1. Explain the various layers of OSI model?

ANS: OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO –
‘International Organization for Standardization, in the year 1984. It is a 7 layer architecture
with each layer having specific functionality to perform.

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) : The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.The lowest layer of the OSI reference
model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the
devices. The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for
transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will
get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer,
which will put the frame back together.
2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :The data link layer is responsible for the
node-to-node delivery of the message. The main function of this layer is to make
sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer.
When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the
Host using its MAC address. The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one
hop (node) to the next.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3): network layer is responsible for the delivery of
individual packets from the source host to thedestination . It also takes care of
packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of
routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) : The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a
message from one process to another. It helps regulate various elements involved in data
transmission between end systems and hosts. Such factors include the data packet’s
size, sequencing, speed, and destination.
the User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

Layer 5 of the OSI Model: Session Layer The session layer is responsible for dialog control and
synchronization. Managing communication sessions, i.e., continuous exchange of information
in the form of multiple back-and-forth transmissions between two nodes .Session Layer is
responsible for creating a session or connection that allows two devices, computers, or
servers to communicate with one another. Once the session has been formed, the data
is then passed either to or from the Transport Layer.

Layer 6 of The OSI Model: Presentation Layer The presentation layer is responsible for
translation, compression, and encryption.Also referred to as the Syntax Layer, The
Presentation Layer is responsible for performing syntax processing. In this case, syntax
processing typically involves converting data from the top layer (which is in application
format) into network format based on the syntax that the application accepts. The
Presentation Layer may also transmit data from network format to application format.
Depending on whether the data is being transmitted or received, the processed data is
then either passed to, or rather, “presented” to the session layer or application layer.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7) : The application layer is responsible for providing

services to the user. High-level APIs, including resource sharing, remote file access. The
top layer of an OSI model (layer seven) is the application layer that delivers network services or
protocols that comply with an end-user’s data to the end-user. The majority of end-users interact
directly with applications that work at Layer 7. As such, it is the most widely recognized OSI
layer by end-users.

Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.

3.Explain data communication model with a neat diagram?

ANS: Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices via a transmission
medium.

Therefore, the data communication model includes sender, transmitter, communication

channel, receiver, and destination.

Sender
To transfer message from source to destination, someone must be there who will play role of a
source. Sender plays part of a source in data communication system. Here The source terminal
or source will generate the message that needs to be transferred and the transducer will
convert that message into an electrical signal or digital signal.
i.e One of the best example is the source can be a computer where a person talking on a
microphone and the computer processing it and transferring to the destination end.

Transmitter
The transmitter won’t directly send the data to the end node or the destination. The
transmitter will identify the source data and it will transform or decode the information in
such a way to produce electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted into the
transmission system.

One of the examples is Modem – It does modulation and demodulation – a process of

decoding and encoding.

Transmission
In entire process of data communication, there must be something which could act as a bridge
between sender and receiver, Transmission medium plays that parts. It is physical path by which
data or message travels from sender to receiver. Data will be transferred through
electromagnetic waves. Transmission medium could be guided (with wires) or unguided
(without wires), for example, twisted pair cable, fiber optic cable, radio waves, microwaves, etc

Receiver
It is destination where finally message sent by source has arrived. It is a device that receives
message. Same as sender, receiver can also be in form of a computer, telephone mobile,
workstation, etc……The receiver is the device that receives the signals and amplifies them as
well as removes the unwanted noise or the unwanted signals to dispatch or decode actual
data and feed it to the destination node.
Destination:The end node or user will finally receive the message through the data terminal
equipment stationed at the other side. Those end nodes may be Terminal, Computer, or any
other medium like printer or mainframe computer, etc…

4.Explain TCP/IP with neat diagram with individual protocol operation?

ANS:TCP/IP Model helps you to determine how a specific computer should be
connected to the internet and how data should be transmitted between them. It
helps you to create a virtual network when multiple computer networks are
connected together. The purpose of TCP/IP model is to allow communication over
large distances.
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol. TCP/IP Stack is
specifically designed as a model to offer highly reliable and end-to-end byte stream
over an unreliable internetwork.

The functionality of the TCP IP model is divided into four layers, and each includes
specific protocols.

Application Layer
Application layer interacts with an application program, which is the highest level of OSI
model. The application layer is the OSI layer, which is closest to the end-user. It means the OSI
application layer allows users to interact with other software application.

Application layer interacts with software applications to implement a communicating

component. The interpretation of data by the application program is always outside the scope
of the OSI model.
Example of the application layer is an application such as file transfer, email, remote login,
etc.

