10 Infinite Sequences and Series ‘OVERVIEW In this chapter we introduce the topic of infinite series. Such series give us precise ways to express many numbers and functions, both familiar and new, as arithmetic ‘sums with infinitely many term. For example, we will learn that and cose = 1 Tt 7 W0 We need to develop a method to make sense of such expressions. Everyone knows, how to add two numbers together, or even several. But how do you add together infinitely ‘many numbers? Or, when adding together functions, how do you add infinitely many pow- cers of x? In this chapter we answer these questions, which are part ofthe theory of infinite sequences and series. As with the differential and integral calculus, limits play a major role in the development of infinite series. ‘One common and important application of series occurs when making computations ‘with complicated functions. A hard-to-compute function is replaced by an expression that looks like an “infinite degree polynomial,” an infinite series in powers of x, as we sce with the cosine function given above, Using the first few terms of ths infinite series can allow {or highly accurate approximations of functions by polynomials, enabling us to work with ‘more general functions than those we encountered before, These new functions are com ‘monly oblained as solutions to differential equations arising in important applications of ‘mathematics to science and engineering. “The terms “sequence” and “series” ate sometimes used interchangeably in spoken language. In mathematies, however, each has a distinct meaning. A sequence is a type of infinite list, whereas a series is an infinite sum. To understand the infinite sums described by series, we are led to frst study infinite sequences. quences and Seles vor. 9oo. 91/57 Sequences are fundamental to the study of infinite series and to many aspects of mathe ‘matics. We saw one example of a sequence when we studied Newton's Method in Section 46. Newton's Method produces a sequence of approximations x, that become closer and closer to the root of a differentiable function. Now we will explore general sequences of ‘numbers and the conditions under which they converge to a finite number. 563564 Chapter 10 Inrite Sequences and Series Representing Sequences ‘A sequence isa list of numbers in a given order. Each of a}, @;, as and so on represents a number. These are the terms of the sequence, For example, the sequence 2,4,6,8,10,12,...,2n, thas first term «a = 2, second term ay = 4, and nth term a, = 2n, The integer n is called the index of a, and indicates where a, occurs inthe list. Order is important. The sequence 2,4, 6,8... isnot the same as the sequence 4, 2, 6,8 ‘We can think of the sequence as a function that sends 1 t0 a}, 210 a>, 3 to ay, and in general sends the positive integer to the mth term a,, More precisely, an infinite sequence of numbers is a function whose domain is the set of positive integers. For example, the function associated with the sequence 2,4,6,8, 10, 12,...,2n, 4, and so on, The general behavior of this sequence is deseribed by the formula a, = 2. ‘We can change the index to star at any given number n. For example, the sequence sends 1 t0 a, = 2,2 to a 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22 is deseribed by he formula a, = 10 + 2n, if we star with n = 1. Tan also be described by the simpler formula 2, = 2n, where the index n stats at 6 and increases. To allow such simpler formulas, we let the first index of the sequence be any appropriate integer. In the Sequence above, {cg} stats with a, while {,) starts with by Sequences can be described by writing rules that specify their terms, such as ‘or by listing terms: {d.} = {1 -LL-L-1..ED™... }. ‘We also sometimes write a sequence using its rule, as with fa.) = (Vahey a ford, Figure 10.1 shows two ways to represent sequences graphically. The first marks the first few points from aj, aa, dy. «5 ‘graph of the function defining the sequence. The function is defined only on integer inputs, and the graph consists of some points in the xy-plane located at (1, a)) 2.4), (ty) and ‘on the real axis. The second method shows theFIGURE 10.2. In the representation ofa sequence as points in the plane, + Lif y= Lis ahorizontal asymptote ofthe se ‘quence of poins {(n, )}. In his figure, all the ays after ay lie within € of Z HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY [ieole Oresne (ea. 1320-1382) sw. goo. 91/1 71842 565 10.1 Sequences ° T 2 = Va o T =D FIGURE 10.1 Sequences can be represented as points on the real line or as points inthe plane where the horizontal axis isthe index numberof the tex andthe vertical axis a, is its valve Convergence and Divergence Sometimes the numbers in a sequence approach a single value as the index m increases. ‘This happens in the sequence } Whose terms approach 1. On the other hand, sequences like (VEV3, V3 Vice} have terms that get larger than any number as m increases, and sequences like {LoL BAL Wah EDM bounce back and forth between 1 and —1, never converging to a single value, The follow. ing definition captures the meaning of having a sequence converge to a limiting valuc. It says that if we go far enough out