CULTURES, CONTEXTS, AND WORLD ENGLISHES Yamuna Kachru and Larry E. SmithIntroduction: World Englishes and Cultural Contexts ENGLISH IN THE WORLD Engh i EVERYWIERE te itsometine sem tht yn ft, isnot Mon ofthe peoplon Earth done Engh sb mess 2 tinera ngage ertape 2 percent athe eat: popula x Eglin rss prpons cre en 1 pect dno isomer ietreing tat ten hoe wo doe Engl re the bat deste sd the on Socal msnbc (ne opsio nes) oft ecey.Tae Spreaatn and fanctns of Boga around the wo are prone idee In recorded human sory no her language his hd sich 3 penn FT grt ah gh ge ed yea on ‘Ausra Egith teeny sadly people os Aaa fterse thos Europe and people om Sout Area neat ih people from Afes. Ars shown nthe BDC documentary The Sy of ago Englshh Gequeniy scl among nericatr when no soca ae ‘peaker of Eig is penne He coment forthe use of gh may 1 academic conference, basins sommers,dipomacy, eduenional intone manufacturing ing, pnt ors cd, or oan. (One example ofthe pan Aan we f Engl a be sc ine grag, comic sty hin therein. Table. and 0.2 reguding japan’ ic of cron ade slo ae deta ange of International commerce tnd sourianEngy and soc buses ad Peoplecnpeople consi hve be increasing Sra (ce Koch, p18; Sena 205)ey) Jean de ith Aa rane Toran Asa ton aa ii Sat Se Aaa RE Ree ham ap RP 4 Table 01 shows, the tal vale of trade with Asia in 194 was $252 bition, tn 1995, anaiss expected "Asan trade to supust Ensone and Ameria coined (Arie, Api 2, 199,39) With th la fecane, the wend forecast 195 by Asus matriizeldecianelyAcconing tothe Japanese Minis of Finance gars for 208, opens wae, English-speaking regions ofthe world far exceed ade ith nner Case Englhepeaking ares of the world se Table 03 the amounts ions otyen) ‘The Engl language nls a et tree pes farce: (1) those thatarewsed asthe primar language ofthe msjrtypopuatonctacoenens suchas American and Bris 2) varieties that are em an ado language for intmational as ell innmaionl commcaton incon munis hat are mulstingual suchas Indam Nigeran, and Spence and (3) varieties that are sed almon extn for iterate cone ‘munication suchas Chinese nd German, Most ofthese Engltesdeloped 2 esl of cola imposition ofthe language in aos par fe ‘orld. Soon afer the end of World War I Engh achieved he sto sn teratonal language and let Behind in spre and essen an ner competing languages suchas Spas, French, Rusa dod open Preset hereare more wes a the ares af Engh othe sed aad {hid pes thanof the fstype and ts prinariy dey who ate nnn initsnher read, ‘The ern ing ranca hasbeen edo characteris he global functions ofthe Engl ange eg James, 100, McArthur 2001 Selon ot) ad there areatterptsto dene the core te Jenkins 200 hanatempe 00 in the area ofthe sound stem) of thi ling franca Eng hig abel however, doesnot epme dhe phenomenon of rl Entshes fo several reasons, ass ben explained in B Racha (1990, 2008 se sn Kahane and Kahane 1979, 1986). Consider the ete of Esha {he member tates ofthe Furopean Union (EU). EaroEngia (Cones ae Jesne, 2000p Motiano, 105) sj alanguage wed forse‘Thensin Esper ops Conte Reion Spoon on M0 Sasi aah ama sm aa inae aas2 IpeT AIO fool ad om aioe um dom laa Sie Lee Lee foe seca 2400 800 asia Simi tars rou aes GB ep eon Yor Tos! Ae China Kowa Toon USA Mie oie So a a Ge ee Sor 56 Lye sou sam ipa0 Fay Aoi Ssi0 ma Bor sete iss Gey sous nm Fon Saas’ Saee EO ome S220 i488 Thos gst em Hor Slr Sant 200 ‘Sa anda oe smeN Home Ain Rs an " Ppuposes of bunes, commerce, and turin; i serves as a mem of ‘seademic ultra, diplomat legal pola, senucscehnologeal dis ours swell In ew fis mahetefanctlon, Earogish nese lingua franca in he ters original sense than South Asano Singepnean ‘West Acan Englses aes tn fatal theve Englishes Incluing Euro English exhibit internal varaon ay well bed on geographical andthe factors Just Because they have not been docunemed in granary oe csionares doesnot inaldate her exec: olage number Theres languages have nee a wring system, nor have they been coded itamimarsand dictionaries Gouiication is nota prerequske for legitimizing « language. For instance, Aural