CCST 4124

Chemistry for Life Science

Chapter 2
Chemical Bonding and Periodicity
Dr. T.H. YUI
1
Classification of Matter
Matter
➢ Anything which has mass and occupies space.
➢ Example: You, Your classmate, Your lecturer, Salt, Glucose, Air

Pure Substance
➢ A single substance (elements or compounds) that has nothing else
mixed with.
➢ Example: Salt (NaCl), Glucose (C6H12O6), Oxygen gas (O2)

Mixture
➢ Two or more elements or compounds physically mixed together
without chemical changes.
➢ Example:
1. Air (A mixture of Nitrogen gas, Oxygen gas, Carbon dioxide and Other
gases)
2. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) – A mixture of propane, butane, and
Other gases
2
Element and Compound
Element
➢ Pure substance which cannot be broken down into
anything simpler by chemical method.
➢ Example: Hydrogen gas (H2), Oxygen gas (O2),
Sulphur (S8) and Carbon (C)

Compound
➢ Pure substance composed two or more elements
chemically joined together.
➢ Example: Glucose (C6H12O6), Water (H2O)

3
Recall Chapter 1 p.38…
Noble gases are stable in atomic form
because their outermost shells are fully
filled.

Other elements tend to lose/gain/share

electrons to achieve nearest fully filled
electronic structure (i.e. duplet/octet
structure).

Exchanging/Sharing of electrons
between elements to achieve fully filled
structure together

Chemical Bonding

4
 Chemical Bonding

Compounds are formed by formation of chemical bonding

via gaining, losing or sharing electrons between atoms or
ions of two or more different elements

Formation of chemical bonding only involves valence

(outermost shell) electrons.

Recall Chapter 1 p.34…

The Chemical Properties of an Element is majorly

contributed by its Outermost Shell Electrons.
5
 The Octet Rule
Recall Chapter 1 p.38 again and again…

Noble gases are stable in atomic form

because their outermost shells are fully
filled.

Other elements tend to lose/gain/share

electrons to achieve nearest fully filled
electronic structure (i.e. duplet/octet
structure).

Octet Rule
Atoms tend to gain, lose or share electrons until they have eight valence
electrons (i.e.: noble gas electronic structure) when they form bonds.

6
Exceptions in Octet Rule
Octet Rule
➢Atoms will share electrons (e-) until it is surrounded by eight
valence electrons
➢When compounds are formed, they usually follow the Octet Rule

➢Exceptions
1. H is satisfied with 2 electrons only (Duplet Structure)
2. Species that cannot obey octet rule by itself (e.g.: BH3)
3. Elements after period 3 may have d-orbital participation
which override the octet rule. (e.g.: H2SO4, MnO4-)
Bonding Types

Principle of Chemical Bonding

Gain/Lose/Share Electrons

Major Bonding Types:

1. Ionic Bonding
2. Covalent Bonding
3. Metallic Bonding

8
 Ionic Bonding
Ionic Bonding
Electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
(i.e.: Cations and Anions)
Compounds formed by ionic bonding are called ionic compound.
➢Usually formed between metals and non-metals (but NOT necessary)

Recall Chapter 1 p.40 and p.44…

Group 1 and Group 2 Elements(Metals) tend to form cations by losing

their outermost electrons in order to obtain stable duplet/octet structure.

Group 5 to Group 7 Elements tend to form anions by gaining electrons in

order to obtain stable duplet/octet structure.

9
 Formation of Ionic Bonding

Compound

Electrostatic attraction between +ve cation and –ve anion

Electronic Electronic Electronic Electronic

Element Cation Remark
arrangement configuration arrangement configuration
Na 2, 8, 1 1s22s22p63s1 or [Ne]3s1 Na+ 2, 8 1s22s22p6 or [Ne] Octet structure

Cl 1s22s22p63s22p5 Cl- 1s22s22p63s23p6

2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8 Octet structure
or [Ne] 3s22p5 or [Ar]

10
Exercise Time
Draw the electronic diagram of the following
compounds:

1. Magnesium Chloride

2. Sodium Sulphide

3. Aluminum Oxide

4. Potassium Hydride

11
Atomic Radii v.s. Ionic Radii

12
Effective Nuclear Charge – Cation
Using Sodium (Na) as an example:
Atom: No. of Protons = No. of Electrons
In a Sodium Atom (Na):
No. of Proton = 11
No. of Electrons = 11
Effective Nuclear Charge = 11/11 = 1

