process of sensation important in observation?
2. Are the two psychological processes, sensation and perception, important in

observation? Why or why not?
3. Is it right that the other name of observation is behavioral archaeology? Prove

your point.
4. How are the methods of observation different from each other?
5. Make an analogy between an NBI detective and observation.
Directions: Which among these topics can lend itself to observation technique?
Explain your choice.
1. K-12 Goals, Theories, and Methodologies
2. Historical Development of Cell Phones
3. Philippine Bridges in Metro Manila
4. Shoe Styles of UST Freshmen Architectural Students
5. Human Respiratory System
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LESSON 13 Interviews
Definition
In research, interview is a data gathering technique that makes you verbally ask
the subjects or respondents questions to give answers to what your research study is
trying to look for. Done mostly in qualitative research studies, interview aims at
knowing what the respondents think and feel about the topic of your research.
Traditionally viewed, this data gathering technique occurs between you, the
researcher, and your respondents in a face-to-face situation. In this case, you speak
directly with your respondent, individually or collectively. On the other hand, by using
electronic and technological communication devices like the Internet, mobile phones, e-
mail, etc., interview can be considered as a modern tool of research. All in all, be it a
traditional or a modern type of interview, ―it is a conversation with a purpose‖ that
gives direction to the question-answer activity between the interviewer and the
interviewee. (Babbie 2014, 137; Rubin 2011)
Types
1. Structured Interview
This is an interview that requires the use of an interview schedule or a list of questions
answerable with one and only item from a set of alternative responses. Choosing one
answer from the given set of answers, the respondents are barred from giving answers
that reflect their own thinking or emotions about the topic. You, the researcher, are
completely pegged at the interview schedule or prepared list of questions.
2. Unstructured Interview
In this type of interview, the respondents answer the questions based on what they
personally think and feel about it. There are no suggested answers. They purely depend
on the respondents’ decision-making skills, giving them opportunity to think critically
about the question.
3. Semi-Structured Interview
The characteristics of the first two types are found in the third type of interview called
semi-structured interview. Here, you prepare a schedule or a list of questions that is
accompanied by a list of expressions from where the respondents can pick out the
correct answer. However, after choosing one from the suggested answers, the
respondents answer another set of questions to make them explain the reasons behind
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their choices. Allowing freedom for you to change the questions and for the
respondents to think of their own answers, this semi-structured interview is a flexible
and an organized type of interview. (Rubin 2012; Bernard 2013)
Approaches
1. Individual Interview
Only one respondent is interviewed here. The reason behind this one- on-one interview
is the lack of trust the interviewees have among themselves. One example of this is the
refusal of one interviewee to let other interviewees get a notion of or hear his or her
responses to the questions. Hence, he or she prefers to have an individual interview
separate from the rest. This is a time-consuming type of interview because you have to
interview a group of interviewees one by one.
2. Group Interview
In this interview approach, you ask the question not to one person, but to a group of
people at the same time. The group members take turns in answering the question.
This approach is often used in the field of business, specifically in marketing research.
Researchers in this field, whose primary aim in adhering to this interview approach is to
know people’s food preferences and consumer opinions they also call this as focus
group interview. The chances of having some respondents getting influenced by the
other group members are one downside of this interview approach. (Denzin 2013;
Feinberd 2013)
3. Mediated Interview
No face-to-face interview is true for this interview approach because this takes place
through electronic communication devices such as telephones, mobile phones, email,
among others. Though mediated interview disregards non-verbal communication (e.g.,
bodily movements, gestures, facial expressions, feelings, eye contact, etc.), many,
nonetheless, consider this better because of the big number of respondents it is capable
of reaching despite the cost, distance, and human disabilities affecting the interview.
It is a synchronous mediated interview if you talk with the subjects through the
telephone, mobile phone, or online chat and also find time to see each other. It is
asynchronous if only two persons are interviewed at a different time through the
Internet, email, Facebook, Twitter, and other social network media. (Goodwin 2014;
Barbour 2014)
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Steps in Conducting an Interview
Step 1: Getting to Know Each Other
The interview starts from the time you, the interviewer, and your respondents
see each other at the place of interview, that is, if this is a traditional interview.
Naturally, seeing each other for the first time, your tendency would be to talk with each
other to establish friendship and a relaxed mood for both of you. Although, in some
cases, the place is your respondent’s residence, you have to show signs of appreciation
and respect for the chosen venue of the interview. Your warm acknowledgement for
each other must lead you to discussing several aspects of the interview such as where
you have to do it, how comfortable both of you should be, and how long should the
question-and-answer activity be.
Step 2: Having an Idea of the Research
This second step requires you to tell the respondents about the nature of the
interview—its purpose, importance, scope, and so on. Telling them of these salient
features of the activity enables them to anticipate not only the kind of questions they
will get to face, but also the appropriate answers they will give. Things pertaining to the
confidential treatment of responses are also tackled in this second step of interview. It
is also in this period when you have to stress the idea to the respondents that the
interview is for you to know and hear their own views and to let them express their own
understanding of the topic of the question in their own words.
Step 3: Starting the Interview
You open this step with a question to encourage the respondent to talk about
him or her, including his or her age, family, current activities, and other things you think
appear special or interesting to him or her. Following these self-introduction questions
are questions on the subject’s thoughts, attitudes, or performance of his or her job or
any current work assignment. The respondent’s answers do not only help you get some
clues on his or her ways or techniques of responding to interview questions, but also
give you hints on the right ways to ask your subjects the questions that will elicit the
right data for your research.
Step 4: Conducting the Interview Proper
Interview questions in this step are on the interviewee’s open and extensive
talking of things related to the research theme or research questions and on those
anticipated by him/her or emanating from his/her explanations, descriptions, or
narrations of things. Open or unstructured questions asked in this step of the interview
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aim at investigating the respondent’s interests and eliciting substantial or profuse

