Matter: Phases, Forms, and

Vern J. Ostdiek
Forces
Donald J. Bord ¾ The subject of this section is matter²anything
that has mass and occupies space. Earth, the \
¾ We can classify matter into four categories:
¾ solid, liquid, gas, and plasma.

Chapter 4 ¾ These are called the four phases, or states, of

Physics of Matter matter.
sections 1 and 2

Matter: Phases, Forms, and Matter: Phases, Forms, and

Forces Forces
„ Briefly, we can distinguish the four phases as Phases Properties Examples

follows:
Phases Properties Examples Gases Flow readily. air, carbon dioxide, helium,
conform to the shape of a radon
container.
Solids Rigid; rock, wood, plastic, iron do not have a well-defined
retain their shape unless
surface.
distorted by a force
can be readily compressed
(squeezed into a smaller
Liquids Flow readily; water, carbonated volume).
conform to the shape of beverages, gasoline,
Plasmas Have the properties of gases in operating
a container; blood
gases but also conduct fluorescent, neon, and
have a well-defined
electricity vapor lights;
boundary (surface);
interact strongly with matter in the Sun and
have higher densities
magnetic fields stars
than gases
commonly exist at
higher temperatures
 Matter: Phases, Forms & Behavior of atoms and
ForcesFRQW¶G molecules
„ The chemical elements represent the simplest „ The constituent particles of atoms and
and purest forms of everyday matter. molecules exert electrical forces on each
„ Each element is composed of incredibly small objects called other.
atoms.
„ The forces depend upon the configuration
‰ Every atoms has:
¾ nucleus a very dense, compact core
of the electrons in each atom.
„ The nucleus is composed of two kinds of particles:
„ Protons: have a positive electric charge
„ Neutrons: have no electric charge „ The nature of these forces determines the
¾ the nucleus is surrounded by one or more particles called electrons. properties of the substance.
„ Electrons have the same electric charge as protons but are
negatively charged.

Behavior of atoms and Behavior of atoms and

moleculesFRQW¶G moleculesFRQW¶G
‡ We can relate the three common phases of matter to ‡ Often atoms or molecules in a solid form :
the interparticle forces as follows. ‡ 1-a regular geometric pattern called a crystal.
Solids: Attractive forces between particles are very „ Table salt is a crystalline compound in which the sodium
and chlorine atoms alternate with each other.
strong;
‡ the atoms or molecules are rigidly bound to their neighbors and
can only vibrate. 2- irregular crystal structure, called amorphous solids,
‡ A standard model for representing the the atoms or molecules are䇾piled together䇿 in a
interparticle forces in a solid consists random fashion.
of each atom connected to its „ Glass is a good example of such a solid.
neighbors by a spring. The atoms
are free to oscillate like a mass hanging from a spring.
 Behavior of atoms and Behavior of atoms and
moleculesFRQW¶G moleculesFRQW¶G
„ Carbon has two common crystalline forms. Liquids: The particles are bound together, though not
1. Graphite forms crystalline sheets with little rigidly;
bonding between ‡ Each atom or molecule can move about relative to the
sheets. others but is always in contact with other atoms or
molecules.
2. Diamond forms very
strong bonds between „ In liquids, the inter-atomic forces are insufficient to bind
adjacent carbons the atoms rigidly.
² LW¶VWKHKDUGHVW
known natural The atoms are free to move and vibrate.
substance.

Behavior of atoms and Behavior of atoms and

moleculesFRQW¶G
Gases: Attractive forces between particles are too
weak to bind them together;
„ the inter-atomic forces are virtually negligible unless the
atoms are very close.
‡ atoms or molecules move about freely with high speed
and are widely separated;
‡ Gaseous atoms have rather high speeds ~1,000 mph.
moleculesFRQW¶G
„ Whenever a high-speed gas atom impacts a
large force on a container.It is this force that
produces a pressure on the container.
„ As the air molecules strike the inside of a tire, they
produce the pressure that inflates the tire.
„ If the molecules are stationary, there is no pressure.

‡ particles are in contact only

briefly when they collide
Behavior of atoms and
Pressure
moleculesFRQW¶G
„ Gases are easily compressed because the
majority of their volume is the space between
the atoms.
„ If you compress it enough, you force the atoms
close enough together that you form a liquid.
„Pressure

Pressure PressureFRQW¶G
„ Pressure is the force per unit area for a force „ The units of pressure are:
acting perpendicular to a surface. „ Metric:
„ Since we use the perpendicular component of „ pascal (Pa; 1 Pa = 1 N/m2) ² SI unit
the force, pressure is a scalar. „ millimeters of mercury (mm Hg)
force „ English:
pressure „ pound per square foot (lb/ft2)
area „ pound per square inch (lb/in2 or psi)
F „ inches of mercury (in. Hg)
p
A
PressureFRQW¶G PressureFRQW¶G
„ Some pressure conversions:
„ 1 psi = 6,890 Pa
„ We also use an atmosphere (atm) as a
pressure unit:
„ One atmosphere is the average pressure
exerted by air at sea level
„ 1 atm = 1.01î105 Pa
„ 1 atm = 14.7 psi

Example Example
Example 4.1 Example 4.1
A 160-pound person stands on the floor. The
area of each shoe that is in contact with the ANSWER:
floor is 20 square inches. What is the
F 160 lb
The problem gives us:
pressure on the floor? A 20 in2
$VVXPHWKHSHUVRQ¶VZHLJKWLVVKDUHGHTXDOO\ Since the shoes support the weight equally,
between the two shoes. each shoe must support a weight of 80 lb.
The pressure is
F 80 lb
p 4 psi.
A 20 in 2
Example Example
Example 4.1 Example 4.2
In the late 1980s, there were several
DISCUSSION: spectacular aircraft mishaps involving rapid
If the person stands on only one foot: loss of air pressure in the passenger cabins.
F 160 lb The cabin pressure of a passenger jet cruising
p 8 psi.
A 20 in 2 at high altitude (25,000 ft) is about 6 psi (0.41
atm) greater than the pressure outside. What
If the person wore high heels and stood on
is the outward force on a window measuring
only one heel (0.5 in by 0.5 in):
1 foot by 1 foot and on a door measuring 1
F 160 meter by 1 meters?
p 640 psi
A 0.5 x 0.5in 2

Example Example
Example 4.2 Example 4.2

ANSWER: DISCUSSION:
The force on the window is: The force on a window is approximately the
 
F pA 6 psi 12 in u 12 in  weight of four adults.
864 lb.
The force on the door is The force on the door is nearly the weight of
five pickups.
F pA 6 psi39.4 in u 39.4 in
9,310 lb.
PressureFRQW¶G
„ Pressure is a relative quantity.
„ When you measure a pressure, you are
measuring it relative to some other pressure.
„ When you measure your
tire pressure, you are
measuring the pressure
in the tire above the
atmospheric pressure.
PressureFRQW¶G
„ The standard pen-shaped tire gauge
compares the tire pressure against a spring
and the atmospheric pressure.
PressureFRQW¶G
„ The gauge pressure is the pressure relative
to the current atmospheric pressure.
„ The absolute pressure is the gauge
pressure plus the atmospheric pressure.
pabsolute pgauge  patmospheric
PressureFRQW¶G
„ An important statement about gases:
„ Consider a gas held at constant temperature
„ Increasing the volume, decreases the motion of the gas
atoms and therefore the pressure.
pressure u volume constant
pV constant
„ Under these conditions, this means:
„ Decreasing the volume increases the pressure
„ Decreasing the pressure increases the volume.
 Density
Vern J. Ostdiek
Donald J. Bord „ Mass density is the mass per unit volume of
a substance.
„ It is the ratio of the mass to the volume of the
substance.
Chapter 4 mass
Physics of Matter mass density
volume
sections 3, 4,5 m
D
V

DensityFRQW¶G DensityFRQW¶G
„ Units of mass density: „ Measure density by finding the mass of a
„ Metric: sample and dividing by the volume of the
„ kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3) sample.
„ gram per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) „ The actual size of the sample is irrelevant.
„ English: „ If you use a sample with twice the volume you
„ slug per cubic foot (slug/ft3) will twice the mass.
Example Example
Example 4.3 Example 4.3
The dimensions of a rectangular aquarium are
ANSWER:
l 0.5 m
0.5 meters by 1 meter by 0.5 meters. The
mass of the aquarium is 250 kilograms larger The problem gives us: w 1m
when it is full of water than when it is empty. h 0.5 m
What is the density of the water?
m 250 kg
The volume is:

V l u wu h 0.5 m u 1 m u 0.5 m 
0.25 m 3 .

Example Example
Example 4.3 Example 4.3
DISCUSSION:
ANSWER:
If the width of the tank was doubled, the amount of
The mass density is then water would be doubled ² the density would
remain the same.
m 250 kg kg
D = =1,000 . If the same tank filled with gasoline, the mass of
3 3
V 0.25 m m gasoline is 170 kg. The density of gasoline is

m 170 kg kg
D = 3
=680 3
.
V 0.25 m m
DensityFRQW¶G Example
Example 4.4
„ If you know the The mass of water needed to fill a swimming
volume and what pool can be computed by measuring the
type of substance YROXPHRIWKHSRRO/HW¶VVD\DSRROLVJRLQJ
to be built that will be 10 meters wide, 20
you have, you can meters long, and 3 meters deep. How much
find the mass: water will it hold?

m V uD

Example Example
Example 4.4 Example 4.4
From table 4.4

ANSWER: l 20 m ANSWER:
The problem gives us: Since the density of water is 1,000 kg/m3, the
w 10 m amount of water is:
h 3m m D uV
The volume is: 1000 kg/m u 600 m 
3 3

V l u wu h 20 m u 10 m u 3 m  600,000 kg.

600 m 3 .
 Example DensityFRQW¶G
Example 4.4
„ Note :
DISCUSSION: „ You can measure the freezing point of your
Since a common bathtub is about 0.25 m3 FDU¶VFRRODQWE\PHDVXULQJWKHGHQVLW\
OHW¶VVD\PE\PE\PWKLV
swimming pool is about 2400 bathtubs of
water.
„ The density of water and antifreeze are
different.
„ Water: 1,000 kg/m3.
„ Antifreeze: 1,100 kg/m3.
„ The overall density depends on the ratio of the
amount of water and amount of antifreeze.

Specific gravity DensityFRQW¶G

„ „ Weight density is the weight per unit volume
of a substance.
„ ,WLVWKHUDWLRRIWKHREMHFW¶VZHLJKWDQGLWV
volume.
weight
weight density
volume
W
DW
V

92%
W = mu g o DW = D u g
Underwater
DensityFRQW¶G DensityFRQW¶G
„ Units or weight density: „ The table lists the mass
densities (column 3) of
„ Metric:
several common
„ newton per cubic meter (N/m3). substances.
„ English: „ Column 4 in the table
„ pound per cubic foot (lb/ft3); shows representative
„ pound per cubic inch (lb/in3). weight densities in
English units.
„ These can be used in
the same ways that
mass densities are
used.

Example Example
Example 4.5 Example 4.5
A college dormitory room measures 12 feet
wide by 16 feet long by 8 feet high. What is ANSWER:
the weight of the air in it under normal
l 16 ft
The problem gives us:
conditions? w 12 ft
The weight is related to the volume by the
equation
h 8 ft
The volume is:
W = DW ´V
V = l ´w ´h = 16 ft ´12 ft ´8 ft
=1,536 ft 3
Example Example
Example 4.5 Example 4.5

ANSWER: DISCUSSION:
The weight of the air in the room is Notice that as the temperature increases, the
density would decrease.
W DW u V So, the air in the room would weigh less on
0.08 lb/ft 1,536 ft 
3 3 hotter days.
Because there is less air (fewer air molecules) in the
123 lb. room

Fluid pressure and gravity Fluid pressure and gravity,

FRQW¶G

„ The law of fluid pressure states that the „ Mathematically,

(gauge) pressure at any depth in a fluid at F W weight of liquid
rest equals the weight of the fluid in a column p
H[WHQGLQJIURPWKDWGHSWKWRWKH³WRS´RIWKH A A area of liquid column
fluid divided by the cross-sectional area of the
column. „ The force is:
F W DW uV DW u l u w u h
„ The area is:

A luw
Fluid pressure and gravity, Fluid pressure and gravity,
FRQW¶G FRQW¶G

„ We can write then write the pressure as: „ Note that this is the gauge pressure at the
F DW u l u w u h depth h.
p „ To get the absolute pressure, we need to add
A luw the atmospheric pressure pushing down at the
DW h top of the fluid column.

Dgh
„ The pressure depends on:
1. WKHIOXLG¶VGHQVLW\
2. the gravitational acceleration
3. the depth of the fluid

Example Example
Example 4.6 Example 4.6
/HW¶VFDOFXODWHWKHJDXJHSUHVVXUHDWWKH
bottom of a typical swimming pool ² one that ANSWER:
is 10 feet (3.05 meters) deep. The problem gives us:
h 10 ft
Use the table (4.4) to get Dw. D 62.4 lb/ft 3
Dw = 62.4Ib/ft3 The gauge pressure is:
p Dgh DW h
62.4 lb/ft 10 ft 
3

624 lb/ft 2 .
 Example Fluid pressure and gravity,
Example 4.6 FRQW¶G

„ The general result for pressure increase

DISCUSSION: under water is:
To convert this to psi: p 0.433 psi/ft u h
„ The pressure increases
lb 1 ft u 1 ft 4.33 psi for every 10 ft.
p 624 2 u
ft 12 in u 12 in „ It increases by 1 atm
624 lb every 10 meters, or
about 35 feet.
144 in 2
4.33 psi.

Example Example
Example 4.7 Example 4.7
At what depth in pure water is the gauge pressure 1
atmosphere? DISCUSSION:
If you went swimming in mercury, which is
ANSWER: 13.6 times as dense as water:
The problem gives us: p 1 atm 14.7 psi p
The pressure depends on depth according to: h
13.6 u 0.433 psi/ft
p 0.433 psi/ft u h
14.7 psi
p 14.7 psi
h 5.89 psi/ft
0.433 psi/ft 0.433 psi/ft
34 ft.
2.5 ft.
Fluid pressure and gravity, Fluid pressure and gravity,
FRQW¶G FRQW¶G

„ The atmosphere exerts a pressure on „ A device to measure air pressure is a

everything since there is a very high column barometer.
RIDLUDERYH(DUWK¶VVXUIDFH 1. As the air pressure increases, it exerts a
„ The column height for ODUJHUSUHVVXUHRQWKHIOXLG¶VVXUIDFH
air, water and mercury 2. This forces the fluid
are different because farther up the tube.
the mass densities are 3. The height of the
increasingly larger. column in the tube
indicates the air
pressure.

$UFKLPHGHV¶SULQFLSOH $UFKLPHGHV¶SULQFLSOHFRQW¶G
„ :H¶YHIRXQGWKDWWKHIRUFHRIJUDYLW\RQDIOXLG „ The buoyant force is an upward force
causes the pressure to increase with depth. exerted by a fluid on a substance partly or
„ This means that the mass density of the fluid completely immersed in the fluid.
actually decreases with depth. „ The buoyant
„ We typically neglect this fact to keep things force depends
simple. on
„ This produces something we call a buoyant 1. the density
force that exerts an upward force on an of the fluid
object placed in a fluid. 2. the substance.
4.5 Archimedes¶s Principle
„ This force acts on anything immersed in any
gas or liquid.
„ As long as no other forces are acting on the
substance, there are three possibilities.
4.5 Archimedes¶s Principle
„ Examples of each case (in the same order)
are a rock in water, a piece of wood floating
on water, and a helium-filled balloon rising in
air.
„ Both the rock and the balloon experience a net
force because the weight and the buoyant
force do not cancel each other.
4.5 Archimedes¶s Principle
„ If the buoyant force is less than the weight of
the substance, it will sink.
„ If the buoyant force is equal to the weight, the
substance will float.
„ If the buoyant force is greater than the weight
of the substance, it will rise upward.
$UFKLPHGHV¶SULQFLSOHFRQW¶G
„ $UFKLPHGHV¶SULQFLSOH states that the
buoyant force acting on an object in a fluid at
rest is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the object.
FB weight of displaced fluid
„ This means the object will sink until the weight
of the object equals the weight of the water
displaced by the object.
$UFKLPHGHV¶SULQFLSOHFRQW¶G $UFKLPHGHV¶SULQFLSOHFRQW¶G
„ Consider weighing an object in air and then „ Mathematically, we can write the buoyant
partly immersed in water. force as:
„ In air, the scale must
support the entire FB DW  fluid  uV  displaced fluid 
weight.
„ In water, the buoyant
force adds an
additional upward
force.
„ The scale reads less.