+
In a Sodium Ion (Na ):
No. of Proton = 11
No. of Electrons = 10
Effective Nuclear Charge = 11/10 = 1.1

+
No. of protons > no. of electrons in Na
+
Effective Nuclear Charge of Na > Na
Contraction of Electron Cloud
+
Size of Na < Na
13
Effective Nuclear Charge – Anion
Using Chlorine (Cl) as an example:
Atom: No. of Protons = No. of Electrons
In a Chlorine Atom (Cl):
No. of Proton = 17
No. of Electrons = 17
Effective Nuclear Charge = 17/17 = 1

-
In a Chloride Ion (Cl ):
No. of Proton = 17
No. of Electrons = 18
Effective Nuclear Charge = 17/18 = 0.94

-
No. of protons < no. of electrons in Cl
-
Effective Nuclear Charge of Cl < Cl
Expansion of Electron Cloud
-
Size of Cl > Cl
14
Covalent Bonding
Covalent Bonding
Two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons
Each shared pairs of electrons forms one covalent bond

Molecule
An electrically neutral group of two or more atoms held together by
covalent bond(s).

If those atoms are the same element → Molecular Element Inform

molecular

If those atoms are different elements → Covalent Compound

➢Usually formed between non-metals and non-metals (again, NOT necessary)

15
 Formation of Covalent Bonding

Electronic Electronic
Element
arrangement configuration
8 electrons 8 electrons
Cl 1s22s22p63s22p5 Octet structure Octet structure
2, 8, 7
or [Ne] 3s22p5

Chlorine atom needs one electron to fulfill octet rule

Sharing a pair of electrons from each chlorine atom

16
Lewis Structure
Dot & Cross Diagram
➢ A fundamental tools to familiarize the concept of covalent bonding
➢ Quite annoying when structures are complicated
➢ Lewis Structure – Simplify the chemical structure of covalent compounds

Lewis Dot Symbol

➢ Using dots to represent valence electrons for the elements
➢ Can be determined based on the elements position on the periodic table

1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18

17
Valence Electrons v.s. No. of Covalent Bonds
Valence electrons and number of bonds
➢Number of bonds depending on the number of valence electrons

No. of Covalent
Element Lewis Dot Symbol →
Bond
Halogens 1 Covalent Bond
→
F, Cl, Br, I Often
Group 16 2 Covalent Bonds
→
O, S Often
Group 15 3 Covalent Bonds
→
N, P Often
Group 14 4 Covalent Bonds
→
C, Si Always
Examples of Drawing Lewis Structure – Single Bond
1. Arrange the Atomic Sequence
➢H and F must be in terminal position
2. Determine and draw the number of bonds
➢According to the group in periodic table
➢Bond-pair electrons could be represented by lines (e.g.: H::O → H-O)
3. Determine and draw the remaining electrons
➢DO NOT MISS any lone-pair electrons in your structure! (e.g.: :NH3)
4. Make sure all atoms satisfy octet rule

→
Examples of Drawing Lewis Structure – Multiple Bond
Covalent Bonding
Two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons
No. of Shared Pairs of e- No. of Shared e- Name Bond Order
1 2 Single Bond 1
2 4 Double Bond 2
3 6 Triple Bond 3
Non-Sharing Pairs N/A Lone-pair 0

→ 20
Lewis Structure – Summary
Sequence of Lewis Structure Determination
1. Obtain a Correct Molecular Formula (Important!!!)
2. Arrange the Atomic Sequence
➢H and F must be in terminal position
3. Determine and draw the number of bonds
➢According to the group in periodic table
➢Bond-pair electrons could be represented by lines (e.g.: H-H)
4. Determine and draw the remaining electrons
➢DO NOT MISS any lone-pair electrons in your structure!
➢NH3 (Wrong) vs :NH3 (Correct)
5. Make sure all atoms satisfy octet rule
1. Exception 1: H is satisfied with 2 electrons only
2. Exception 2: Species that cannot obey octet rule by itself (e.g.: BH3)
3. Exception 3: Elements after period 3 may have d-orbital participation which
override the octet rule.