responses to questions. In asking a battery of questions, you see to it that you stick to
the main point of your study, to the proper phrasing of questions, and to the sufficient
time allotted for answering each question.
List down on a piece of paper all questions you plan to ask your respondent and
call this list of prepared questions schedule. This helps you construct or phrase your
questions properly and enables you to foretell possible answers. In addition, using a
schedule gives you the opportunity to make changes on the questions to adjust them to
some inevitable circumstances caused by the respondent’s human nature. Lastly, this
step of the interview, where you ask a number of questions in relation to your research
problem is your time to determine how you should label the responses with codes and
present them with a certain style like graphical or narrative presentation technique.
Step 5: Putting an End to the Interview
Signs of the approaching end of the interview work to alert the respondent in
winding up with his or her talking. For instance, using words expressing your decision,
wish, or attempt to ask the very last question serves as a clue for the respondent to
think that the interview is nearing its end. This step also reminds you of your
responsibility to let the respondent be free in airing whatever doubts or questions he or
she has about the research design, method, interview time, and other aspects of the
interview.
Step 6: Pondering Over Interview Afterthoughts
This last step of the interview gives the respondent the opportunity to ask
questions about the interview activity and let him or her have an idea about what will
happen next to the interview results. (Denzin 2013; Bernard 2013; Rubin 2012)
Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a paper containing a list of questions including the specific

place and space in the paper where you write the answers to the questions. This
prepared set of questions elicits factual or opinionated answers from the respondent’s
through his or her acts of checking one chosen answer from several options or of
writing on a line provided for any opinionated answer. (Babbie 2013)
Purposes of a Questionnaire
1. To discover people’s thoughts and feelings about the topic of the research
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2. To assist you in conducting an effective face-to-face interview with your

respondents
3. To help you plan how to obtain and record the answers to your questions
4. To make the analysis, recording, and coding of data easier and faster
Types of Questionnaire
1. Postal questionnaire
As the name connotes, this type of questionnaire goes to the respondent through postal
service or electronic mail. It is through the mail or postal system that the accomplished
questionnaires will be sent back to the researchers. In some cases, the researcher can
personally collect finished questionnaires.
2. Self-administered questionnaire
This kind of questionnaire makes you act as the interviewer and the interviewee at the
same time. First, you ask the questions either in person or through phone; then, you
will be writing the interviewee’s answers on a piece of paper. A questionnaire like this
fits a structured kind of interview. (Barbour 2014)
Advantages and Disadvantages of a Questionnaire
Coming from the references listed at the last part of this book are the following
paraphrased advantages and disadvantages of using a questionnaire:
Advantages
1. It is cheap as it does not require you to travel to hand the questionnaires to a

big number of respondents in faraway places.
2. It entails an easy distribution to respondents.
3. It offers more opportunity for the respondents to ponder on their responses.
4. It enables easy comparison of answers because of a certain degree of uniformity

among the questions.
5. It has the capacity to elicit spontaneous or genuine answers from the

respondents.
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Disadvantages
1. There is a possibility that some questions you distributed do not go back to you,
and this prevents you from getting the desired rate of response.
2. Confusing and uninteresting questions to respondents fail to elicit the desired

responses.
3. Owing to individual differences between the selected subjects and those in the
population, in general, the questionnaire is hard up in obtaining unbiased results
to represent the characteristics of the target population.
4. It prevents you from being with the respondents physically to help them unlock
some difficulties in their understanding of the questions.
Directions: Without going back to the reading material about Interview, and by using
your own words, compare and contrast the following:
1. Structured interview vs. unstructured interview
2. Factual answers vs. opinionated answers
3. Objective vs. subjective question
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4. Sample vs. population
5. Synchronous vs. asynchronous mediated interview
6. Closed questions vs. open-ended questions
7. Group interview vs. focus group interview
8. Postal questionnaire vs. self-administered questionnaire
9. Schedule vs. questionnaire
10. Self-introduction questions vs. interview proper questions
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Chapter VII Analyzing the Meaning of the Data and Drawing Conclusions
Using a certain method of collecting and analyzing data, you get to gather varied
world perceptions from different people. Through all these diverse opinions coming
from a set of people, you are able to discover a certain idea or pattern governing the
entire data collected. Geared toward a common theme, idea, or pattern, the collected
facts and information are capable of guaranteeing evidence-based conclusions. Factual
data and logically collected ones are meaningful data to yield valid and credible
conclusions.
LESSON 14 Data Analysis
Nature
Data analysis is a process of understanding data or known facts or assumptions

serving as the basis of any claims or conclusions you have about something. You collect
these data in many ways: observation, interview, documentary analysis, and research
instruments like questionnaires, tests, etc. Your primary aim in analyzing recorded data
is to find out if they exist or operate to give answers to the research questions you
raised prior to your acts of collecting them.
In analyzing data, you go through coding and collating. Coding is your act of
using symbols like letters or words to represent arbitrary or subjective data (emotions,
opinions, attitudes) to ensure secrecy or privacy of the data. Collating, on the other
hand, is your way of bringing together the coded data. Giving the data an orderly
appearance is putting them in a graph, specifically a table of responses.
Data Matrix
The term ―data matrix‖ is also used to name this table of responses that consists
of table of cases and their associated variables. This data matrix is of two types: the
profile matrix that shows measurements of variables or factors for a set of cases or
respondents and the proximity matrix that indicates measurements of similarities and
differences between items. Under proximity matrix, if the measurements show how
alike things are, it is called similarity matrix. If they show how different they are, it is
called dissimilarity matrix. (Denzin 2013)
Qualitative Data Analysis
In a qualitative research, you analyze or study data that reflect the respondents’
thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or views about something. These are subjective data that
are expressed in words, and these words serve as the unit of analysis in a qualitative
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type of research. You examine these subjective data to understand how related or
relevant they are to your research problem or specific research questions.
You collect qualitative data through interviews, observations, or content analysis

and then subject them to data analysis. In your data collecting activities, you
indispensably experience a lot of things vis-a-vis the sources of data, such as their
sizes, shapes, ideas, feelings, attitudes, and so on. If you record these data through
verbal language or graphic means, you get to immerse yourself in a qualitative data
analysis, not quantitative data analysis, for the latter deals with data expressed in
numerical forms. (Layder 2013)
Qualitative data analysis is a time-consuming process. It makes you deal with

