Pretest: MULTIPLE CHOICE:

Directions: Read and understand each item and choose the letter of the correct
answer. Use separate answer sheet of paper.

1. Which element will have 5 electrons in its Lewis dot symbol?

A. Argon C. Carbon B. Boron
D. Phosphorus
2. Which element is the least electronegative?
A. Calcium C. Iron
B. Cesium D. Barium
3. The complete transfer of one or more electrons between atoms constitutes in forming
___________

A. ionic bond C. coordinate covalent bond

B. covalent bond D. dative bond
4. It is important to know the geometry of a molecule because the geometry
_________________.

A. affects the physical and chemical properties of the substance

B. will give the Lewis structure of the molecule
C. will determine whether the molecule is ionic or covalent
D. B and C

5. If there are four (4) electron pairs around the central atom of a molecule, these electron
pairs are in a _________________arrangement.

A. linear C. tetrahedral
B. trigonal planar D. octahedral
6. A list of non-metals is given below. Which elements can exceed the octet rule? S C Cl
O
A. O C. F
B. C D. S
7. Which of the following represents a non-polar covalent bond?
A. H-O C. C-C
B. C-N D. Li-F
8. What type of bond does NO2 forms?

A. ionic bond C. coordinate covalent bond

B. covalent bond D. dative bond
9. Atoms bond to other atoms to obtain a/an _______________ electron configuration.

A. alkali metal C. noble gas

B. halogen D. chalcogen
10. It is a measure of how equally the electrons in a bond are distributed between the two
atoms involved in a covalent bond.

A. polarity C. ionization energy

B. octet rule D. electron affinity

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 Atoms usually interact with other atoms or group of atoms. They might be
connected by strong bonds and formed into molecules or crystals, or they might also
form temporary, weak bonds with other atoms. These bonds hold molecules together
and are essential to the chemistry of our bodies and to the existence of life itself. In
this lesson, we examine the models of chemical bonding and their properties, and how
they influence the behavior of the
substances around us.

Figure 1. Three-dimensional structure of the flavonoid isorhamnetin. The figure shows

Why do atoms bond at all? The answer is that atoms are trying to reach the
most stable or lowest-energy state that they can. Usually, atoms become more stable
when their orbital of the outermost energy level or valence shell is filled with electrons,
satisfying the octet rule. If atoms don’t have this arrangement, they reach it by gaining,
losing, or sharing electrons via chemical bonds. In chemical bonding, only valence
electrons, electrons located in valence shell of the element, are involved.

Figure 2. Energy diagram of bonded vs nonbonded atoms

Types of Bonding

1. Ionic Bond
An ionic bond is formed when metals on the left side (Group 1(A) and Group
2(A) of the periodic table and nonmetals on the right side (except noble gases, group
8A) interact. This type of interaction is observed between atoms with large differences
in their tendencies to lose or gain electrons and is achieved via electron transfer. Once
the electrons have been transferred to the non-metal, both the metal and the nonmetal
become ions. The metal becomes positively charged and the nonmetal becomes
negatively charged. An ionic compound is formed when the two oppositely charged
ions attract each other. For instance, positively charged sodium ions and negatively
charged chloride ions attract each other to make sodium chloride, or table salt.
 Ionic compounds tend to have higher melting and boiling points. They are hard
and brittle and conduct electricity when dissolved in water. Some common ionic
compounds are magnesium bromide (MgBr2), magnesium oxide (MgO), and
potassium bromide (KBr).

Figure 3. Common elements that form ionic bonds (Orange = metals;

Green = nonmetals)
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2. Covalent Bond
Covalent bonds are formed when atoms reach stability by sharing electrons
(rather than fully gaining or losing them). Covalent bonds are more common than ionic
bonds in the molecules of living organisms. These bonds mostly occur between
nonmetals or between two of the same (or similar) elements. One, two, or three pairs
of electrons may be shared between atoms, resulting in single, double, or triple bonds,
respectively. The more electrons that are shared between two atoms, the shorter and
stronger their bond will be.

Single bond Double bond Triple bond

Figure 4. Structures of some common covalent compounds

Compounds formed through covalent bonding are brittle solid, have relatively
low melting and boiling points, and are poor conductor of heat and electricity. Several
covalent compounds have high vapor pressure, which makes them volatile and good
as fuels. Propane, methane and gasoline are all covalent compounds that readily
undergo combustion, producing energy as a bi-product. Water and almost all the
biomolecules that govern the chemistry in our body are formed through covalent
bonds.

Lewis Dot Symbols

Valence electrons of an atom are better represented with Lewis dot symbols.
From the previous module, the number of valence electrons of a main block element
is usually equivalent to its group number. For instance, Carbon is a Group 4(a)
element, thus it has 4 valence electrons. The number of valence electrons of Fluorine
is 7 because it is in Group7(a). Magnesium has 2 valence electrons because it belongs
to Group2(a).
Lewis dot symbol is very useful when learning about chemical bonding, and
chemical reactions. It consists of the symbol of an element and one dot for each
valence electron in an atom of the element. The dots are placed on the four sides of
the symbol—top, bottom, left, and right—and each side can accommodate up to two
electrons. The choice on which sides to place two electrons rather one electron is
arbitrary since all four sides are equivalent. It is recommended that we spread out the
dots as much as possible. In general, we cannot write simple Lewis dot symbols for
the transition metals, lanthanides, and actinides because they all have incompletely
filled inner shells.

Figure 1. Lewis dot symbols of some main block elements

The Octet Rule and Bond Formations

The octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to gain, lose or share electrons
to have eight electrons in the valence shell or attain the same number of electrons as
the noble gas nearest to them in the periodic table. Noble gases are known as stable
elements as evidenced by their general lack of reactivity. All the noble gases except
Helium have eight valence electrons, that is why many atoms undergoing reactions
end up with eight valence electrons.

Octet rules does not generally apply to the d or f electrons. Only the s and p
electrons are involved in the octet rule, making it useful for the main group elements
(elements not in the transition metal or inner-transition metal blocks). Main group
elements have an octet which corresponds to an electron configuration ending with
s2p6. However, there are some exceptions to the octet rule: boron and aluminum
readily form compounds in which they have six valence electrons, rather than the usual
eight predicted by the octet rule. Sulfur, phosphorus, silicon, and chlorine are common
examples of elements that form an expanded octet or form compounds in which they
have more than 8 valence electrons. Moreover, in some cases, having an odd number
of electrons in a molecule guarantees that it does not follow the octet rule.

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For instance, table salt or NaCl is the result of Na + ions and Cl- ions bonding
together in an ionic bond. If sodium metal and chlorine gas react under the right
conditions, they will form salt. Since sodium is a metal, it loses an electron, becomes
positively charged and the chlorine gains that electron and becomes negatively
charged. The resulting salt is mostly unreactive — it is stable. It will not undergo any
explosive reactions, unlike the sodium and chlorine that it is made of. (Note that each
line that connects two atoms represents two bonded electrons.)
 Figure 2. Ionic bond formation of sodium chloride

Referring to the octet rule, sodium has one valence electron, so giving it up
would result in the same electron configuration as neon. Chlorine has seven valence
electrons, so if it takes one it will have eight (an octet) and achieve an electron
configuration as argon. It is also important to consider that atoms are more stable when
they have smaller charge or no charge at all.

Generally, the stoichiometry of a product of an ionic bond formation of a metal

and a non-metal is equal to the exchange of their charges. For instance, when
magnesium reacts with nitrogen at elevated temperatures, a white solid compound,
magnesium nitride (Mg3N2) is formed. Magnesium will lose 2 valence electrons to
achieve an electron configuration as neon, thus becoming Mg2+. Nitrogen will then
need 3 more electrons to become stable since it has only 5 valence electrons.
Consequently, nitrogen will become N3- for gaining 3 more electrons.

Figure 3. Formation of magnesium nitride

In general, the product of ionic bond formation of the metals and non-metals in the
representative block is:

Figure 4. Formation of ionic bond product (M=metal; N= nonmetal; a and b =

charges)

In covalently bonded atoms, sharing of electrons is being exhibited by all atoms

involved to satisfy the octet rule. For example, two hydrogens share each of their
valence electron with each other to have two electrons in their valence shells through
a single bond. As a result, each hydrogen atom achieves an electron configuration as
helium, the nearest noble gas which has only 2 valence electrons.

2e- 2e-

Figure 5. Covalent bond formation of H2

 Several atoms form multiple bonds to satisfy the octet. If two atoms share two
pairs of electrons, the covalent bond is called a double bond. This type of bond is much
stronger and shorter than single bonds. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the compounds
where double bonds are found.

Figure 6. Electron sharing of CO2 through double bonds

A triple bond arises when two atoms share three pairs of electrons, as in the
nitrogen molecule (N2). This type of bond is much stronger and shorter than single and
double bonds.

Figure 7.
Electron sharing of N2 through a triple bond

For the non-metallic elements (Families 4A, 5A, 6A, and 7A), they can accept a
complementary number of shared bonds to reach the octet state. Family 4A can share
4 covalent bonds (4 + 4 = 8), whereas Families 5A, 6A, and 7A can share 3, 2, and 1
covalent bond(s), respectively, to achieve the octet state. Usually, the formula of their
product is equal to the exchange of the individual number of lacking electrons they
need to reach octet. As for the reaction of carbon and chlorine, carbon needs 4 more
electrons while chlorine needs one more electron to satisfy the octet, hence CCl4.

CCl4 (Carbon tetrachloride)

Writing Lewis Structures

Lewis structures are diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a
molecule, and the unbonded electrons that may exist in the molecule. A Lewis
structure can be drawn for any covalently-bonded molecule. Lines are drawn between
electrons that are bonded to one another. Excess electrons that are not bonded or
lone pairs are represented as pair of dots and are placed next to the atoms on which
they reside. According to Brown, these procedures should be followed when writing
Lewis structures:

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 Note that the central atom is the least electronegative atom in the molecule.
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract toward itself the electrons. It
increases from left to right across a period and decreases down a group. Moreover,
check the formal charge of each atom. It is imperative to remember that atoms are
more stable when they have lesser charge or no charge at all. Negative formal charges
should be assigned to more electronegative atoms. The overall formal charges of the
atoms being bonded should be equal to the overall charge of the compound.

Figure 8. Lewis structures of some common compounds

Example: Lewis structure of phosphorus trichloride or PCl 3
 The previous lesson helped us understand the compositions of molecules and
their bonds through the Lewis structure theory. However, Lewis structures do not
demonstrate one of the most important features of molecules—their overall shapes.
The size and shapes of molecules are defined by the distances and angles between
the nuclei of the atoms involved. In this lesson, we learn how to portrait a molecule by
writing a two-dimensional structure for it and translating it to a three-dimensional
shape, and we examine the effects of molecular shape on molecular polarity.

What’s New

Activity 1: Review on Geometry

Directions: Draw a two-dimensional or three-dimensional illustration of the following
geometries:

Example: Square
Pyramidal:

1. Trigonal planar (2D)

2. Square Planar (3D)

3. Octahedral (3D)

4. Trigonal bipyramidal (3D)

 5. Seesaw (3D)

Molecular geometry relates to the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in

a molecule. The size and shape of a molecule of a substance, together with the
strength and polarity of its bonds, affect the physical and chemical properties of
molecules and play an important role in their interactions especially in the lifesustaining
processes in cells. The angles and distances between each atom, bonding pair, and
lone pair of electrons are determined by the attractive and repulsive forces governing
all matter.

Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

The approach in predicting molecular geometry is called the Valence Shell

Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR). This prediction is anchored from the
assumption that all electron pairs in the valence shell around a central atom repel one
another. These valence shell electron pairs are the ones involved in bonding and they
want to stay apart from each other as possible. They want to be in the most stable
orientation and the one with the lowest energy, thus, they assume a geometry or
orientation that will minimize the repulsions. The key ideas of the VSEPR theory are:

VSEPR focuses not only on electron pairs, but it also focusses on electron
groups. An electron group can be an electron pair, a lone pair, a single unpaired
electron, a double bond or a triple bond on the central atom. The actual determinants
of molecular shape are classified into two groups: the electron-group and the molecular
geometry. Electron-group geometry is determined by the number of electron groups
or the number of atoms bonded to the central atom. Molecular geometry, on the other
hand, depends on not only on the number of electron groups or the number of atoms
bonded to the central atom, but also on the number of lone pairs or unbonded pair of
electrons on the central atom. When the electron groups are all bond pairs, they are
termed just like the electron-group geometry.

For this lesson, we will adopt the following notation: A denotes to the central
atom and X refers to another atom bonded to it. If there are lone pairs or unbonded
pair of electrons attached to the central atom, this is indicated by the letter E. Hence,
AX3E2 means that A has three atoms of X bonded to it and A also has two lone pairs
of electrons. To picture the three-dimensional shape of a molecule, black wedges are
used to represent chemical bonds coming toward you, while dashed lines are for bonds
that extend back behind the surface. Solid lines or “sticks” are used for the backbone
of the chemical structure and for chemical bonds on the same plane.

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Table 1. Summary of molecular geometry
Figure 1. Ball-and-Stick representation of electron-group geometry
Predicting Molecular Geometry

..

Molecular Polarity
 Polarity is a physical property of compounds which relates other physical
properties such as solubility, boiling and melting points and intermolecular interactions
between molecules. It is a measure of how equally the electrons in a bond are
distributed between the two atoms involved in a covalent bond. Bond polarity increases
with the increasing electronegativity difference between the atoms in a molecule since
there is a shift in electron density towards the more electronegative atom. In a few
cases, a symmetrical arrangement gives rise to a non-polar molecule even though a
molecule may have polar bonds.

The shift in electron density is symbolized by a crossed arrow ( ) with the arrow
pointing toward the direction of the shift. For instance, the shift in electron density
points toward fluorine in the polar HF molecule since it is more
electronegative than hydrogen.

Polar molecules exhibit dipole moments while nonpolar molecules do not. In the
presence of an electric field, the positive end of the molecules positions itself towards
the negative plate. The molecular geometry determines whether the molecule is polar
or not. Molecules whose atoms have equal or nearly equal electronegativities are
nonpolar. A molecule with polar bonds, but the molecular geometry is symmetrical
allowing the bond dipoles to cancel each other out like in the molecule C0 2 is also
nonpolar.

Figure 2. Some common polar compounds

Figure 3. Some common nonpolar compounds

SUMMARY
• Atoms form bonds because they are trying to reach the most stable or lowest-energy
state that they can. In chemical bonding, only valence electrons, electrons located in
valence shell of the element, are involved.
• An ionic bond is formed when metals on the left side (Group 1(A) and Group 2(A) of
the periodic table and nonmetals on the right side (except noble gases, group 8A)
interact.
• Covalent bonds are formed when atoms reach stability by sharing electrons (rather
than fully gaining or losing them).
• These bonds mostly occur between nonmetals or between two of the same (or similar)
elements. One, two, or three pairs of electrons may be shared between atoms,
resulting in single, double, or triple bonds, respectively. The more electrons that are
shared between two atoms, the shorter and stronger their bond will be.
• Lewis dot symbol is very useful when learning about chemical bonding, and chemical
reactions. It consists of the symbol of an element and one dot for each valence electron
in an atom of the element.
• Valence electrons of an atom are better represented with Lewis dot symbols. From the
previous module, the number of valence electrons of a main block element is usually
equivalent to its group number.
• The octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to gain, lose or share electrons to have
eight electrons in the valence shell or attain the same number of electrons as the noble
gas nearest to them in the periodic table.
• Lewis structures are diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a molecule,
and the unbonded electrons that may exist in the molecule.
• Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract toward itself the electrons. It
increases from left to right across a period and decreases down a group.
• Molecular geometry relates to the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a
molecule. The size and shape of a molecule of a substance, together with the strength
and polarity of its bonds, affect the physical and chemical properties of molecules and
play an important role in their interactions especially in the life-sustaining processes in
cells.
• The approach in predicting molecular geometry is called the Valence Shell Electron
Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR).
• Electron-group geometry is determined by the number of electron groups or the
number of atoms bonded to the central atom. Molecular geometry, on the other hand,
depends on not only on the number of electron groups or the number of atoms bonded
to the central atom, but also on the number of lone pairs or unbonded pair of electrons
on the central atom.
• Polarity is a physical property of compounds which relates other physical properties
such as solubility, boiling and melting points and intermolecular interactions between
molecules.
• Molecules whose atoms have equal or nearly equal electronegativities are nonpolar.
A molecule with polar bonds, but the molecular geometry is symmetrical allowing the
bond dipoles to cancel each other out like in the molecule C02 is also nonpolar.

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Assessment: (Post-Test)
Multiple Choice. Answer the questions that follow. Choose the best answer
among the given choices for each item.

1. The number of lone pairs in CO2 molecule are ______________-.

A. 1 C. 3 B. 2 D. 4

2. A molecule with trigonal planar geometry:

A. H2O C. BF3
B. CO2 D. CH4

3. In ammonia, the tetrahedral shape gets distorted because of the lone pair and becomes
__________.
A. trigonal pyramidal C. linear
B. T-shaped D. bent

4. The number of lone pairs of electrons around the central oxygen atom in In the Lewis
structure of the OF2 molecule is:

A. 1 C. 3
B. 2 D. 4
5. Which one of the formulas for ionic compounds below is incorrect?

A. SrCl2 C. Al3P2
B. AlCl3 D. Cs2S

6. Write the singly bonded Lewis dot structure for BF3. Which of the following statements
best describes this structure?

A. It obeys the octet rule on all atoms.

B. It has less than an octet on at least one atom.
C. It has a lone pair of electrons on the boron atom.
D. It has less than an octet of electrons on all atoms.

7. Which of the following elements can only form one bond in a Lewis structure?
A. N C. C B. O D. H

8. Which of the following is a nonpolar covalent molecule?

A. NH3 C. HCl
B. H2O D. CCl4

9. Which of the following has the highest boiling point?

A. NaCl C. CH3CH2CH3
B. HBr D. CCl4

10. Which of the following molecules has a dipole moment?

A. CCl4 C. NH3
B. O2 D. CO2
Key to Answers

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Key to Answers
Key to Answers
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Key to Answers