21
 Exceptions of Octet Rule
Exception Description Example

1 H is satisfied with 2 valance e- only

Species that cannot obey octet rule

2 by itself
(e.g.: BH3)
6 valance e- only

Elements after period 3 may have

d-orbital participation which
3
override the octet rule.
(e.g.: Si, P, S, Cl…etc) 8 valance e- 10 valance e-

22
Exercise Time
Draw the Lewis structure for the following species:
PCl3 OH- C2H2

CS2 SF6 SO42-

23
 Classification of Covalent Compounds
Simple Molecular Structure Giant Covalent Structure

Interaction between atoms

➢ Strong Covalent Bond ALL atoms are held by strong covalent
bonds.
Interaction between molecules
➢ Weak Intermolecular Forces
Examples: Examples:
➢ Molecular Compounds ➢ Diamond(C), Quartz (SiO2)
➢ H2O, CO2, N2…etc
24
Ionic Bond or Covalent Bond?
Chlorine (Cl)
Gain e- Share e-

Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Tetrachloromethane (CCl4)

Ionic Compound Covalent Compound
(White Crystalline Solid) (Colourless Liquid)

How to determine whether an element will form

ionic bond or covalent bond to their partner(s)?
25
Electronegativity (e-ve)
Electronegativity
The power of an atom to attract the bonding pair of
electrons towards itself in a molecule
Simply say: How much it loves electrons?

26
 Electronegativity – Determination Factors
Magnitude of the nuclear charge – Horizontal (→)
1. Across the period, the nuclear charge increases.
2. The bonding electrons are attracted more strongly.
Electronegativity increases across the period.

Size of the atom – Vertical (↓)

1. Down the group, the number of electron shell and
the atomic size increases.
2. The bonding electrons are attracted less strongly.
(Shielding Effect)
Electronegativity decreases down the group.
27
Electronegativity Difference

Electronegativity
Bond Type Example
Difference
H-H
0 – 0.5 Non-polar
(2.1-2.1=0)
H-Cl
0.5 – 2.0 Polar
(3.0-2.1=0.9)
Na+Cl-
> 2.0 Ionic
(3.0-0.9=2.1)

28
Bond Polarization
Bond Polarization
➢Unequal attractive forces exerted on bonding electrons
➢Leading to an unsymmetrical distribution of bonding electron
clouds
Distortion of Electron Cloud

Extent of Bond Polarity

➢Difference in electronegativity (De-ve) between the two bonded
atoms

The greater the difference in electronegativity,

the more polar is a bond.

29
 Bond Polarization – Examples
In a Non-polar bond, the bonding
De-ve Bond Type Example electrons are shared equally.

H-H
0 – 0.5 Non-polar
(2.1-2.1=0)

d+ d-
H-Cl
0.5 – 2.0 Polar
(3.0-2.1=0.9)

Distortion of Electron Cloud

In a Polar bond, the bonding

A polar bond can be pictured using partial charges. electrons are attracted closer to the
more electronegative atom.
30
Bond Polarity v.s. Molecule Polarity

Bond De-ve Bond Type

Q: SiCl4 is a non-polar molecule,

Si-Cl 3-1.8 = 1.2 Polar why?

A: SiCl4 is a symmetrical molecule.

Although Si-Cl bond is polar,
the overall polarity is cancelled out.

Be careful the difference between

Bond Polarity and Molecule Polarity.
31
Exercise Time
Determine the bonding nature of the following
species: Iconic

O2 H2O K2O

32
Intermolecular Force
Bonding: Electrostatic attractive force between atoms
Intermolecular Forces: Interaction between molecules

Influences:
➢ State of Matter (Boiling Point, Melting Point)
➢ Solubility
➢ Reactivity

For

33
 Dipole-dipole Interaction
Two atoms of different electronegativity are
joined by a covalent bond
(De-ve: 3.0-2.1=0.9)
Distortion of Electron Cloud

The bonding electrons will be displaced towards the atom

of higher electronegativity.
This difference results in one atom having a d+ charge
and the other atom having a d- charge.
A permanent dipole is produced.

The electrostatic interaction between permanent dipole in

these molecules is called dipole-dipole interaction.

34
London’s Dispersion Force

Electrons are continuously moving in a molecule.

At any time, there may be an unequal distribution of e- cloud.
One side of the atom appears slightly negative charge d- and the other
becomes positive charge d+ .
A temporary dipole is produced.

The electrostatic interaction between temporary dipole in

these molecules is called London Dispersion Force.