data coming from wide sources of information. It is good if all the data you collected
from varied sources of knowledge work favorably for your research study, but,
ironically, some of these may not have strong relation to your research questions. Data
analysis in a qualitative research is a rigorous act of a thematic or theoretical
organization of ideas or information into a certain format that is capable of presenting
groups of responses. Analyzing the data and synthesizing them based on one principal
idea, theory, or pattern demand a lot of time and effort, let alone, the methodical ways
you have to adhere to in presenting the results as long written discussions containing
verbal or graphical explanations of your findings. (Letherby 2012; Silverman 2013;
Litchman 2013)
Directions: INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY. Circle the letter of the correct answer.
1. The results of data analysis are presented as
a. percentages c. fractions
b. written discussions d. literary criticism
2. The research activity preceding collating is
a. coding c. synthesizing
b. summarizing d. categorizing
3. Qualitative data analysis focuses on examining
a. numbers c. words
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b. visions d. concepts
4. To show how variables are closely related with one another, you must use
a. data matrix c. proximity matrix
b. profile matrix d. table matrix
5. Questionnaire is to data-collection instrument;

observation is to data-collection .
a. process c. analysis
b. method d. results
6. Qualitative research has words as its
a. qualitative data c. quantitative data
b. unit of analysis d. analysis of data
7. You encode or symbolize data that are
a. subjective c. objective
b. symbolical d. numerical
8. Symbolizing data is preserving their
a. origin c. confidentiality
b. source d. significance
9. The value of data analysis results is determined by their connection with your
a. research method c. research design
b. research title d. research questions
10. A graphical presentation of data-analysis results ensures
a. privacy of data c. completeness of data
b. genuineness of data d. orderliness of data
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Directions: Check (/) the sentence that expresses what is true about qualitative data
analysis.
1. It is a time-saving analysis of data.
2. Its unit of analysis is large language structures like paragraphs.
3. It centers its analysis on opinionated knowledge.
4. It is prone to examining numbers.
5. It cannot use data matrices.
6. It examines verbal language as well as non-verbal language.
7. It puts into codes abstract qualities of people.
8. It analyzes data first before it collects them.
9. Exempted from qualitative-data analysis are prose and non-prose

materials.
10. Coding is not for numerical data.
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LESSON 15 Drawing of Conclusions
Meaning of Conclusion
Conclusion is a type of inferential or interpretative thinking that derives its

validity, truthfulness, or reasonableness from your sensory experience. Touching,
seeing, hearing, tasting, and smelling things around you lead to a particular conclusion
about each of those experiences. The results of your sensory experience are factual
data to support the truthfulness of your conclusions.
Drawing Conclusions
In your research work, your next move after analyzing the data you have
gathered is drawing conclusions. This makes you form conclusions that arise from the
factual data you encountered and analyzed. Any conclusions drawn or deduced by you
from facts or statements resulting from logical thinking rather than from another
assumption, prediction, or generalization are the only ones included in the conclusion
section of your research paper. (Decilo 2014)
Any conclusion that you give about what you found out through your analysis of
the data you collected is a ―warranted conclusion,‖ which explains how the evidence or
findings resulting from your data analysis stands to prove or disprove your conclusion.
And, by and large, the best kind of proof to back up your conclusion is one that is
factual and logical or given by correct reasoning. Downplaying, much less, excluding
warrants from this section of your paper reserved specifically for stating conclusions
about your findings makes your readers cast doubts about the credibility or
genuineness of your conclusions. (Thomas 2013, 38).
Research is about discovering things and engaging yourself in an exchange of

theoretically supported ideas with those in the academic world. And you state all your
discoveries in the conclusion section of your research paper. But it is not merely making
your conclusions visible in your paper, but also making these related with the claims or
arguments of varied research studies and written works you’ve subjected to your RRL
or review of related literature. Creating a link between your discoveries and your review
of literature indicates the ability of your paper to expand or enhance any existing
knowledge about your research study. (Harding 2013)
Thinking of research as the means by which you, as a member of academic

institution, debate or argue with others on some principles in any area of knowledge,
you have to write the conclusion section of your paper with conviction. Convinced of the
validity of your findings to prove your conclusions, you must confidently state how your
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conclusions work to debunk or contradict existing theories, correlative assumptions, and

published works. Conversely, your conclusions must obviously provide sufficient
evidence to justify their alignment with or its support for recent theories and research
findings. Most importantly, your conclusions must present your judgment of the
truthfulness of your findings and your assessment of their capacity to answer either
positively or negatively your research hypotheses or research questions. (Silverman
2013; Morgan 2014)
Pointers in Writing Conclusions
1. Explain your point in simple and clear sentences.
2. Use expressions that center on the topic rather than on yourself, the researcher.
3. Include only necessary items; exclude any piece of information or picture not
closely related to your report.
4. Have your conclusion contain only validly supported findings instead of falsified
results.
5. Practice utmost honesty and objectivity in stating the results of your critical
evaluation of outcomes that you expect to support your conclusions.
Directions: Answer each question judiciously.
1. Give the connection between conclusion and data analysis results.
2. Why should the conclusion section be the final part of your paper?
3. How do you determine the validity of evidence to back up your conclusion?
4. How can drawing conclusions improve your logical thinking?
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5. What is falsified evidence?
Directions: INDIVIDUAL ACTIVITY. Check (/) the column with the heading that
expresses your judgment about the following purported evidence to prove a conclusion.
Evidence Good Poor Reasons, Comments,

Evidence Evidence Reactions
1. The workers seem willing to
file a labor case.
2. They worked hard the way
the characters in the movie,
The Bible, did their jobs.
3. The company’s records
show the number of absences
the laborers incurred.
4. Apparently, the laborers
failed to get their 13th-month
pay last year.
5. For returning the lost and
found wallet containing
₧15,000, the laborer received
a certificate of merit.
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Chapter VIII Reporting and Sharing the Findings
Sharing and reporting research findings follow a special way of knowledge

