ECE 2214 2021/22 Strength of Materials II

2 Retaining Walls
2.1 Introduction
Retaining walls are relatively rigid walls used for supporting soil laterally so that
it can be retained at different levels on the two sides. Retaining walls are designed
to restrain soil to a slope greater than its natural angle of repose.
In general, retaining walls can be divided into two major categories: (a)
conventional retaining walls, and (b) mechanically stabilized earth walls.
Conventional retaining walls can generally be classified as
 Gravity retaining walls
 Semi gravity retaining walls
 Cantilever retaining walls
 Counterfort retaining walls
Gravity retaining walls are constructed with plain concrete or stone masonry. They
depend on their own weight and any soil resting on the masonry for stability. This
type of construction is not economical for high walls. Figure 2-1(a)

Figure 2-1: Types of Retaining Walls

In many cases, a small amount of steel may be used for the construction of gravity
walls, thereby minimizing the size of wall sections. Such walls are generally
referred to as semi gravity walls. Figure 2-1(b)
Cantilever retaining walls are made of reinforced concrete that consists of a thin
stem and a base slab. This type of wall is economical to a height of about 8 m.
Figure 2-1(c)
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Counterfort retaining walls are similar to cantilever walls. At regular intervals,

however, they have thin vertical concrete slabs known as counterforts that tie the
wall and the base slab together, as shown in Figure 2-2. The purpose of the
counterforts is to reduce the shear and the bending moments in the stem and the
base slab. The counterfort retaining walls are economical for a height more than 6
to 8m.
Note: Counterforts are on the side of the back fill

Figure 2-2: Counterfort Wall

2.2 Stability of Retaining Walls

2.2.1 Proportioning Retaining Walls

When designing retaining walls, an engineer must assume some of the dimensions,
called proportioning, which allows the engineer to check trial sections for stability.
If the stability checks yield undesirable results, the sections can be changed and
rechecked. Figure 2-3 shows the general proportions of various retaining walls
components that can be used for initial checks.
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Figure 2-3: Approximate dimensions for various components of retaining wall for
initial stability checks for (a) gravity wall; (b) cantilever wall
Note that the top of the stem of any retaining wall should not be less than about 0.3
m for proper placement of concrete. The bottom of the wall stem is usually kept at
about 0.1𝐻. The depth, D, to the bottom of the base slab should be a minimum of
0.6 m. However, the bottom of the base slab should be positioned below the
seasonal frost line.
For counterfort retaining walls, the general proportion of the stem and the base slab
is the same as for cantilever walls. However, the counterfort slabs may be about
0.3 m thick and spaced at center-to-center distances of 0.3𝐻 to 0.7H

2.2.2 Principles of Design of Retaining Walls

Before the actual design, the soil parameters that influence the earth pressure and
the bearing capacity of the soil must be evaluated. These include the unit weight of
the soil, the angle of shearing resistance, the cohesion intercept and the angle of
wall friction. Knowing these parameters the lateral earth pressure and the bearing
capacity of the soil can be determined.
Methods for the computation of the earth pressures and bearing capacities will not
be covered in this unit.
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Figure 2-4: Forces acting on a retaining wall