Transport Layer
Transport layer builds on the network layer in order to provide data transport from a process
on a source system machine to a process on a destination system. It is hosted using single or
multiple networks, and also maintains the quality of service functions.

It determines how much data should be sent where and at what rate. This layer builds on the
message which are received from the application layer. It helps ensure that data units are
delivered error-free and in sequence.

Transport layer helps you to control the reliability of a link through flow control, error control,
and segmentation or de-segmentation.

The transport layer also offers an acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and
sends the next data in case no errors occurred. TCP is the best-known example of the
transport layer.

Internet Layer
An internet layer is a second layer of TCP/IP layes of the TCP/IP model. It is also known as a
network layer. The main work of this layer is to send the packets from any network, and any
computer still they reach the destination irrespective of the route they take.

The Internet layer offers the functional and procedural method for transferring variable length
data sequences from one node to another with the help of various networks.

Message delivery at the network layer does not give any guaranteed to be reliable network
layer protocol.

The Network Interface Layer

Network Interface Layer is this layer of the four-layer TCP/IP model. This layer is
also called a network access layer. It helps you to defines details of how data should
be sent using the network.

It also includes how bits should optically be signaled by hardware devices which
directly interfaces with a network medium, like coaxial, optical, coaxial, fiber, or
twisted-pair cables.
A network layer is a combination of the data line and defined in the article of OSI
reference model. This layer defines how the data should be sent physically through
the network. This layer is responsible for the transmission of the data between two
devices on the same network.

5. Explain how TCP/IP reference model differs from OSI reference model?

ANS: Differences between OSI and TCP/IP models

OSI Model TCP/IP model

It is developed by ISO (International Standard
Organization)
OSI model provides a clear distinction between interfaces,
services, and protocols.
OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection.
It is developed by ARPANET (Advanced Resear
Project Agency Network).
TCP/IP doesn’t have any clear distinguishing p
between services, interfaces, and protocols.
TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol.
OSI uses the network layer to define routing standards
and protocols.
OSI follows a vertical approach.
OSI model use two separate layers physical and data link
to define the functionality of the bottom layers.
OSI layers have seven layers.
OSI model, the transport layer is only connection-
oriented.
In the OSI model, the data link layer and physical are
separate layers.
Session and presentation layers are not a part of the TCP
model.
It is defined after the advent of the Internet.
The minimum size of the OSI header is 5 bytes.
TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach.
TCP/IP uses only one layer (link).
TCP/IP has four layers.
A layer of the TCP/IP model is both connection
oriented and connectionless.
In TCP, physical and data link are both combin
single host-to-network layer.
There is no session and presentation layer in T
model.
It is defined before the advent of the internet.
Minimum header size is 20 bytes.

2.Define protocol. Why the protocol is important? List the elements of

protocols?ANS: • Protocols: A protocol is a set of rules and regulation that governs data

communication; the key elements of a protocol are protocol are

1. Syntax – data formats and Signal levels.

Indicates how to read the bits.

2.Semantics – Interprets the meaning of the bits.

Knows which field define which action.

control information and error handling

3.Timing – speed matching and sequencing

Speed at which data should be sent orspeed at which it is being received.

IMPORTANCE:If two different devices are connected but there is no protocol among them, there
would not be any kind of communication between those two devices. Thus the protocol is
necessary for data communication to take place.

6. Discuss the four types of Transmission Impairment in data transmission?

ANS: Transmission impairment occurs when the received signal is different from the
transmitted signal. As we know, a signal can be transmitted as Analog signal or it can
be transmitted as a digital signal.
In Analog signals due to transmission impairment the resulting received signal gets
different amplitude or the shape. In the case of digitally transmitted signals at the
receiver side we get changes in bits (0's or 1's).

Causes
There are various causes of transmission impairments −

• Noise
• Distortion
• Attenuation

Noise
Noise is the major factor for the transmission distortion as any unwanted signal gets
added to the transmitted signal by which the resulting transmitted signal gets modified
and at the receiver side it is difficult to remove the unwanted noise signal. These noises
are various kinds like shot noise, impulse noise, thermal noise etc.

Distortion
This kind of distortion is mainly appearing in case of composite signals in which a
composite signal has various frequency components in it and each frequency component
has some time constraint which makes a complete signal.
But while transmitting this composite signal, if a certain delay happens between the
frequencies components, then there may be the chance that the frequency component
will reach the receiver end with a different delay constraint from its original which leads
to the change in shape of the signal. The delay happens due to environmental
parameters or from the distance between transmitter and receiver etc.