presentation. It is not any kind or way of revealing discovered truths about people or
things in this world. It adheres to a certain standard and format or structure. Made up
of various components reflecting exhaustive acquisition of declarative and procedural
knowledge, a research report adopts an academically accepted ways of placing or
positioning each section of the report and of acknowledging the sources of data.
Abiding by these research-reporting formalities warrants an existence of a genuine or
honest-to-goodness kind of a research study.
LESSON 16 Reporting and Sharing the Findings
Meaning of Reporting and Sharing the Findings
The findings of your research are meant to be reported to or shared with others
because your primary aim in researching is to strengthen existing knowledge or
discover new ones for the improvement of the world. Hence, you have to bring your
findings out to the readers in a way that you must communicate things you procedurally
performed and things you found out through your principled data collecting and
analysis methods. Your report about the findings of your research study must adhere to
a standard structure or format that has the following elements: (Corti 2014; Braun
2013; Remlen 2011)
Structure or Format of the Research Report
1. Title
The title gives information and description of the subject matter of the research.
Being the short catchy part of your paper that has the power to instantly attract a
reader, it must contain keywords to predict the content and tone of the research paper.
An attention-getting kind of a title is short, informative, made up of only 15 to 20
words. Owing to this essential role of a research title, you must think of one that is
meaningful, specific, and reflective of the standards of writing research titles like: the
title is not a sentence; not all capitalized; and not negative in tone. In addition, jargons
and acronyms are a big no-no to research title writing.
2. Abstract
The abstract concisely discusses the essential aspects of your paper such as the
background of the problem, objectives, significance, research design, data collection
technique, data analysis method, discussions of the findings, scope, conclusions, among
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others. Giving 100- to 150-word discussions of the salient parts of the research paper,
your abstract suffices as the summary of your research report. Since an abstract
explains in a nutshell all essential components of the research paper, it usually comes
to its written form only after the final stage of the research work.
3. Introduction
This part explains the background of the research problem, states a set of
specific research questions, and of optional hypotheses or assumptions. The purpose of
this section is to let the readers see the connection of the purposes of your research
questions not only with the current world condition, but also with theoretical principles
that underlie your topic and other aspects of your research.
4. Method
This section explains the types and sources of data as well as the method you
used in collecting and analyzing the data you have gathered. Doing this part accurately
enables the readers to determine how objective and ethical you were in conducting the
research and how possible it could be for them to replicate your research study for
validation purposes.
5. Findings
Present as findings of your study those that you have analyzed and commented on.
There are several ways of doing this: by means of graphical presentation, statistical
method, or written discussion.
6. Discussion and Conclusion
Findings resulting from thematically or theoretically gathered and analyzed data with
the capacity of leading you to a valid conclusion are explained in this section. Any
conclusions stated in this part of the paper derive their validity or truthfulness from
factual or logically determined data. Also, such conclusions become valuable as they are
able to answer the specific research questions and render any research hypotheses or
assumptions right or wrong.
7. Recommendations
To broaden the readers’ knowledge and understanding of the area covered by

the research, recommend or let the readers positively consider some activities they can
possibly do to extend, modify, replicate, or validate the findings of your research work.
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8. References
Follow a standard documentary style. Alphabetize, identify, and list down in this
section all sources of knowledge you used in carrying out your study.
9. Appendix
This contains copies of table, questionnaires, interview rates, observation

checklist, and other materials that are indispensable or necessary in completing your
research study.
Referencing Your Research
Referencing your research means directing your readers to the exact sources of
data or information stated in your report, particularly those stated in the review of
related literature. This is easy for you if the moment you collect data, you begin
practicing a systematic, accurate, and complete recording of the identities of the
sources of data. Unmindful of proper referencing of your research causes the readers to
question the genuineness of the contents of your research paper. There are several
styles of referencing your research, namely, Harvardian, Vancouver, Turibian, APA, and
MLA. (Silverman 2013; Litchman 2013; Tracy 2013) Many prefer using the last two
styles. The following are the important things you have to know about these commonly
used referencing styles.
MLA Style
MLA stands for Modern Language Association and it has this other name,
Humanities Style. This referencing style is often used in literature, history, and arts. It
provides bibliographic citation in notes that correspond to reference number in the body
of the paper. These notes are called footnotes when they are printed at the foot of the
page; notes or endnotes (sometimes, back notes) when they are printed at the back of
the book, at the end of a chapter, or at the end of an article in a journal. Some authors
prefer using endnotes rather than footnotes to economize space, time, and effort of the
artist and to make the paper appear more physically presentable.
In using footnotes or notes, you number the notes consecutively from number 1
throughout each chapter or article. Place the note number at the end of the sentence,
of a clause, and right after a quotation. Do not put the number at the end or within a
chapter title or at a subheading because this suggests negligence in organization.
Notes to charts, tables, and other graphs make use of symbols, letters, and,
sometimes, numbers. These notes on graphs, which are numbered independently in the
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text, must be placed below the table or illustration, not at the foot of the page or at the
end of the book or article. Notes consisting of explanations or elaborations of the
discussions in the text are called substantive or discursive notes.
Examples of Substantive or Discursive Notes
1. The CAS of U.P. Diliman has a different version of K-12 Curriculum. (Jaime
Tamayo. Globalization vs. K-12 Curriculum. Quezon City: U.P. Press, 2016, pp.
56–65) Find an expanded discussion of this in (Luis Hizon. Changes in the
Philippine Educational System. Manila: Abaya Publishing Co. 2017, pp. 78–90)
2. Documentary evidence of the continuous increase of the country’s rice

importation in 10 years is shown in (Ana Perez and Norma Pascual. The
Perennial Rice Shortage. Baguio City: St. Louis Press, 2017, pp. 38–45)
3. Liza Mabalot gives a special attention to the 15th SAMPRA’s failure to issue
certificates to participants right after the conference in (Global Trends in
Language Teaching and Learning. Manila: Rex Bookstore Inc., 2016, pp. 78–85)
4. In 2016, the recipients of the TOYM award mostly came from the NCR (National
Capital Region). Only one hailed from the southern part of the country. (Mario
Yulo. 2017. Awards for World Progress. Quezon City: National Press Club, 2017,
p. 38)
Examples of End Notes
p. 20 3.89 Fredo Gomez, Language and Culture, in ―On Intercultural