Figure 2-4 shows a retaining wall with a smooth back face. The active pressure 𝑃𝑎
acts horizontally, as shown. The front face of the wall is subjected to a passive
pressure 𝑃𝑝 below the soil surface. However, it is doubtful whether the full passive
resistance would develop. Moreover, often 𝑃𝑝 is small and it may be neglected.
This gives more conservative design.
The weight W of the wall and the active pressure 𝑃𝑎 have their resultant R which
strikes the base at point D. There is an equal and opposite reaction R' at the base
between the wall and the foundation. For convenience, .R' is resolved into the
vertical and horizontal components (𝑅′𝑉 and 𝑅′𝐻 ).
From the equations of equilibrium of the system;-
𝑅′𝑉 = 𝑊 ; 𝑅′𝐻 = 𝑃𝑎 Eq. 2.1
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Taking the moments about the toe of the retaining wall, we can determine the
eccentricity of the reaction force 𝑅𝑉 relative to the centre C of the base of the wall
𝐻
𝑅′𝑉 × 𝑥̅ = 𝑊 × 𝑎 − 𝑃𝑎 ×
3
𝐻
𝑊 × 𝑎 − 𝑃𝑎 ×
𝑥̅ = 3 Eq. 2.2
𝑅′𝑉
Where 𝑥̅ is the distance of the toe from the point of action of the reaction force.
The eccentricity of the reaction, therefore;-
𝑏
𝑒= − 𝑥̅ Eq. 2.3
2
Where 𝑏 is the width of the base.

2.2.3 Modes of Failure

For the design of the retaining wall to be considered safe, the following
requirements must be satisfied
1. Sliding along Base
The wall must be safe against sliding.;-
𝜇𝑅𝑉 > 𝑅𝐻 Eq. 2.4
Where 𝑅𝑉 and 𝑅𝐻 are the vertical and horizontal components of 𝑅 respectively.
The factor of safety against sliding is given by
𝜇𝑅𝑉
𝐹𝑠 = Eq. 2.5
𝑅𝐻
Where 𝜇 is the coefficient of friction between the base of the wall and the soil
𝜇 = tan 𝛿
Where 𝛿 is the angle of friction between the soil and the base slab
A minimum factor of safety of 1.5 against sliding is generally recommended
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2. Overturning
The wall must be safe against overturning about toe. The factor of safety against
overturning is given by
∑ 𝑀𝑅
𝐹𝑜 = Eq. 2.6
∑ 𝑀𝑂
Where ∑ 𝑀𝑅 is the sum of resisting moments about the toe
∑ 𝑀𝑂 is the sum of overturning moments about the toe
In Figure 2-4, the factor of safety is given by;-
𝑊×𝑎
𝐹𝑜 = Eq. 2.7
𝐻
𝑃𝑎 ×
3
The factor of safety against overturning is usually kept between 1.5 and 2.
3. Bearing Capacity Failure
The pressure caused by 𝑅𝑉 at the toe of the wall must not exceed the allowable
bearing capacity of the soil. The pressure at the base is assumed to be linear. The
maximum pressure is given by;-
𝑅𝑉 6𝑒
𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (1 + ) Eq. 2.8
𝑏 𝑏
The factor of safety against bearing failure is given by;-
𝑞𝑛𝑎
𝐹𝑏 = Eq. 2.9
𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥
Where 𝑞𝑛𝑎 is the allowable bearing pressure
A factor of safety of 3 is permitted provided settlement is within allowable limits.
4. Tension at Wall Base
There should be no tension at the base of the wall. When the eccentricity (e) is
greater than 𝑏/6, tension develops at the heel. Tension is not desirable. The tensile
strength of the soil is very small and tensile cracks would develop. The effective
base area is reduced. In such a case, the maximum stress is given by;-
4 𝑅𝑉
𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( ) Eq. 2.10
3 𝑏 − 2𝑒
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5. Shallow Shear Failure

This type of failure occurs along a cylindrical surface ABC passing through the
heel of the retaining wall as shown in Figure 2-5. The failure takes place because
of excessive shear stresses along the cylindrical surface within the soil mass.
Note: It has been observed that the factor of safety against horizontal sliding is
lower than that for shallow shear failure. Therefore, if the factor for sliding is
adequate, then shallow shear failure is not likely to occur.

Figure 2-5: Shallow Shear Failure

6. Deep Shear Failure
This type of failure occurs along a cylindrical surface ABC (Figure 2-6), when
there is a weak layer of soil underneath the wall at a depth of about 1.5 times the
height of the wall. The critical failure surface is determined by trial and error
procedure.