Example Example
Example 4.8 Example 4.8
A contemporary Huckleberry Finn wants to
construct a raft by attaching empty, plastic, 1- ANSWER:
F1 300 lb
gallon milk jugs to the bottom of a sheet of The problem gives us:
plywood. The raft and passengers will have a DW 62.4 lb/ft 3
total weight of 300 pounds. How many jugs
The buoyant force is:
are required to keep the raft afloat on water?
FB DW u V
Rearranging for the necessary volume:
FB
V
DW
Example Example
Example 4.8 Example 4.8

ANSWER: DISCUSSION:
The necessary volume to just float is: So, Huck needs at least 36 jugs.
Note that he would just float.
300 lb 3 For a safety margin, you should probably have
V 4.8 ft
62.4 lb/ft 3 many more than 36 jugs ² just in case a
7.48 gal wave rolls through, or you want to take a
4.8 ft 3 u friend along.
1 ft 3
36 gal.

3DVFDO¶V3ULQFLSOH
Vern J. Ostdiek
Donald J. Bord „ 3DVFDO¶V3ULQFLSOH states that the pressure
applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
undiminished to all parts of the fluid and to
the walls of the container.
Chapter 4 „ This principle is used in hydraulic systems.
„ hydraulic lifts, braking systems,etc.
Physics of Matter
sections 5 and 6
3DVFDO¶V3ULQFLSOHFRQW¶G 3DVFDO¶V3ULQFLSOHFRQW¶G
„ The piston on which the force is applied (left) has a „ Since the pressures are the same, the output force is:
small area: Finput Finput Foutput Aoutput
p Ÿ Foutput Finput
Ainput Ainput Aoutput Ainput
„ The piston that applies the force (right) has a larger „ :LWKWKHRXWSXWSLVWRQ¶VDUHDODUJHUWKDQWKHLQSXW
area: Foutput SLVWRQ¶VDUHDWKHRXWSXWIRUFHLVODUJHUWKDQWKHLQSXW
p force.
Aoutput

3DVFDO¶V3ULQFLSOHFRQW¶G %HUQRXOOL¶VSULQFLSOH
„ A common example is the braking system in „ So far we spoke only of static fluids.
your car. „ We now talk about moving fluids.
„ %HUQRXOOL¶VSULQFLSOH states that
for a fluid undergoing steady flow,
the pressure is lower where the fluid
is flowing faster. Daniel Bernoulli
1700 ± 1782

Steady flow means the fluid flow is smooth.

„ 1RUDQGRPVZLUOLQJHGGLHVRU³ZKLWHZDWHU´
%HUQRXOOL¶VSULQFLSOHFRQW¶G
„ One idea behind the Bernoulli principle is:
„ The amount of mass passing through an area
during an amount of time must be the same
throughout the pipe.
„ There additional fluid enters or leaves the pipe so
what goes in must come out.
%HUQRXOOL¶VSULQFLSOHFRQW¶G
„ In order for the same amount
of mass to pass through a cross-
section of the wide and narrow
sections in a certain amount of
time, the fluid must flow faster in the narrow section.

%HUQRXOOL¶VSULQFLSOHFRQW¶G %HUQRXOOL¶VSULQFLSOHFRQW¶G
„ The other idea behind the Bernoulli principle „ Just as with a falling ball, as the PE
is energy conservation. decreases the KE increases.
„ We can consider the fluid to have a pressure „ So as the pressure decreases, the pressure
potential energy. PE decreases.
„ The greater the pressure, the greater the PE. „ By energy conservation, the KE must
increase.
 %HUQRXOOL¶VSULQFLSOHFRQW¶G
„ Another example is an atomizer.
1. When you squeeze the bulb,
you increase the speed of air
in the nozzle.
2. This lowers the pressure in the
nozzle.
3. The higher pressure in the
bottle draws the fluid up the tube.
4. The moving air carries the fluid
out of the nozzle.