spate Astin Eng for yan Defoe ieaony ‘of Australian Engh (The MacguarsDctnary 1981) was compiled sot stammatial description of Ausvalian English (Colina and Bae 190) appeated® Neidier does codification preent the tural proseace of ‘ation, ais clear om the itis of aia eg, Abie Secok Lad, Sans) and modern Languages (eq, English, Feneh, Hind, pase Tami, ‘Wierdo notte that hereisaarity called work English, international English, or lol Engl although tex temy among other hans been five for the language thats being wed in sine diplomacy eda aad ‘other spheres (MeArthur, 2001) Thee abels deny the plunconstc at‘he medium and misivect the research efforts 2 standardiaton of an bsriction a the cox of undentanding the phenomenon of wide die ‘rbuton and deep penetration ofthe medium area cultures Ae Meth (008, psc ao Bolton, 2004) ebsenes “he monotie nca del hat kes sro Old Els hohe Eg Min ensign ee a he ime been aka eat More weg han can exon spo. The “Ekegene herfore of pir noses mod apt etpmen rare cateed an ake more desocrac Spread ew eas {Henpahacih ote te mensch eon, of Enlah nd ot the dere to homogenee te med y anda Sinernatona varie hatha othe spend ofthe language: We have to appreciate the wai andra pratom denoted y the term gts before sy dacesion of communication arr cures becomes ‘meaning The efor at colecing corpora in nied context (eg at a eal iniracton in Earope among tars of Engh a an adinal language) anddeseibing the phonological em o Euro ngsh enki, 200) hae af couse, hi ses They, howeer, do nt bate the Need forthe word Englatics perspective inuying the peomenon ofthe tipreecdented prea of Eng aro the wr wich harened a ide range ofvateses (ube, 197) ‘According B,Kahr (1853), difision of Eng ies captred iniermsof tree Concent Ces the Inet Gl, the Outer Cirle, and the Expanding Cle, The ner Gre reresens the atonal sored andsogoingulic incr of Engl nthe regonnwhere sted on rary iangunge (lading the UR-USA, stra, Canad, an Ne Zea). ‘The Outer Gee represent the regions ofthe wold formers elnized by Briain and the USA. In thse repons Els has been adoped at anal angungerintanatonal purposes of amnion, edcaton, Inv, te na, Nigeria, the Pipes, Singipoe). The Expanding Gc inches ie resin which Engh pray wed ramen of ‘ntrmtional communion 4 China Europe japan. ore, te Middle Eas). Than approximate chaeteriton othe tive iecsand there ‘Se many fac tat nisence how vats of Engich aed In 09 Partlar comer.” Se iference i the we o ng in he thre ice read othe iho of Engl round the word a what B. Rach farted {he nn caapora of Engh (8 Rachr, 193) tn hein sspra of he Taner Cre, a monolingal Englihspeaking population movement wasemonucnon s responsible fr bringing he language tone Toatons from dhe mother uty, ego Atmta New Zealand, and North America nthe second ftaspors cf dc oer two les, the language as taaplated to net Incatlon: Of coune,a hand ef Eaghshapeaing people aly brought thelanpage tothe new losis primary evough aon, eadng and tmiionay work, The main ps forthe aopon and difsion of Engh, ovever, came from the Local mltingual populations. And once the language was stashed, iva adaped one eas and consequent went taught process ot naivzton the nev contents (8. Kachry, 1283 andrpande, 1987 “Artal on can easy make a case forfour diaspora of Engh The fe yas to Teland, Scola and Walls, where cal nguages were ‘upplantedy Engst second was toregionsofNonh Amerie, usally fd New Zealand the thro paces sch as nea, Niger, Singapore, and {he Phppines: and the fourth to counties ch x Cina, op, Koes, ‘ea, Germany, and Saud Arabia, mame only afew in hi exegoy [NUMERICAL STRENGTH AND STATUS ‘Currey the Oster and Expanding Girls are estimated to have Sppvonimatey 800 milion people using Enlish alongwith one or more ‘the languages (Todd and Hancock, 1986) as compared to just over 300 Iilion people wn ae Engle her primary language de laner Circe [Al the countsies inthe Over Cele are muliual and muleltra. Engh nv oficl csi thee anguage polices For example the Indian Canta ecglaes Engh aan soit” oil language: in Niger fn Zab Engh