35
 Factors Affect the Strength of van der
Waals’ Forces
1. Size of Molecule
➢Bigger size of the molecule → Larger size of e- cloud
➢Chance of e- cloud distortion increases
➢Occurrence of temporary dipole increases

➢Example:
Halogen Gases F2 Cl2 Br2 I2
Boiling point /oC -188 -35 59 184

i. Size of halogen molecules increases down the halogen group

ii. Temporary distortion of the e- cloud increases down the halogen group
iii. Stronger van der Waals’ forces down the halogen group
Boiling point is increasing down the halogen group.
36
Factors Affect the Strength of van der
Waals’ Forces
2. Area of Contact between Molecules
➢The greater the number of atoms in contact between adjacent
molecules, the greater the van der Waals’ forces.

➢Example: Molecule

Name Pentane Neopentane

Molecular Formula C5H12 C5H12
Boiling point /oC 36 9

i. Pentane is linear, surface area of contact increases

ii. Neopentane is spherical, surface area of contact decreases
iii. van der Waals’ force of neopentane is weaker than that of pentane.
Boiling point is decreasing with increasing branching of carbon chain.
37
Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen bonds are strong intermolecular forces created when a
hydrogen atom bonded to a very electronegative atom (N, O, F ONLY)
approaches a nearby electronegative atom.

38
Strength of Hydrogen Bond

Strength /
E-ve atom E-ve Hydrogen Bond
kJ mol-1

F 4.0 125

O 3.5 25

N 3.0 20

39
Hydrogen Bondings in DNA

40
Comparison of the Strengths of
Intermolecular Forces and the Covalent
Bond

Type of bonding Strength / kJ mol-1

Large molecular
London Dispersion Force 0.05 – 40 size

Dipole-dipole Interaction 5 – 25

Hydrogen Bond 10 – 40
Covalent Bonding 100 – 1000

Question: Why plastics have much higher melting point compared

to carbon dioxide?
41
Exercise Time
Explain the following discrepancy in boiling
points of hydrogen halides

42
Shape of Molecules
Shape of Molecules
➢Refers to the geometric arrangement of ONLY the atoms
around the central atom

➢The lone-pair electrons affects the arrangement of the

bonding pairs but are NOT taken into account in describing the
shape of a molecule.

43
 VSEPR Theory
VSEPR Theory
➢Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory
➢The most powerful tool to predict the shape of molecule

Electron pairs in the central atom tend to get as far apart as possible to minimize
the electrostatic repulsion between electron pairs in the valence shell.

Order of Repulsion
lone pair-lone pair > lone pair-bonding pair > bonding pair-bonding pair.

44
Determination of Molecule Shape
1. Identify the Group number of the Central atom
➢ (i.e. No. of valence e- on central atom).

2. Count the number of bonds formed by the Central atom

➢ (i.e. No. of bond pairs).

3. Count the number of lone pair in the Central atom

➢ (i.e. No. of non-bonding electron pairs).

4. The shape depends upon the no. of bond pairs and lone pairs.

45
Examples of Shape of Molecule: E.P = 2 & 3

No. of electron pair: 2

Bond pair: 2
Lone pair: 0
e.g. BeCl2 Linear

No. of electron pair: 3

Bond pair: 3
Lone pair: 0
e.g. BF3
Trigonal Planar 46
Examples of Shape of Molecule: E.P = 4
No. of electron pair: 4
Bond pair: 4
Lone pair: 0
e.g. CH4

H
Tetrahedral
C
H bond in the plane of paper
H bond in front of paper
H bond behind paper
47
Examples of Shape of Molecule: E.P = 4
No. of electron pair: 4
Bond pair: 3
Lone pair: 1
e.g. NH3 N
H
H
H
Trigonal Pyramidal

Distribution of electron pair = Tetrahedral

Remove ONE lone pair vertex = Trigonal Pyramidal

48
Examples of Shape of Molecule: E.P = 4
No. of electron pair: 4
Bond pair: 2
Lone pair: 2
e.g. H2O
O
H H

V-Shape

Distribution of electron pair = Tetrahedral

Remove TWO lone pair vertex = V-Shape

49
Examples of Shape of Molecule: E.P. = 5
No. of electron pair: 5
Bond pair: 5
Lone pair: 0
e.g. PCl5

Trigonal Bipyramidal

50
Examples of Shape of Molecule: E.P. = 6
No. of electron pair: 6
Bond pair: 6
Lone pair: 0
e.g. SF6 F
F F
S
F F
F
Octahedral

51
Summary of Molecular Shapes
Total number of
electron pairs
around central
atom

52
Exercise Time
Draw the 3-D structure of the following species.
Clearly state the shape of molecule and the bond angle(s).

H3O+ NH4+ CO32- I 3-

53
Metallic Bond
The electrostatic attraction between a sea
of delocalized (free) electrons and the
positive ions.

54
 Strength of Metallic Bond
1. No. of delocalized (free) e- , Metallic bond strength 
➢ The bond strength increases from Group I to III
➢ Metallic bond strength: Na < Mg < Al

Soft as a cheese cake

2. Size of metal atom , Metallic bond strength 

➢The metallic bond becomes weaker on descending down the group
➢Metallic bond strength: Li > Na > K
➢Video of Cutting Group 1 Metals: https://youtu.be/UNApdoDY5gI

55
 Characteristic of Metal
1. Good conductors of heat and electricity
➢Mobility of the electrons

2. Lustrous
➢Valence electrons of the metal absorb and re-emit light
energy in a uniform way

3. Malleable (can be flattened) and Ductile (can be drawn into

wires)
➢Metal cations could “slide over” each other easily

Interaction between free electron and the positive core,

no matter how the shape is changed , the bonding is still
here

56
Summary on Classification of Matters
Substance

Compound Element
Metal

Ionic compound Non-metal

Covalent compound
Giant ionic structure Giant metallic
structure

Simple molecular structure

Giant covalent structure
57
Summary on Chemical Bonding and
Interactions
Ionic bond
➢ Electrostatic attractive force between cation and anion

Covalent bond
➢ Electron sharing between two non-metal atoms

Metallic bond
➢ Metal cation and its valence electrons
High Electronegativity

Dipole-dipole interaction
➢ Between molecules (covalent compounds) with permanent dipole

London Dispersion Force

➢ Between ALL molecules (covalent compounds except giant covalent
compound)

Hydrogen bond
➢ Between molecules with hydrogen that directly bond to high e-ve atoms (N,
O, F ONLY)
58
Periodicity

59
Periodic Table – Blocks
s block p block

d block

60
f block
Periodic Table – Blocks
Blocks
➢Refer to the orbitals that the last electron of the elements enters.
s-block Element
[ ] ns1-2
Sodium (Na): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 or [Ne] 3s1
Barium (Ba): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2
or [Xe] 6s2
p-block Element
[ ] ns2 np1-6
Boron (B): 1s2 2s2 2p1 or [He] 2s2 2p1
Bromine (Br): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5 or [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p5

n = Principal Quantum Number

61
[] = Noble Gas Structure
Periodic Table – Blocks
d-block Element
[ ] (n+1)s2 nd1-10*
Scandium (Sc): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1 or [Ar] 4s2 3d1
Zinc (Zn): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 or [Ar] 4s2 3d10
*Remember the exceptional cases in Chapter 1: Cr and Cu
*The trend becomes complicated down the group.

f-block Element
[ ] (n+2)s2 nf1-10*
Gadiolinium (Gd):
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f7 5d1 or [Xe] 6s2 4f7
5d1
*The trend is extremely complicated.

n = Principal Quantum Number

62
[] = Noble Gas Structure
 Periodic Table – Groups and Periods
Group Number
➢ Number of outermost shell electrons
➢ Increase in atomic size when going down the group

Period Number
➢ Number of
occupied electron
shell
➢ Decrease in
atomic size when
across the period

63
Groups – Similarity and Difference
For the elements in the same Group…

1. Similar chemical properties

➢ Due to the same number of valence electrons

2. Gradually change in physical and chemical properties

➢ Due to gradually changing of atomic size down the group

Example – Group 1 Metals Down the Group

a. Chemical Properties
https://youtu.be/jx0eQbBDeG8
b. Physical Properties (Same as Chapter 2)
https://youtu.be/UNApdoDY5gI

64
Periodicity of Atomic Properties

1. Atomic Radius

2. Ionization Energy

3. Electronegativity

65
Variation of Atomic Radii
Shape Representation

66
Variation of Atomic Radii
Graphical Representation for H to Kr

67
 Effective Nuclear Charge

Effective Nuclear Charge

Net attractive force experienced
by the outermost shell electron in a multielectron atom.

Increase across the period

➢ The no. of protons increases across the period (+1→)
➢ No change in the no. of inner shell electrons
➢ The attraction between valence electrons to the nucleus increases

Decrease down the group

➢ The no. of inner shell electrons increases down the group (+8 or more↓)
➢ Same in the no. of valence electrons
➢ The attraction between valence electrons to the nucleus decreases

68
Trends in Atomic Radii
➢ Down the group, the effective
nuclear charge decreases.
➢ The valence electrons are
shielded by the increasing inner
shell electrons
➢ So, the radius increases.

➢ Across the period, the effective

nuclear charge increases.
➢ This increasing effective nuclear
charge pulls the valence
electrons more closely to the
nucleus.
➢ So, the radius decreases.
69
 First Ionization Energy

First Ionization Energy

Energy required to remove one mole of electrons,
from one mole of gaseous atoms, to produce one
mole of gaseous ions.

M (g) M+(g) H = +ve

Since all ionizations require energy, they are

endothermic processes and have positive
enthalpy change (∆H = +ve).
Energy required process 70
Trends in First Ionization Energy

71
Factors Affecting Ionization Energy
1. Effective Nuclear Charge
➢ Effective nuclear charge increases
➢ Attraction between –ve charged electrons and +ve charged nucleus
increases.
➢ More energy is required to overcome this stronger attraction, and
hence the ionization energy increases.

2. Distance between the Nucleus and Electron

➢ If the valence electron is far away from the nucleus, the attraction
between the nucleus and electron decreases.
➢ Less energy is needed to remove this electron, and hence the
ionization energy decreases.

72
 Trends in First Ionization Energy
➢ Down a group, the valence
electrons are far away from the
nucleus.
First Ionization Energy (kJ/mol)

➢ The valance electrons are less

tightly held. Hence, it is easier to
be removed.
➢ So, the ionization energy
decreases.
➢ Across the period, the effective
nuclear charge increases.
➢ This increasing effective nuclear
charge pulls the valence electrons
more closely to the nucleus.
➢ The atoms become smaller, and
the valence electrons are closer to
the nucleus and so is held more
tightly.
➢ So, the ionization energy 73
increases.
First Ionization Energy of H to Ar in
Numbers

Ionization Energies (v)

H He
13.6 24.6
Li Be B C N O F Ne
5.4 9.3 8.3 11.3 14.5 13.6 17.4 21.6
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
5.1 7.6 6 8.2 10.5 10.4 13 15.8

74
First Ionization Energy of H to Ar in
Graph
Sudden Drops
Why?
First Ionization Energy (kJ/mol)

75
Irregularities in First Ionization Energy
The first ionization energy is slightly decreased in group III and
VI compared to group II and V respectively.

1. Group III (e.g.: B & Al) elements have a single p-electron

which is slightly easier to be removed than the s-electrons in
fulfilled s-orbital of the Group II elements (ns2np1 vs ns2).

2. Group VI (e.g.: O & S) elements have a paired p-electron

which is slightly easier to be removed than the p-electrons in
half-filled p-orbital of the Group V elements (ns2np4 vs ns2np3).

There is an extra-stability associated with

half-filled and full-filled shell.

76
Exercise Time
Could you explain why video a. in page 6, the reactivity of group
1 metals increases down the group?
Because the the size of atom increase down the group
, the number of inner shell electron increases, and that
cause the valence electron are shielded by it , so the
effective nuclear charge decrease down the group,so
the attract force between valence electron and
nucleus decrease , the reactivity reaction increase

77
Effects of Periodicity on Electronegativity
Electronegativity Difference
➢Greater the difference in electronegativity between atoms
➢Less likely they are to share electrons and form covalent bonds
➢More likely they are to form ionic bonds

More Widely separated elements in the Periodic Table

➢More likely to form ionic bond
➢e.g. NaCl and MgO are ionic compounds
➢Group I and Group 2 metals MUST form ionic compounds.

Less Widely separated elements in the Periodic Table

➢More likely to form covalent bond
➢Atom with less electronegativity tends to be the central atom in a
molecule
➢e.g.: SO42-, PCl5, ClO4-
78
Exercise Time
Identify the central atom for the species below and draw their
Lewis structures:

SOCl2 NCS- IF5 BrO3-

79