Figure 2-6: Deep Shear Failure

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For the back fills having slope 𝑖 less than 10°, it has been found that the critical
failure surface DEF passes through the edge of the heel slab. The minimum factor
of safety is found by trial and error, taking different circles, and determining the
resisting forces and the driving forces along the failure surface.
When a weak soil layer is located at a shallow depth below the retaining wall, the
possibility of deep shear failure should be investigated. The possibility of
excessive settlement should also be looked into. Sometimes, piles are used to
transmit the foundation load to a firm layer below the weak layer. However, care
should be taken in the design of piles so that the thrust of the sliding wedge of soil
does not cause bending of the piles.
2.2.4 Gravity Retaining Walls

A trial section is chosen and subjected to the stability checks. Should the results be
unsatisfactory, the section is modified and rechecked.

Figure 2-7: Gravity wall - Rankine Pressure

Consider a gravity wall with overall height H as in Figure 2-7. Using Rankine’s
theory to compute the earth pressure, line AB is drawn through the heel point A. It
is assumed that the Rankine active conditions exist along the vertical line AB.
Note: The assumption for the development of Rankine's conditions along AB is
theoretically justified only if the shear zone bounded by the line AC is not
obstructed by the stem of the wall.
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The angle made by line AC with the vertical is given by;-

𝑖 𝛷′ sin 𝑖
𝜂 = (45 + ) − − sin−1 ( ) Eq. 2.11
2 2 sin 𝛷 ′
Where 𝑖 is the angle of the slope behind the wall
𝛷′ is the internal angle of friction of the soil backfill
The angle made by line AC with the vertical is given by;-
𝛷′ 𝑖 sin 𝑖
𝛼 = (45 + ) − − sin−1 ( ) Eq. 2.12
2 2 sin 𝛷 ′
When the slope behind the wall is horizontal, 𝑖 = 0, 𝛼 = (45 + 𝛷′ /2)
To check the stability of the wall, we must consider the weight of the soil 𝑊𝑠 in the
zone ABC, the earth pressure 𝑃𝑎 , and the weight of the wall 𝑊𝑐 .
Alternatively, Coulomb's theory can also be used for the determination of the earth
pressure as shown in Figure 2-8. Coulomb theory gives directly the lateral pressure
on the back face 𝑃𝑎 , the forces to be considered are only 𝑃𝑎 (Coulomb) and the
weight of the wall 𝑊𝑐 .

Figure 2-8: Gravity wall- Coulomb Pressure

The stability of the wall is then checked against the checks discussed above. For
semi-gravity retaining walls, the size of the wall base is slightly smaller, but the
design procedure is similar to that for gravity retaining walls.
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2.2.5 Cantilever Retaining Walls

Figure 2-9: Cantilever retaining wall - Rankine's Pressure

Consider a cantilever retaining wall with overall height H as shown in Figure 2-9.
The earth pressure is computed using Rankine's theory OD the vertical plane AB
provided the shear zone bounded by the line AC is not obstructed by the stem of
the wall. The line AC makes an angle 𝜂 with the vertical, given by Eq. 2.11. The
forces acting in the wall are shown in Figure 2-10.

Figure 2-10: Forces on a Cantilever wall

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The Rankine’s earth pressure 𝑃𝑎 acts at an angle 𝑖 with the horizontal, and is
resolved into the vertical and horizontal components 𝑃𝑣 and 𝑃ℎ . The passive
pressure 𝑃𝑝 is also shown, but is generally neglected for more conservative design.
For convenience in calculation, the soil block is divided into parts (1) and (2),
while the wall is divided into parts (3), (4) and (5).
a) Factor of safety against sliding
The factor of safety against sliding may be expressed as;-
∑ 𝐹𝑅
𝐹𝑠 = Eq. 2.13
∑ 𝐹𝐷
Where ∑ 𝐹𝑅 is the sum of horizontal resisting forces
∑ 𝐹𝐷 is the sum of horizontal driving forces
Eq. 2.13 can be re-written as;-
(∑ 𝑉 ) tan 𝛷2 + 𝑏𝑐2 + 𝑃𝑝
𝐹𝑠 = Eq. 2.14
𝑃ℎ
Where ∑ 𝑉 is the sum of all the vertical forces 𝑊𝑐 , 𝑊𝑠 and 𝑃𝑣
𝑃ℎ = 𝑃𝑎 cos 𝑖
1
𝑃𝑝 is the passive force in front of the wall 𝑃𝑝 = 𝐾𝑝2 𝛾2 𝐷2 + 2𝑐2 √𝐾𝑝2 𝐷
2