one ofthe at languages: n Singapore Engh fecogniret an ofc language: and inal o these countries wel asthe Phlppines, Engh cootines to be the language of education, the les ‘Suc and dita, val thew places, Eng plays an important otc inca aeration an intern ees a ell Teteasing ti $s making presence fein popular att (sce Lec and Kahr, 206) Inthe Expanding Gre Elis has no ofl stars but tisthepeferred ‘medium of iteration end commerce, swells de language of ‘Senile, technological, and academic douse “Ahougthe above roresentes ie summary of estas of English in se Our and Expanding Gee, the del are aed and complex (ee Meth, 108, pp 8-42), For nance 1. Athough theres no consiutonal provision fra ofa anguage ‘ihe inthe American othe Bil syuem of government Engsh it inal the aia language, Sandard American or Btsh English,5 rwranuerios cf courte, cost with oer vite (Sci in Brinnand ‘AteanAcercan ta Aneta ata an iigenon aed ingen tango alec crsterin Amer nin ean, Inthe Anglophone Caiean Engl de ofl language ad is ‘dn addon the England roles niga lannge Incamada, Engl the of engage alongwith French, a ‘oes th naigenovs (Nave Ameren) lange and sete ‘Simin noguges (Sot, Cocke Uno, Pani sn Gn 4 Ines, Engh the second aon language vid tats aver than Seal mich ste otal languge 4. Inthe Scandinavian countries Engh sx scond language Ut 6. Inthe EU, gla and French eth wo orig langage, hough {hereon ober languages ss nthe ato el agg 7. Anna tcenoned eater, Eopiah san soca langage Sih Hin ie steal nguag, Keown ans Tange eg Hind, Nara, Tah othe vastcony andthe sas of atonal ngage, oe purses a Keay ards inca ates aot ne FUNCTIONS OF ENGLISH [A the above sugges, mations around the world te Engh (oF avo Perposce and in various content The stems of goverment the ed ‘anal pole te sclculal conten of tierney nd language tae the legislative, adminisvaie and legal adtiasal dir widely fom context, tweonte is therefore expected hat functions of Engish-—accularated tenor arya Inthe Outer Expanding ice here are counties, ‘hore Engh fe increningly weed in all domaine af ie (eg the upper Echelon of Singaporean ti Indian secede) be only i profesional ‘domains (eg. most of South Asia and Anglophone Aiea). or only i rested domainssuch ashigheredacaton,reserchpublaonsin scence fd ecology, international bane tur, and commerce (eq. East {Ind Soatheat Aaa nont of Eaope and much of Soh Ames) Table Ot fom B,Kackrs (2001, p. 4) summaries the functions of| English inthe thre irs Thisshowe tomar profi of the neta ‘ange of any human language. Aste range so wide and the wer cone ‘amsomany diferentbackgounds the us of English oes acallenge to student of Englahstadien The swe ace are how best to chaacerzererrapucro 7 Fanconi ate Tee Cc Tan Thaw Cnck Outre Eiontng re ‘seg : we he Debiopment + th he tite sen : 3 he pe Rae hati going on, and atthe sme tie spread axarenes ofthe relevant facorsinsuccstul communication in Eglshesacrom cular That athe purpose of thistook “THE ORGANHZATION OF THEROOK In this book, we atempe to look at dhe researeh ndings i both usage Alingusciesrctre and ws (soccer eonventionsspeaking/ wing) ed nce what iaighes are to be gained fom them inthe aca of ‘oucultural communteation through Engl “The relationship bensen language and cleure ha been a matter of bate among linguist a wells anthropaogits for slong de, Within Tinguisics there ae vo cea divisions (1) these who elee ingulss to sz aon dpc an angug fob homage em toflanguagearanauronomous, homogencour sem ixnenabe linguistic ‘axons corcvole with occulta carmen ngaage we aed she Context of tse sas eleva seus of usage. The former i based on 3 tomevat refed notion of language We lee that in really language subject to gret change and variation ils not sta and monalth, Any Alacplinediatsimeatstadsngehe phenomenon of language hae tote int cco eltural and social factors that ae involied in human Hing tehaor.Ate focus ofthis ook on aries of Egish round the wor and special on specs of eral interaction betweenand amongusersf these ‘atieties we relyon approaches andmethodolgls of research based onthe Utter et oflangunges an approach tongue sey tat socal reale (8. Rach 19800) "The finctvee chapter exploreases arising out ofthe interplay betwee louie and sociocultural norms of language behavior in cel context, Mere primary concerned a iguiteinteraction asa dynam process Father than a stati abject. The use of language in performing act the oopersine nature of verbal communication, wheter in the spoken oF ‘writen mode, nd ghe nature of scocalural competence daplayed a Producing and interpreting linge performance are dcused in these {hapters The empha son what it meant be pole in etal neracion ‘Weslo bringin thon aspects of nonverbal commnunicalon that have been ‘ene as being respon or ses comimunicaton or a fale incommunicaton dh! led to misndermandings Deween erro erent "The fis chapter presen an integrated theoretical approach needed to discus eral interaction in world Englishes, The approach integrates the notions of speech acs, cooperatve principle, and politeness from Tus pragmatic, sructare of convertion ftom convenaton anaes, zu sociocltral contexts and conventions of vet teraction from sociolinguistic. "The second chaper provides a more detailed acount of the cultural ‘underpinning of anguage se by uuling the notions af context of St {ion fom scolinguricy, and sructre of background Knowledge from Prochology and anal ntligence.fnerlseplinarytesearch aed a [uhing conventions of peaking and writinginvarowrsoieeshar ded ‘efi insights hich areal el summarzed in thi caper "The thir chaper examines conventions of plitenss in Some deal ler cutee he diferent nation of hat polite behator Tn oe ‘lurciumay be inapproprite ask questonsabowtwhere an interlocutor ‘egomg, wheres in another cure it may be he formal reesng as the mate of Nagaland tn India (isan, 1990). Addiionaly erent Tings communis we dierentratepes—matally andes ngage ‘etn indlate poltenes i interaction. For instance, io Taner Cirle Englishes tie more polite oun an interrogate for to ake a reque, cg cold you ml te ater om your ayo hese? Howe in South Asan Engl, a direc mperatie form may be eomsdered equally pte there steather indiestore of poitenese ich a3 term of addres bre Siterfancl, ing me yf ts Boo fom te Bay! 8. Rach, 1998, Sridhar, 1991. Thar sbaned on he ustrate engages nda ‘here diecimperatn form har seca elation on the pienes ale(Rach, 200 for example fom Hind) Ting Toomey and Cort (100, 313), eacuning the Wolf peers the Wes ican cory of Senegal atethatadvectrequet or demand actually preci st morefacepelte than th use of hedges and indvect request Ths, de phase “ive me 3 {rink iepercenedt Bea mich more palit expression tha Tho have “The fourth chapter cues ses fini night ofthe factors Sdemified inthe previous three chapter As ferent rarey ners ave dierent cleural concep, socal contentions, and linguistic strategies, ‘erbal interaction between them i not sways stood and succesful [Althoogh ili is falar rma suse very rent he Conteh of corteration and written tens it iw neamples nation wen ppied wo station ivosng interacon among language ad clie- deren interactans This chapter explains dhe mature of itll falyes sources of ditties, and sugges strategies To overcome them for suecutlcommunicaon across word Englishes (Nelson, 1982, 198 ‘Stith, 199; Sith and Bie, 1988; Sith and Neon, 19K Sith ad Raigad 1970). ‘Since certain conwention ofthe ue of ingunic devices (estes and Imation pate cerain Kinds of words and sentence pater) conte ‘oineligbiy, esl n succes or ansuccesul communion, these tte dciaed in trying detail In appropiate context, Obwowly, our Jndgments on thet pans are based upon existing and avalable esearch, {Chapters 5, 6, an 7 summarize information we have on the sounds seammadcalpaltens and vocabulary of varieties of English. Featres of ‘Outer and Expanding Gre Engishe are disused in greater deta, since {heir dexipdonearescateredin joa arly, wnpubished Mater sd PD disetations Beenie deserpions omer Cle asetesare more ead salable, they are not under foc here Tnteracional atures more than grammatical diference ete the most serous problems perception afone'sparteriniateracdon Wethercore “Concentrate on these, Topics such sy comentons of comertonal ‘xchange, pater of agreement dhagreement, strates of perch st, ‘cae deat vith in Chapters andltracy practices of ing eg weing ‘flees angumentate expository and marae prose academic wig ae deat wt in Chapter 9 ‘Most Outer itl vases steady have and some Expanding Cirle sarees arebegnningto aie, atradion oferty erates English {Chapter 10 explores the posatiy of wing the erates in wold Enges ‘rom Alien, Asa, and he Caribbean ta vakible reson fr cresting atearenes of ormenton of language ue across sess inal the Conchsion dacs the ncedforcresting more awareness of the consequences of glabalation onthe English language: Onc vay afw rronecnos| introducing profemionssto dhe changing forms an fonctions of Eagtish is toiniat cumiularehanges inthe program for taining teachers wo are Invohedn Teaching English o Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) and ‘other profesional programs, Thi conchding chapter paso the wide Implications fhe preseding duction othe Engsh Langage Teaching (ELT) profeaion. In adton't acustes the levee of research in wold Englates to esearch in socoingunic, second language acqulon, Diinguals, and other areas where language,cltre andsociey intersect ach chapter sfollowed by sggestons for further reading, points To farther dscnsion and where apport, anallecle esearch poets Credo by the readers ofthis book. The book ths aims a smiling ‘ove quis, coaderton of aerate way of hiking shout irae fd acively engaging in Engh studs om arto perspecives—those of leumers ad encherso Engin, were of Engish ae tve in academia, and ‘rious profeasons incding bane, commerce, diplomuy, la, med ‘nd medicine, Im adlvon to che general dheoretical erature fom the vastus eleva isipins (eg igus, philosophy, psychology, clara anhropoloy “ethnography of communication, eolingte sd artiealinelgence) Sprest dealer alae n very pec gpesaf verbal ntrseion ‘thas thosebetreen doctor and patents eg Cain sta, 1970), racers and pupils in 4 castoom (ex, Sinclair al 1972) dents and patients {eg Candin of, 1088), an nersand ese (c Labor, 1088). Nos ofthese, however, ae Dated on interaction among Inner Gicle English Speakers ony. A few sds have focused! om ner Ctee/Outer Cele {teraction invari setings (eg Gumpert, 8, 1825). Isighs om Sch studlesare incorporated in dhe dicuson of he topes deal with Pe taad tetas aga Ercan of at, andy casas) angge commerce, ali stato be he ling anes ote emmerce the Ara Se The term {Shr mein of connaieton sabes toe mch taeda‘anyone hve egret mre dco om his op eB Rach 2 Hitt on si en at ew of ngage Yawsng and tecng a eer oer pa Sinan ne iy sarin apse ie Sigua te emergence of endocrine sare eae Eagan 1 hy the wold Engh we ivr ps of he wn ae een fier nome mm detainee pee Ase) eng Bamgtrdnc 9) a Rahman (190) fo Panama {G0} ane ann (om Ton) for We AB 05 1) ‘The Phitne Ol and Hates GOH) Ban er and nt Sa) foe Zsa: lr Brow (0) Crewe HT), ey {ise Cpe aan ow 209) Mat and Weber ad “oy 158 os) or Singapore Bolo 2s) sd tha ed Campel (1909) {ot Chin: Biton 2005 Ta (101) for Hong Kon omine (1991) forthe Pace: Conor and Jenner (900), Dene ea Coe (1097) a ‘ger 1090) fr Ep Chamby 00) for Cana 0 {8a Magus (85) fo Sothern Aas: Clin an i 18), and Mae an) South Ae: Fey 99) or Mate 8 Kae (30, Te oy oa, oa es, Yb, a oh 208 ‘ain an Sahar (Hof Rand (6 or ran ‘eto (109) or Mla Lent) ae Sal aN (0) for ‘hin rr et eine op or me Engibetcdngtsocane nd rary reat Ray and'Coach (iy Cre (iy, Ges a (ot. Cc 9} Race {ib San Rahs nd Sch 0a en (Ne ‘Neches oftepiier-to tant and nonsantanse Metro 50 Further Reading at (0) Wend Engen. Dies nd Ede (ed), Te Hand flopid ting pp. st). Onerd il ig. ota 195) Word Eagles tnd Enlai eommncs Aen! ee ‘Fp Linge 7, acai". Nebo, C296) Word Engle. 8. Mey and Ta Homer et), Soaps en Longue Fst pp. 108). Combe Cumrge Unies re Suggested Actives 1. Lien tose news brodcas on Cable News Network (ENN) the Bris Broadeaning Corpotion (BBC), or the Voice of America