Attenuation
Attenuation is generally decreased in signal strength, by which the received signal will
be difficult to receive at the receiver end. This attenuation happens due to the majority
factor by environment as environment imposes a lot of resistance and the signal strength
decreases as it tries to overcome the resistance imposed.

7. Explain the various types of topologies used in network?

ANS: Network Topologies: The way in which a network is laid out physically.
 • Types: Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring

Mesh topology: A dedicated point-to-point link connects each device on the network to
another device on the network, only carrying data between two devices.

•Star topology: The most common network topology, star topology connects each device in
the network to a central hub. Devices can only communicate with each other indirectly through

the central hub.

•Bus topology: Also known as backbone network topology, this configuration connects all
devices to a main cable via drop lines. The advantages of bus network topology lie in its
simplicity, as there is less cable required than in alternative topologies, which makes for easy
installation
 Ring topology: Two dedicated point-to-point links connect a device to the two devices located
on either side of it, creating a ring of devices through which data is forwarded via repeaters
until it reaches the target device.

8. List the categories of network and its specifications?

ANS: A computer network is a system in which multiple

computers are connected to share information and resources.

LAN(Local Area Network)

A local area network is a network, which is designed to operate over a very small
geographical or physical area such as an office, building, a group of buildings, etc.

Generally, it is used to connect two or more personal computers through a

communication medium such as coaxial, twisted-pair cables, etc. A LAN can use
either wired or wireless mode of communication. The LAN which entirely uses
wireless media for communication can be termed as WLAN(Wireless Local Area
Network).

Local Area Networks came under existence in around 1970s. IEEE developed the
specifications for LAN. The speed of this network varies from 10mbps(Ethernet
network) to 1gbps(FDDI or Gigabit Ethernet).

In other words, a LAN connects a relatively small number of machines in a relatively

close geographical area. Bus, Ring, and Star topology are generally used in a local area
network. In LAN, one computer can become a server in a star topology, serving all
other computers called clients. Two different buildings can be connected very easily
in LAN using a 'Bridge'.

Ethernet LAN is the most commonly used LAN. The speed of a Local Area Network
also depends on the topology used. For example, a LAN using bus topology has a speed
of 10mbps to 100mbps, while in ring topology it is around 4mbps to 16mbps. LAN's
are generally privately owned networks.

Following are the functionalities of a Local Area Network:

1. File Serving: In LAN, a large storage disk acts as a central storage repository.
2. Print Serving: Printers can be shared very easily in a LAN by various
computers.
3. Academic Support: A LAN can be used in the classroom, labs, etc. for
educational purposes.
4. Manufacturing Support: LAN can support the manufacturing and industrial
environment.
5. High Reliability: Individual workstations might survive the network in case of
failures.
Following are the advantages of a LAN:

1. File transfer and file access

2. Resource or peripherals sharing
3. Personal computing
4. Document distribution
5. Easy to design and troubleshoot
6. Minimum propagation delay
7. High data rate transfer
8. Low error rate
9. Easily scalable(devices can be added or removed very easily)
Following are the disadvantages of a LAN:
 1. Equipment and support may be costly
2. Some hardware devices may not inter-operate properly

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

A Metropolitan Area Network is a bigger version of LAN that uses similar technology
as LAN. It spans over a larger geographical area such as a town or an entire city.

It can be connected using an optical fiber cable as a communication medium. Two or

more LAN's can also be connected using routers to create a MAN. When this type of
network is created for a specific campus, then it is termed as CAN(Campus Area
Network).

The MAN spans over a geographical area of about 50km. The best example of MAN is
the cable television network that spans over the whole city.

A MAN can be either a public or privately owned network. Generally, a telephone

exchange line is most commonly used as a communication medium in MAN. The
protocols that are used in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ISDN, etc.

Uses of MAN are as follows:

1. MAN can be used for connecting the various offices of the same organization,
spread over the whole city.
2. It can be used for communication in various governmental departments.
Following are the advantages of using MAN:

1. Large geographical area cover as compared to LAN

2. High-speed data connectivity
3. The Propagation delay of MAN is moderate
Following are the disadvantages of MAN:

1. It is hard to design and maintain a MAN

2. MAN is less fault-tolerant
3. It is costlier to implement
4. Congestions are more in a MAN

1. Discuss how the signal waveform is created when 01001110 is

transmitted using the following code schemes: i NRZ-I ii NRZ-L iii
Manchester encoding iv Differential Manchester encoding?
ANS: