Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The Expressive Macro Skills G1
The Expressive Macro Skills G1
http://repository.ump.ac.id/6277/3/CHAPTER%20II_LILIS%20SETYADI_PBI
%2714.pdf
https://text-id.123dok.com/document/nq7wnvknz-the-nature-of-speaking.html
Purposes of Speaking:
Informative speaking
Informative speaking seeks to inform. Its goal is that the listeners understand something
in the same way that the speaker understands that subject.
Invitational speaking
Invitational speaking is often similar to informative speaking, but adds judgment into the
mix. The 'invitational' element is hence an invitation to listeners in agreement or
evaluation of some sort. This evaluation may be of an idea, another person, an event, an
object of some kind, an event or anything else who which judgment may be applied.
Dispositional speaking
Actuation speaking
Actuation speaking seeks to get people to act, to perform in some way. In practice this
can be easy for simple actions and hardest of all for actions that the person may not
normally undertake. In this way, actuation speaking can be considered to be the ultimate
in persuasive speaking.
http://changingminds.org/techniques/speaking/preparing_presentation/
purpose_speaking.htm
Speech, then, is produced by an air stream from the lungs, which goes through the
trachea and the oral and nasal cavities. It involves four processes: Initiation, phonation,
oro-nasal process and articulation.
The initiation process is the moment when the air is expelled from the lungs. In
English, speech sounds are the result of “a pulmonic egressive air stream” (Giegerich,
1992) although that is not the case in all languages (ingressive sounds).
The phonation process occurs at the larynx. The larynx has two horizontal folds
of tissue in the passage of air; they are the vocal folds. The gap between these folds is
called the glottis.
Through the oro-nasal process we can differentiate between the nasal consonants
(/m/, /n/, //) and other sounds
Finally, the articulation process is the most obvious one: it takes place in the
mouth and it is the process through which we can differentiate most speech sounds. In the
mouth we can distinguish between the oral cavity, which acts as a resonator, and the
articulators, which can be active or passive: upper and lower lips, upper and lower teeth,
tongue (tip, blade, front, back) and roof of the mouth (alveolar ridge, palate and velum).
So, speech sounds are distinguished from one another in terms of the place where and the
manner how they are articulated.
https://www.ugr.es/~ftsaez/fonetica/production_speech.pdf
Speech style is the distinct variations or forms of the language used for the same purpose
by a particular situation or the form of language that the speaker uses. It is characterized
by the degree of formality.
Speech register
In linguistics, the register is defined as the way a speaker uses language differently in
different circumstances. They are determined by such factors as social occasion, context,
purpose, and audience.
1) FROZEN STYLE
Also known as fixed speech
It is most the most formal communicative style that is often used in respectful
situation or formal ceremony
As most highly formal style, it uses the complex grammatical sentence structure and
vocabulary known only to experts in a particular field
It invites the reader to enter into a personal experience of creative discovery such as
literary texts like poetry
The writing reflects the efforts of revision
Examples:
● Pledge of Allegiance
● Shakespeare's Plays
● Weddings
● Introduction of each other between acquaintance
2) FORMAL STYLE
It uses formal words and expressions
Example: Formal
"Toyota’s sales bounced back in March as substantial discounts helped to win back
customers who had been shaken by the firm’s mass safety recalls.”
Most often seen in writing than in speaking
This speech style is expected to be presented in complete sentences with specific
word usage
Its usually elaborate complex sentences and noun phrases are well structured,
logically sequenced, and strongly coherent
It does not allow ellipsis (like omissions), contractions, qualifying modal adverbials
(like probably, possibly, evidently, surely, certainly and subjectivel
Examples:
● Job Interview
● Business Trip
3) CONSULTATIVE STYLE
This style is used in conversations between friends and insiders who have
something to share and have shared background information
There is free and easy participation of both speaker and listener
It is marked by various degrees of implicitness because of intimacy between speaker
and listener
A simple greeting with those you know well might probably be the causal:
▪ “Hey”
▪ “What’s up?”
Casual or informal style have ellipsis, allows the use of slang, profanity, and
unconventional English words
The diction or vocabulary is informal (colloquial)
5) INTIMATE STYLE
This style is used in conversations between people who are very close and know each
other quite well because having a maximum of shared background
It is characterized by an economy of words, with a high incidence of significant
nonverbal communication, such as gesture, facial expression, eye contact and so on.
There is free and easy participation of both the speaker and listener, and is far more
elliptical
Examples:
● Telling your bf/gf that you love them
● Telling your best friend your deepest and darkest secrets
6. PASSIVE
Individuals who use the passive communication style often act indifferently, yielding
to others.
Passive communicators usually fail to express their feelings or needs, allowing others
to express themselves. Frequently, a passive communicator’s lack of outward
communication can lead to misunderstanding, anger build-up or resentment.
Passive communicators often display a lack of eye contact, poor body posture and an
inability to say “no.” Passive communicators also act in a way that states “people
never consider my feelings.”
7. AGGRESSIVE
8. PASSIVE-AGGRESSIVE
9. ASSERTIVE
Sources:
● "Types of Speech Style" by Cesumnida Largado, SlideShare.net
● https://online.alvernia.edu/articles/4-types-communication-styles/
●https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=https://
jurnalmahasiswa.unesa.ac.id/index.php/languagehorizon/article/download/
18260/16648%23:~:text%3DSpeech%2520style%2520is%2520a%2520variation,people
%2520communicate%2520with%2520other%2520people.%26text%3DAccording
%2520to%2520Joos%2520(1976)%2520speech,this%2520style%2520into%2520five
%2520styles.&ved=2ahUKEwjc5_iBtPzuAhUCFogKHWdwAp4QFjANegQIAhAG&us
g=AOvVaw3AcHiHVILh7S_z7M7CJ3ni
● https://www.thoughtco.com/register-language-style-169
AUSTIN AND SEARLE’S SPEECH ACTS
This concept was proposed by John Langshaw Austin in 1962 one of the founders of
pragmatic and later developed by John R. Searle in 1969 , both philosophers of language ,
they believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things , it is often
used " to do things " , to perform acts . In other words actions performed via utterances
are generally called speech acts .
He further distinguished three acts in one single speech act or event we perform.
Illocutionary acts are the real actions which are performed by the utterance. We
form an utterance with some kind of function in mind. This communicative force
of an utterance is known as illocutionary force. (Intention/desire of the speaker.
Locutionary act is the basic act of utterance, or producing a meaningful
linguistic expressions. We can say performing an act of saying something or
physical utterances of words.
Perlocutionary act is the effect produced on the listner when they listen a
locutionary act or this is the hears response.
This theory was further classified by John Searle. He states that the taxonomy used by
Austin is defective, especially in its lack of clear criteria for distinguishing one kind of
illocutionary force from another.
Searle divides illocutionary acts into five basic types.
Directive, it is conversation between 1st and 2nd person here the speaker tries to
make the hearer do something, with such words as: ask, order, command, request,
beg, plead, pray, entreat, invite, permit, advise, demand etc.
Ex: Give me your pen. Leave the town immediately.
Commissive, the speaker commits himself or herself to the future course of
action, with verbs such as: guarantee, promise, swear, refuse, threating etc.
Ex: I will repay the money. I swear to tell the truth.
Representative, the speaker asserts a proposition to be true, using such verbs as:
affirm, believe, conclude, deny, report, state. etc
Ex: The earth is round. I think, he is saying the truth.
Declarative, the speaker alters the external status or condition of an object,
situation or context solely by making the utterance.
Ex: Class dismissed. You are fired. We find defendant not guilty.
Expressive, the speaker expresses an attitude to or about a state of affairs, using
such verbs as: thanks, congratulate, apologize, praise etc.
Ex: I am sorry for being late. What a great day! Congratulation! Wala
Source: M.Ali Soomro, M.A English Linguistics 2015-17,”Austin & Searle’s Speech
Act”
Review on Segmentals, Suprasegmentals, Modes of Communication,
Types of Speech Delivery
Introduction:
In linguistics, a segment is "any discrete unit that can be identified, either physically or
auditorily, in the stream of speech".[1] The term is most used in phonetics and phonology
to refer to the smallest elements in a language, and this usage can be synonymous with
the term phone.
Segmentals
In phonology, there is a subfield of segmental phonology that deals with the analysis of
speech into phonemes (or segmental phonemes), which correspond fairly well to phonetic
segments of the analysed speech.
The segmental phonemes of sign language (formally called "cheremes") are visual
movements of hands, face, and body. They occur in a distinct spatial and temporal order.
The SignWriting script represents the spatial order of the segments with a spatial cluster
of graphemes. Other notations for sign language use a temporal order that implies a
spatial order.
Suprasegmentals
Suprasegmental, also called prosodic feature, in phonetics, a speech feature such as
stress, tone, or word juncture that accompanies or is added over consonants and vowels;
these features are not limited to single sounds but often extend over syllables, words, or
phrases. In Spanish the stress accent is often used to distinguish between otherwise
identical words: término means “term,” termíno means “I terminate,” and terminó means
“he terminated.” In Mandarin Chinese, tone is a distinctive suprasegmental: shih
pronounced on a high, level note means “to lose”; on a slight rising note means “ten”; on
a falling note means “city, market”; and on a falling–rising note means “history.” English
“beer dripped” and “beard ripped” are distinguished by word juncture.
Modes of Communication
Verbal Communication
Verbal communication depends on words to deliver meaning. It is further subdivided into
written communication and oral communication. Written communication can involve
anything from words on a page to emails, to text messages. Oral communication involves
spoke words. This can be done in person, through the phone, or over video chat. Oral
communication is often quicker than written communication although meaning can be
shaded using tone, inflection, and volume.
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication occurs when meaning or messages are sent or received
without the use of words. Nonverbal communication can be intentional or unintentional.
Physical nonverbal communication can be displayed through body language, facial
expressions, touch, or eye contact. Nonverbal communication can also be used to modify
the meaning of verbal communications. Some researchers believe that nonverbal
communications account for 55 percent of all communication.
Visual Communication
Our third and final means of communication, visual communication, utilizes drawings,
illustrations, pictures, colors, graphs, charts, and signs to share meaning. Visual
communication can be used in conjunction with verbal communication, or it can stand on
its own. Visual communication is frequently used in advertising, art, and entertainment.
Often, this form of communication can be left further up to interpretation than other
forms of communication. In these cases, it is often the recipient of the communication
who imparts at least some meaning on the message.
Interpersonal Communication
Students engage in two-way oral or written communication with active negotiation of
meaning to share information, feelings, and opinions. This is the meat of the Sonrisas
lessons. In every segment—Circle Time, Story Time, Art Time, and Partner Time—
students have the opportunity to engage in interpersonal communication with the teacher
and their classmates. Students engage in this mode by singing songs, playing games,
doing lesson activities, engaging in shared reading, conversing about art projects, and
completing Partner Time activities.
Presentational Communication
Students present spoken or written information that is prepared for an audience. In the
Sonrisas lessons students present completed art projects, they share information from
Partner Time activities, and they present written work from portfolio activities.
There are four primary types of speech delivery: Manuscript, Memorized, Impromptu,
and Extemporaneous
Manuscript speaking, like it sounds, involves reading your speech word-for-word from
its written form. The advantage to delivering a speech this way is that you can perfectly
plan and control the wording of your speech. This sounds like it is ideal, but really it is
not. For one thing, as discussed in the section of this website on writing the speech body,
in most speeches you should be striving for an informal, conversational delivery style.
Reading prevents that, as well as eye contact. Also, with set wording, you can’t adapt the
speech if the audience isn’t following or interested in your speech.
Memorized, like it sounds, involves committing your entire speech to memory. Once
again, this sounds great. But, practically speaking, who has time to memorize even a
short speech? And like a manuscript speech, you can’t adapt to feedback from the
audience.
An Impromptu speech is one that you are asked to deliver with little or no preparation.
Chances are, that if you’re on this site, impromptu speeches aren’t what you are expected
to deliver.
Finally, the Extemporaneous speech is a speech delivered with some prepared structure,
such as notes or an outline, but is otherwise delivered off-the-cuff. In most cases, this is
going to be your best choice. The notes allow you to structure your speech, without
handcuffing you in the event that your audience needs you to adapt. Also, you will sound
more natural and conversational, and this will help hold audience attention.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segment_(linguistics)?
fbclid=IwAR0ZBuAMhBYpYasrOMsR3UCRcdtpUpf2HMMoI8unhtvBCF-
jzviDR79zXNw
SPEAKING FORMATS
1. Talk as Interaction
Our daily communication remains interactional with other people. This refers to what
we said as conversation. It is an interactive communication which done
spontaneous by two or more person. This is about how people try to convey his message
to other people. Therefore, they must use speaking skill to communicate to other person.
The main intention in this function is social relationship.
2. Talk as Transaction
In talk as transaction is more focus on message that conveyed and making others
person understand what we want convey, by clearly and accurately. In this type of spoken
language, students and teacher usually focus on meaning or talking what their way to
understanding.
3. Talk as Performance
In this case, speaking activities is more focus on monolog better than dialog.
Function of speaking as performance happened at speeches, public talks, public
announcements, retell story, telling story and so on.
It is important that teachers guide learners systematically, introducing activities that are
integrated and sequenced and that allow them to raise their awareness of the knowledge,
skills and strategies needed for different types of interaction and discourse.
Materials development for teaching speaking has changed over time in response to
methodological developments in the English language teaching profession. A wide range
of materials is needed to address learners' needs for both social and academic language.
Speaking Aids
Why use speaking aids
In contrast, we often expect that our students have the right mood to speak without
having anything that would help them to be in the right mood to speak, or any prompt
that would help the flow of ideas. These small prompts or small speaking aids get
especially important when children get into the age when they want to speak about
themselves
1. Post-it notes
Post-it notes are great conversation starters. Get them to write a name, a date and a place
that is important to them. These three things should come from three different stories or
events in their lives.
2. Colored paper
Colored paper can be used as a metaphor that represents the choice of the student. Here is
how you do it:
Lay a good selection of different colored paper out on the floor or on a big table in
the middle of the classroom so that all the colors are visible to the class. Call out a
subject e.g. something you like to eat. Everyone takes a color that corresponds to
something they like to eat.
Give students 1 to 2 minutes to talk to each other about the subject then ask students
to put the colored paper back.
Change the subject and at the same time, ask students to change partners and find the
colour that they associate with the new subject.
Using these little, inexpensive speaking aids has the following advantages:
Students get prepared for talking as they are thinking about the prompt, e.g. which
object to choose, what to write or where to stand. So there is thinking time with an
outcome that later will help talking.
It is easier to start talking as these prompts communicate first, so they break the ice
before the students start talking.
They develop thinking skills such as forming an opinion, finding similarities and
differences and using metaphors.
They are very flexible and easily adaptable to different levels, ages and teaching
aims.
Their use often triggers imagination and/or brings back memory, so it helps creative
expression, personalization and originality in speaking.
Games
Games can be useful in teaching students everything from money and grammar to social
skills. For example Twenty questions. Twenty questios is also another well worn activity,
but one that never gets old. An added bonus is that it can be used to review target
vocabulary. It’s good as a warmer to get them comfortable with speaking English again.
https://rinaaghna.wordpress.com/2012/11/28/teaching-material-development-speaking-2/
https://www.thoughtco.com/tlm-teaching-learning-materials-2081658
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/speaking-aids
https://tophat.com/blog/performance-assessment/
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
318459515_The_Assessment_of_Speaking_Skills_at_the_Tertiary_Level#:~:text=In
%20performance%E2%80%94based%20assessment%2C%20the%20assessment%20of
%20the%20learners%E2%80%99,the%20information%20gathered%20by%20the
%20traditional%20standardized%20testing
https://m.busyteacher.org/7082-top-10-ways-to-assess-your-students.html
Create a rubric
Most teachers will be familiar with the concept of grading with a rubric, a table with
different criteria and a grading scale. If you have never created a rubric before, it’s really
quite easy. Simply choose the criteria on which you will grade students and list them
along the left side of the page. Then create an even number of columns along the top of
the page.
Pronunciation
Pronunciation is a basic quality of language learning.
Vocabulary
Vocabulary comprehension and vocabulary production are always two separate
banks of words in the mind of a speaker, native as well as second language.
Accuracy
Grammar has always been and forever will be an important issue in foreign
language study. Writing sentences correctly on a test, though, is not the same as accurate
spoken grammar.
Communication
Assessing communication in your students means looking at their creative use of the
language they do know to make their points understood.
Interaction
Being able to say what you mean with a foreign language is one thing, being able to
interact with others is another.
Fluency
Fluency may be the easiest quality to judge in your students’ speaking.
https://m.busyteacher.org/4836-how-to-evaluate-speaking.html