Competence,‖ p. 68.
p. 20 3.24 Helen Smith, The 21st Century Movies trans. William Burns. New
York: Vintage House 2016, p. 356.
p. 21 3.57 Have more on this. See Phillip L. Morgan, Cultural Impact of 21st
Century Movies. Washington: ABC Press. 2017, pp. 34–56; Vissher Hilton. 21st
Century Movies. vol.3. ―The Timeliness and Relevance of 21st Century Movies‖
(trans. Suxy Sean. New York: Penguin Press. 2016); and Chloe Collins. Culture
and Movies. London: Routlege. 2017, pp. 367–350.
p. 22 3.35 ―Ethnicity vs. 21st Century Movies,‖ in Movie World, trans. T.J. Castro:
Australia: Kegan Paul, 2017, p. 457.
p. 23 3.53 Ibid., p.256
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p. 25 3.45 Contemporary Movies, p. 478
p. 25 3.12 Ibid., p. 456
p. 25 3.2 Ibid.
p. 26 45 Ibid.
p. 26 2.5 The Movies to Watch p.28 p. 26 1.13 Ibid., p. 231
In a note system of referencing, you are not required to make a bibliography,

because the endnotes can already give you full bibliographical details. However, to help
your readers quickly locate the source of the data, it is better if you put in both notes
and bibliography.
The list of books and other references in your paper are written under the
title, Bibliography or Select/Selected Bibliography if some of the data came from your
background knowledge or previous reading activities. Use the title, References, if
everything in the body of the paper came from books and periodicals you read. The use
of the title, References, requires you to list down under this title the names or identities
of all sources of knowledge from where you got the data that you mentioned in your
paper.
Under the MLA system, the items in the Bibliography are arranged alphabetically.
You do not need to number them. For a bibliographical entry, write the book
information in this order: full author’s surname and first name (optional middle name
initial), title of the book or periodical, place of publication, publisher, and date of
publication. If there are several entries written by the same author, to avoid repetition
of names, use a 3 em dash in place of the first name.
Use the following punctuation marks for every entry under this system: period
after the author’s name and title; colon after the place of publication; comma after the
publisher and after volume and number if it is a periodical material. End every entry
with a period. Underline or italicize the title with all the content words in such title
capitalized. For periodicals, enclose the title of the article with quotation marks but
leave the title of the periodical unmarked.
For the MLA documentary notes, the same number and arrangement of the
pieces of book information as those in the bibliography; only that, in notes, write the
author before his or her family name.
77 | P a g e
Citations or in-text citations under the MLA system just require the presence of
the family name of the author plus the number of the page where the information is
found. The page number immediately comes after the author’s name; with just one
space provided to separate the two.
Abbreviations are commonly used in documenting data through the MLA system.
The following are some examples of abbreviations that you do not need to document
for they exist as common knowledge: (Russell 2013; Corti 2014; Remlen 2011)
Examples of MLA Referencing Style
1. Citation or In-text Citation
(Lizardo 257)
(Decena, Obeza, Jurado 120–130) (Fortun et al. 234–250) (Gregorio: 1: 56–80)
2. Documentary Notes
The same as the entries in a bibliography or references, except that, here, the
first name precedes the family name of the author.
Josie Cruz, G. Mt. Pinatubo Quezon City: GB Press. 2016. Manolo De Guzman.
Naming of typhoons.
3. Bibliography/References One author
Cruz, Josie A. Mt. Pinatubo Lahar. (Quezon City: GB Press. 2016).
Paras, Beth M. The Philippine Eagle. (Adarna Publishing House. Manila: 2016).
Two Authors
Oteza, Nina C. and David, Jose L. Climate Change. (Baguio City: KLM Co.2018).
Reyes, Mario R. and Cortez, Josie M. Collegiate Athletic Competitions. (Manila:

National Bookstore, 2016).
Three Authors
(List the names in the order they appear on the title page.) Ramos, Celso A.,
Bautista, Cora C. and Vinluan, Gloria F. Energy-givingFoods. (Pasay City: ABC
Press. 2016).
78 | P a g e
Manuel, Joven D., Gregorio, Ben C., and Ferrer, Susan V. The Fury of Super
Typhoon Yolanda. (Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House. Manila, 2016).
Three or More Authors (Use the first name in the list)
Samson, Esther N. et al. Philippine Trial Courts. (Quezon City: Rex Bookstore,
2016).
Norman, Vivian. et al. Entry-level Workers’ Pay. (Pasig City: Hope Press.2016).
Anonymous Author (If the authorship of a work is known but not revealed on the
title page, the name is given in brackets.)
[Evelyn Vargas]. The Bubble Gang. (Nowhere: Nonesuch Press, 2016). [Lina
Calderon]. Bulletin-board Postings. (Nowhere: Nonesuch Publication,2016).
(If the identity of the author is guessed, a question mark follows the name
before the closing bracket.)
[Evelyn Vargas?] The Bubble Gang. (Nowhere: Nonesuch Press, 2016).
Editor, Translator, Compiler
Parayno, Gabriel. F. ed. Philippine Politics. (Manila: PH Press. 2016). Generoso,

Luis F. comp. Banking Systems. (Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House, 2016).
Formoso, John S. The Makati Business Club. trans. (Makati City: Rex Press,
2016).
Editor, Translator, Compiler with an Author Parayno, Gabriel. F. Philippine

Politics. Edited by Kay Abante and Cora Cortez. (Manila: PH Press. 2016).
Generoso, Luis F. Banking Systems. Compiled by Gina David. (Quezon City: Abiva
Publishing House, 2016).
Formoso, John S. The Makati Business Club. Translated by Carlos Fojas. (Makati
City: Rex Press, 2016).
Organization, Association, or Corporation as Author
International Monetary Fund, Survey of Asian Economies. Vol. 6, Malaysia,

Thailand, Indonesia and Philippines (New York International Monetary Fund,
2008).
79 | P a g e
No Ascertainable Publication Facts
Carmona, Lory. The Marcos Regime. (n.p., n.d.) Solis, Dianne. Philippine Law
Schools. (n.p, n.d.)
Popular Magazines
Suratos, Mila. ―The Ilocano Dishes,‖ Panorama, March 2016, pp. 23–26. Roldan,
Arnold. ―Banana Leaves.‖ World Mission, May 8, 2016, p. 8.
Newspapers
News items from daily papers are rarely listed in a bibliography. Rather, the
name of the paper may be given either in the general alphabetical list or in a
separate section devoted to the newspapers.
Interviews
Interviews are best cited in texts or notes. It is not necessary to include them in
a bibliography, but if they are listed, the entries should appear in this manner:
Barcelo, Felicitas. ―Laguna de Bay: Interview with Felicitas Barcelo.‖ By Gloria De

La Cruz. The Manila Bulletin, 4 August 2016.
Theses, Dissertations, and Other Unpublished Works
Villar, Rosalina. D. ―Modern Language Theories― (Ph. D diss., U.P. Diliman,

2016).
Tiempo, Dolores G. ―Critical Evaluation of UST High School Language Books‖ (M.
A. UST, 2016).
Reference Books: Encyclopedia, Dictionary, Almanac, Indexes, etc.
Well-known reference books are usually not listed in bibliographies. When such
reference books are listed in notes, the facts about the publication are usually
omitted, but the edition, if not the first, must be specified. References to
encyclopedia, dictionary, or to the alphabetically arranged works cite the items
(not the volume or page number) preceded by S.V. or sub verbo, meaning
―under the word.‖
1. Encyclopedia Britannica, 10th ed., S.V. ―Ozone Layer.‖
80 | P a g e
2. Columbia Encyclopedia, 5th ed., S.V. ―Industrial Revolution.‖
3. Webster’s New International Dictionary, 3rd ed., S.V.