Where 𝑐2 is the cohesion of the foundation soil

𝛾2 is the unit weight of the foundation soil
𝛷2 is the internal angle of friction of the foundation soil
𝐾𝑝2 is the coefficient of passive pressure
When the factor of safety is below the required 1.5, a base key is generally
provided below the wall stem, with some of the main stem reinforcement
extending into the key. This increases the passive resistance to;-
1
𝑃𝑝 = 𝐾𝑝2 𝛾2 𝐷1 2 + 2𝑐2 √𝐾𝑝2 𝐷1 Eq. 2.15
2
Where 𝐷1 is the depth of the key wall
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NOTE: When a key is included, the friction angle 𝛷2 and the cohesion 𝑐2 are
reduced to about 0.5 to 0.67 of the values as a factor of safety, as the activation of
passive resistance is doubtful.
b) Factor of safety against overturning
The factor of safety against overturning is given by Eq. 2.6.
∑ 𝑀𝑅
𝐹𝑜 = Eq. 2.6
∑ 𝑀𝑂
The only overturning force is 𝑃ℎ acting at a height of 𝐻/3
𝑀𝑜 = 𝑃ℎ × 𝐻/3 Eq. 2.16
The resisting moments are due to weights 𝑊1 𝑊2 𝑊3 𝑊4 and 𝑊5 of the soil and the
concrete. The vertical component of pressure 𝑃𝑣 also helps in reristing moment,
given by;-
𝑀𝑣 = 𝑃𝑣 × 𝑏 Eq. 2.17
Therefore, the factor of safety against overturning;-
𝑀1 + 𝑀2 + 𝑀3 + 𝑀4 + 𝑀5 + 𝑀𝑣
𝐹𝑜 = Eq. 2.18
𝑃ℎ × 𝐻/3
Where 𝑀1 to 𝑀5 are the moments due to weights 𝑊1 , to 𝑊5 about the toe
c) Factor of safety against bearing capacity failure
The sum of the vertical forces acting on the base is equal to ∑ 𝑉, The horizontal
force is 𝑃ℎ . The resultant force (R) is given by

2
𝑅 = √(∑ 𝑉) + 𝑃ℎ 2 Eq. 2.19

The net moment of these forces about the toe is given by;-

∑ 𝑀 = ∑ 𝑀𝑅 − ∑ 𝑀𝑜 Eq. 2.20

The distance of the point where the resultant R strikes the base is given by;-
∑𝑀
𝑥̅ = Eq. 2.21
∑𝑉
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Hence, the eccentricity e of the resultant R is given by;-

𝑏
𝑒= − 𝑥̅ Eq. 2.3
2
If 𝑒 > 𝑏/6, it indicates that tension will develop along the wall base, and the wall
section should be modified and checked again. The pressure distribution under the
base is determined as;-
∑𝑉 6𝑒
𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (1 + ) Eq. 2.22a
𝑏 𝑏
∑𝑉 6𝑒
𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (1 − ) Eq. 2.22b
𝑏 𝑏
The factor of safety against bearing pressure failure is given by Eq. 2.9
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Further reading
- Piling walls
- Anchored walls
- Backfill stabilization techniques
o Metal strips, bars, welded wire mats, geotextiles, geogrids