―cantankerous.‖
Slides and Film’s Videocassettes
Fulgencio, Krina C. ―Urban Planning.‖ (Quezon City: Palmall Press, 2016) slides.
Arnaiz, Earl A. ―Room for Rent‖ (Manila: SSG Press, 2016) filmstrip.
Online Materials
1. Signed article in a magazine
Davis, Robert. ―Email Craze.‖ Interactions. July 2016. http://www.inter.

com/Jol/labor.htm/.
2. Unsigned article in a magazine
―Power Interview.‖ Business Trends Magazine. August 2016. http://www.
BusTRendscom/Bus Trends/Trends/ctshoot.html.
3. Article in Journal
―Systemic Functional Grammar.‖ English Forum. 38.7 (2016). 18 May 2016.

http://www.jhu.edu/English Studies Journal/vol.83/83.1 strethson. html.
4. Article in Newspaper
Leonardo, Jerome. ―Japan and the 2009 Tsunami.‖ New Daily Life Star. 21
December 2017. http://www.nytimes.com/2016/26 world/28 MIDE. html.
5. An Editorial
―Vatican City: Pope’s Residence.‖ Editorial. Philippine Daily Inquirer. July 7,
2016. http://www.a-pinq.com/ed/2016/24/po4.html.
6. Online books
Litchten, Feona D. American Pragmatics Organization. (2014). 2nd AMPRA

Conference/Photos http://androgers.smugmug.com/Linguists/ AMPRA-2.
81 | P a g e
Dizon, Jomar G. ―Political Campaign Strategies‖ 15–20, May 2016 dialog ERIC
AED23376.
7. CD-ROM/Diskette
Amante, Peter B. ―Stem-Cell Treatment.‖ Manila Post News Bank. April 2017: TI
Manila Post News Bank.CD-ROM. News Bank. April 2017.
―Maharishi.‖ The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. CD-ROM. Oxford UP,2017.
APA Style
The APA (American Psychological Association) is also called Author-Date Style.

This is often used by researchers in the field of natural science and social sciences. The
APA style uses space and time; MLA, not much. However, nowadays, for economic
reasons, more and more researchers, regardless of their area of specialization, prefer to
use the APA style.
There are two parts of the APA referencing style that are essential: in-text
citation or citation and reference list. The first part, which is enclosed in parentheses, is
found in the body of the text; the second part, at the end of the book. In contrast to
the MLA style that gives complete biographical information in the footnotes or
endnotes, the APA style gives only brief information in the text citation, but gives the
full biographical details in the reference list.
Under the APA system, the items in the References are arranged alphabetically.
You do not need to number them. For each entry under the title, References, write the
book information in this order: full author’s surname and first name and middle name
initials (optional, middle name initial), date of publication, title of the book or periodical,
place of publication, and the publisher. If there are several entries written by the same
author, to avoid repetition of names, use a 3 em dash in place of the first name.
Use the following punctuation marks for every entry under the APA system:
period after the author’s name and title; colon after the place of publication; comma
after the publisher and after volume and number if it is a periodical material. End every
entry with a period. Italicize the title and capitalize only the initial word of the title.
Unless a word in the title is a proper noun, all words in the title are written in small
82 | P a g e
letters. For periodicals, enclose the title of the article with quotation marks but
underline the title of the periodical.
Citations or in-text citations under the APA system make you write inside the
parentheses only the family name of the author; followed by the year of publication,
and if some words were copied verbatim; next is the number of the page where the
copied words of the author are found. Another APA style of citation is writing the family
name of the author separately from the copyright date. In this case, only the date is
enclosed in parentheses. (Russel 2013; Burns 2012)
Examples of APA Referencing Style
1. Citation or In-text Citation
(Lizardo, 2016) (Millares, 2017)
(Decena, Obeza, Jurado, 2016, pp. 120–130) (Fortun et al., 2016)
According to Gregorio (2017) Olivares (2016) maintains that...
A study on the Yolanda Tent House is a ―doable research work ― (Aquino, 2016,
p.78)
2. Bibliography/References One author
Fajardo, J. A. 2016. The Ebola Virus. Quezon City: GB Press.
Perez, B. M. 2017. The Philippine Constitution: The highest law of the land.
Manila: Adarna Publishing House.
Two Authors
Oropesa, N. C. and David, J. L. 2017. Palawan penal colony. Baguio City: KLM
Company.
Reynoso, M. R. and Saballa, J. M. 2017. Academic freedom. Manila: National

Bookstore.
Three Authors
(List the names in the order they appear on the title page.) Revilla, C. A.,
Bautista, C. C., and Vinuya, G. F. 2017. Boy scout jamborees.Pasay City: ABC
Press.
83 | P a g e
Manaloto, J. D., Gracia, B. C., and Ferrer, S. V. 2017. The victims of super-
typhoon Y olanda. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House.
Three or More Authors
(Use the name of the first author listed on the title page.) Sonora, E. N. et al.
2016. Regional trial courts. Quezon City: Rex Bookstore. Sevilla, V. et al. 2016.
Labour strikes. Pasig City: Hope Press.
Anonymous Author
(If the authorship of a work is known but not revealed on the title page, the
name is given in brackets.)
[Valerio, E.]. The millennium condominium craze. 2016. Nowhere: Nonesuc

Press.
[Valderon, L.]. Non-verbal language. 2016. Nowhere: Nonesuch Publication.
If the name is Guess
(If the identity of the author is guessed, a question mark follows the name
before the closing bracket.)
[Valerio, E.?] The millennium condominium craze. Nowhere: Nonesuch Press.
Editor, Translator, Compiler
Pareja, G. F. 2016. ed. Pacquio’s lucky charm. Manila: PH Press.
Orosa, L. F. 2016. comp. Merging of banks. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing

House.
Floro, J. S. 2016. Students’ activities. trans. (Makati City: Rex Press.
Editor, Translator, Compiler with an Author
Lauriano, G. F. 2016. Language textbook writing. Edited by Gina Alamares and

Ching Cortez. Manila: PH Press.
Bravo, Luisa F. 2016. Faculty Evaluation System. Compiled by Baby Lapid.

Quezon City: Abiva Publishing House.
Clemente, J. S. 2016. Pope Francis’ papal visits. Translated by Carina Davalos.

Makati City: Rex Press.
84 | P a g e
Organization, Association, or Corporation as Author
International Monetary Fund, 2008. Survey of Asian Economies. Vol. 6, Malaysia,

Thailand, Indonesia and Philippines New York International Monetary Fund.
No Ascertainable Publication Facts
Ramona, L. The rise and fall of the Marcos regime. (n.p., n.d.) Soriano, D.
Western law schools. (n.p., n.d.)
Popular Magazines
Salvador, M. March 2016. ―The Chinese Dishes,‖ Panorama, pp. 23–26. Olarte, A.
May 8, 2016. ―Catholicism in Asia.‖ World Mission, p. 8.
Newspapers
Abad, C. S. ―Gated subdivisions in Caloocan City,‖ 2016. Philippine Daily Inquirer.

7 May.
Manila Bulletin. 2017. Editorial, 2 December.
Malaya. 2016. Editorial, 18 July.
Interviews
Ballesteros, F. April 2016. ―K-12 curriculum: Interview with Felicitas
Ballesteros.‖ April 2016. Interview by Anabelle De La Cruz. The Manila Bulletin.
Templo, E. May 2017. ―High-school dropouts: Interview with Dr. Juan.
Barrameda.‖ Interview by Lucy Amarillo. The Daily Tribune.
Theses, Dissertations, and Other Unpublished Works
Villarica, R. D. 2016. ―Contemporary Language Theories.‖ Ph. D. diss., U.P.

Diliman.
Corpuz, D. G. 2017. ―The UST faculty evaluation system: Critical Analysis.‖ M.A.,
UST.
85 | P a g e
Slides and Film’s Videocassettes
Gaudencio, K. C. 2016. ―Family Planning.‖ Quezon City: Palmall Press. Slides.
Arenas, E. A. 2017. ―Philippine Rental Laws.‖ Manila: SSG Press. Filmstrip.
Online Materials
1. Signed article in a magazine
Duterte, R. July 2016. ― Social-media networks.‖ Personality growth. http://

www.inter.com/Jol/labor.htm/.
2. Unsigned article in a magazine
―Unstructured interview. August 2016.‖ Business Trends Magazine. http://

www.BusTRendscom/Bus Trends/Trends/ctshoot.htmlz.
3. Article in Journal
―Linguistic competence. 18 May 2016.‖ English Forum. http://www.jhu.

edu/English Studies Journal/vol.83/83.1 strethson.html.
4. Article in Newspaper
Lepanto, J. ―globalization vs. climate change.‖ 21 December 2016. New Daily Life
Star. http://www.nytimes.com/2016/26 world/28 MIDE. html.
5. An Editorial
―Political Dynasty in the Philippines. 7 July 2016.‖ Editorial. Philippine Daily

Inquirer. http://www.a-pinq.com/ed/2016/24/po4.html.
6. Online books
Litchten, F. D. 2016. American pragmatics. http: AMPRA

2 etext2014/14w0310txtz.
De Gracias, J. G. 15-20, May 2017. ―Collaborative language activities‖ dialog

ERIC AED23376.
CD-RM/Diskette
Dizon, P. B. April 2016. ―Herbal treatment.‖ Manila Post News Bank. TI Manila
Post News Bank.CD-ROM. News Bank.
86 | P a g e
―Domestic helper.‖ 2016. The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. CD-ROM.
Oxford UP.
Directions: Choose two among the following sets of information on reading

materials. Using the APA and MLA referencing styles, write what you’ve chosen
as entries in a bibliography and reference list.
1. Title: The Varsitarian
Article: Being a Political Science Student
Author: Daffodil B. Garra
Publisher: UST Publishing House
Volume: 38
Pub. date: May 2, 2017
Pub. place: Manila
2. Title: Proposal Reports Author: Engr. Jose M. Cruz
Pub. place: Quezon City
Pub. date: 2017
Publisher: Rex Bookstore, Inc.
3. Publisher: ABC Press Pub. date: June 20, 2017
Author: Betty K. Nubla
Pub. place: Baguio City
Title of the article: Writing Methods and Styles Pages: 3–8
Magazine: Panorama
87 | P a g e
4. Title of the Article: K-12 Curriculum Date: August 27, 2016
URL: http://jerz.setonhill.edu/resources/FAq/TW.htm
Magazine: Education Journal
Author: Filipinas B. Cruz
Retrieval date: April 8, 2017
5. Date: 2018
Publisher: U.P. Press
Author: Dr. Hilario V. David
Pub. place: Quezon City
Title: Long-distance Education
88 | P a g e
REFERENCES
Bernard, R. 2013. Social Research Method: Qualitative and Quantitative Approach.

Los Angeles: Sage.
Birks, M., and J. Mills. 2014. Qualitative Methodology: A Practical Guide. Los
Angeles: Sage.
Bloomberg, L., and M. Volpe. 2012. Completing Your Qualitative Dissertation: A

Road Map from Beginning to End. Los Angeles: Sage.
Braun, V., and V. Clarke. 2013. Successful Qualitative Research: A Practical Guide
for Beginners. Los Angeles: Sage
Burns, A., and R. Bush. 2012. Basic Research Method. 3rd ed. New York: Pearson.
Clow, K., and K. James. 2014. Essentials of Marketing Research: Putting Research
into Practice. Los Angeles: Sage.
Coghan, D., and T. Branneick. 2014. Doing Action Research in Your Own
Organization. 4th ed. Los Angeles: Sage.
Corti, L. et al. 2014. Managing and Sharing Research Data: A Guide To Good
Practice. Los Angeles: Sage.
Decilo, P. 2014. Achieving Impact in Research. Los Angeles: Sage.
Dixon, J., and R. A. Singleton. 2013. Reading Social Research Studies in

Inequalities and Deviance. Los Angeles: Sage.
Edmonds, A., and T. Kennedy. 2013. An Applied Reference Guide to Research

Designs: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Method. Los Angeles: Sage.
Fraenkel, J., N. Wallen, and H. Hyun. 2012. How to Design and Evaluate Research
in Education. USA: McGraw Hill.
Gorard, S. 2013. Research Design: Creating Robust Appreciation for the Social
Research. Los Angeles: Sage.
Grbich, C. 2013. Qualitative Data Analysis. Los Angeles: Sage.
Hammersley, M., and A. Traianou. 2012. Ethics in Qualitative Research:

Controversies and Context. Los Angeles: Sage.
Harding, J. 2013. Qualitative Data Analysis from Start to Finish. Los Angeles: Sage.
89 | P a g e
Jesson, J., L. Matheson, and F. Lacy. 2011. Doing Your Literature Review:
Traditional and Systematic Techniques. Los Angeles: Sage.
www.ericdigect.org.
Lapan, S., M. Quartaroli, and F. Riemer. 2012. An Introduction to Research
Methods and Designs. USA: Jossey-Bass, A Wiley Imprint.
Lappuci, R., and A. K. Haghi. 2013. Education for A Digital World. Toronto: Apple
Academy Press.
Letherby, G., J. Scott, and M. Williams. 2013. Objectivity and Subjectivity in Social
Research. Los Angeles: Sage.
Litchman, M. 2013. Qualitative Research in Education: A University’s Guide. 3rd ed.
London: Sage.
McLeod, L. C. 2012. What School Needs to Know About Digital Technologies and
Social Media. USA: Jossey-Bass.
Meng, K. J. 2012. Marketing Research for Beginners: A Practical Guide (Handbook).
Singapore: Cengage Learning.
Morgan, D. L. 2014. Integrating Qualitative and Quantitative Methods: A
Pragmatic Approach. Los Angeles: Sage.
Punch, K. F. 2014. Introduction to Social Research Qualitative and Quantitative
Approaches.
3rd ed. London: Sage.
Ransome, P. 2013. Ethics and Values in Social Research. New York: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Remlen, D., and G. Van Ruzzin. 2011. Research Method in Practice: Strategies for
Description and Causation. Los Angeles: Sage.
Ridley, D. 2012. The Literature Review: A Guide for Students. Los Angeles: Sage.
Ritchie, J. et al. 2014. Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science
Students and Researchers. Los Angeles: Sage.
Rubing, H. J., and I. Rubin. 2012. Qualitative Interview (The Art of Hearing Data).
Los Angeles: Sage.
Russell, B. 2013. Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative

Approaches. Los Angeles: Sage.
90 | P a g e
Sarantakos, S. 2013. Social Research. 4th ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Schreiber, J. K., and K. Ashner-Self. 2011. Educational Research. USA: John Wiley
and Sons.
Smaldino, S., D. Lawther, and D. James. 2012. Introducing Technology and Media
for Learning. 10th ed. New York: Pearson.
Small, R. V. et al. 2012. Teaching for Inquiry: Engaging Learners Within. New
York: Neal-Shuman Publishers Inc.
Suter, N. W. 2012. Introduction to Educational Research: A Critical Approach. Los

Angeles: Sage.
Thomas, G. 2013. How to Do Your Research Project. London: Sage.
Tracy, S. J. 2013. Qualitative Research Methods: Collecting, Evaluating, Crafting

Analysis, and Communicating Research Impact. UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
Yin, R. K. 2012. Application of Case Studies Research. Los Angeles: Sage.
91 | P a g e

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PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1

CHAPTER I Nature of Inquiry and Research

CHAPTER II Qualitative Research and Its Importance in Daily Life

CHAPTER III Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the Problem

CHAPTER IV Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature

CHAPTER V Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data

Chapter I: Nature of Inquiry and Research

LESSON 1 Nature of Inquiry

Governing Principles or Foundation of Inquiry

Benefits of Inquiry-Based Learning

Educators, businessmen, and other professionals consider all these benefits of

Directions: Explain your understanding of inquiry by answering the following questions

LESSON 2 Nature of Research

In college, you involve yourself in varied school activities such as academic

1. To learn how to work independently

Is the research applied to theoretical or practical issues? If it deals with

Descriptive Research – This type of research aims at defining or giving a

Assessing the Extent of Concept Learning

Classification of research types

Chapter II Qualitative Research and Its Importance in Daily Life

LESSON 3 Qualitative Research

In a qualitative research, the reality is conditioned by society and people’s

Characteristics of a Qualitative Research

1. Human understanding and interpretation

to examine the context or situation of an individual’s life—the who, what, why,

Types of Qualitative Research

Advantages or Strengths of Qualitative Research

6. It increases the researcher’s interest in the study as it includes the researcher’s

Disadvantages or Weaknesses of Qualitative Research

1. It involves a lot of researcher’s subjectivity in data analysis.

3. Differentiate subjectivity from objectivity.

4. Explain the connection between subjectivity/objectivity and your research work.

5. How is grounded theory different from other qualitative research methods?

Assessing the Extent of Concept Learning

Topic Poor Good Better Best

LESSON 4 Qualitative Research in Different Areas of Knowledge

Subject Area Research Approaches

Research studies happen in any field of knowledge. Anthropology, Business,

Hard Sciences vs. Soft Science

A quantitative or qualitative kind of research is not exclusive to hard sciences or

10. The mixed method of

Assessing the Extent of Concept Learning

Concep Very To a certain Not at all

Chapter III Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the Problem

Inquiry or research drives you to a thorough or an in-depth analysis of a certain

LESSON 5 Subject Matter of the Inquiry or Research

Guidelines in Choosing a Research Topic

1. Interest in the subject matter

3. Timeliness and relevance of the topic

Research Topics to be Avoided

or ―Several People’s Comments on the RH Law,‖ are vague enough to decrease

Sources of Research Topics

Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Identify the word or phrase referred to by the

1. A descriptive word for a topic useful to society’s progress

LESSON 6 Research Problems and Research Question

Meaning of Research Problem

Research questions aim at investigating specific aspects of the research problem.

Guidelines in Formulating Research Questions

Directions: WHOLE-CLASS ACTIVITY. Share with your classmates your

2. Research questions are inseparable from the research problem.

Question Hour for Speculative Thinking

Chapter IV Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature

LESSON 7 Review of Related Literature (RRL)