in the sequence, by taking the index n to be larger than some value N, the difference between a, and the limit of the sequence becomes less than any preselected number & > 0. DEFINITIONS The sequence (a,} converges fo the number I. if for every positive number e there corresponds an integer N such that la, -L]<@ whenever on >N, If no such number L exists, we say that {a,} diverges. If {a,} converges to L, we write lity nosy = L, oF Simply ay —> L, and call Lhe lit of the sequence (Figure 10.2). The definition is very similar to the definition of the limit of a function f(x) as x tends 10 00 (im, ofl) in Section 2,6). We will exploit this connection to calculate limits of sequences.566 Chapter 10 Invite Sequences and Series » FIGURE 10.3 (a) The sequence diverges to oe because no matter what number M is chosen, the temis ofthe sequence aller some index ¥ all lie in the yellow band above M.(b) The sequence diverges to oo because all terms after some index N Tie below any chosen number m EXAMPLE 1 Show that (@) lim}=0 — @) limk=k — (anyconstant ) Solution (a) Let © > 0 be given, We must show that there exists an integer N such that Lo) <2 whenever n> The inequality |1/n ~ 0] < e will hold if L/n L/s, If Nis any ine teger greater than 1/¢, the inequality will hold for all n > N, This proves that Tima l/n = 0. (b) Let € > 0 be given. We must show that there exists an integer NV such that [k= kl <© whenever n> N. Sincek ~ k = 0, wecanuse any positive integer for Nandthe inequality [k ~ k| M. If this condition holds we write lima, =o or a,—¥00. Similarly, if for every number m there isan integer N such that for all n > N we hhave a, 00.10.1 Sequences 567 A sequence may diverge without diverging to infinity or negative infinity, as we saw inExample2. The sequences {1, -2, 3,4, 5,6, 7,-8,... } and {1,0,2,0,3,0,...} are also examples of such divergence. The convergence or divergence of a sequence is not affected by the values of any ‘number of its intial terms (whether we omit or change the frst 10, 1000, or even the first ‘million terms does not matter). From Figure 10.2, we can see that only the part of the sequence that remains after discarding some initial number of terms determines whether the sequence has a limit and the value of that limit when it does exist. Calculating Limits of Sequences Since sequences are functions with domain restricted to the positive integers, itis not sur prising that the theorems on limits of functions given in Chapter 2 have versions for sequences. THEOREM 1 Let (a,} and (2) be sequences of eal umber andletA and be real numbers, The following rules hold ity dg = A a lity aby = 1. Sum Rute Lime ael@y +6) =A +B 2. Diferene Rue Lite (Qs ) = A= B 3. Constant Multiple Rule: lity a(k*B,) = K*B (any number) 4. Product Rule Lig ty") = AB 5. Quotient Rule: lim, f= BAO The proof is similar to that of Theorem 1 of Section 2.2 and is omitted EXAMPLE 3 By combining Theorem 1 with the limits of Example 1, we have: @) im (-4) =-t-imb=-1-0 ° Consan Maile Rul an! Example 18 0) im (54) = im (1 = 4) = mt = Jim b= 2-0-2 BI (© tim $= 5m Etim B= 500% 0 rata sane, iri) =1 inde unr dior (0) im EME jm 2 Sparel Be cautious in applying ‘Theorem 1. It does not say, for example, that each of the sequences {a,} and {b,) have limits if their sum (a, + b,} has a limit. For instance, {a4} = {1,2.3,...} and {b,} = {-1,-2,-3,...} Both diverge, but their sum {ay + b,} = {0,0,0,.... } clearly converges to 0 One consequence of Theorem | is that every nonzero multiple ofa divergent sequence {aq} diverges. Suppose, tothe contrary, that {ca,} converges for some number © #0. ‘Then, by taking & = 1/c in the Constant Multiple Rule in Theorem I, we see that the cece {ean} = tan converges. Thus, {cd,} cannot converge unless (4,} also converges. If {a,} does not converge, then {ca,} does not converge.568 Chapter 10 Invite Sequences and Series FIGURE 10.4 The terms of soquence {b,) ate sandwiched between those of {a,} and {cj}, forcing them tothe same comaon limit FIGURE 10.5 As n—s20, L/n—+0 and 2!" 2° Example 6). The terms of {1/m} are shown on the x-axis; the terms of {21%} axe shown as the y-valves on the raph of f(x) = 2% “The next theorem is the sequence version of the Sandwich Theorem in Section 2.2. You ate asked to prove the theorem in Exercise 119. (See Figure 10.4.) THEOREM 2—The Sandwich Theorem for Sequences Let {dy}, {e}s and {ej} be sequences of real numbers. If a, = By S Gy holds for all m beyond some index N, and if lity dy = lity-ox Cy = L, then Titty vob, = L also, An immediate consequence of Theorem 2 is that, if |b.| b, 0 because ~c, = by = Gy. We use this fact in the next example, EXAMPLE 4 Since 1/n—+0, we know that @ 250 because 1 ) 450 because © Eno because @) If la |—+0,then a,» because . The application of Theorems I and 2 is broadened by a theorem stating that applying ‘a continuous function to a convergent sequence produces a convergent sequence. We state the theorem, leaving the proof as an exercise (Exercise 120). THEOREM 3—The Continuous Function Theorem for Sequences Let {a4} be a sequence of real numbers. If a, —> Land iff is a function that is continuous at L and defined at all a, then f(a,) —» f(L). EXAMPLE 5 Show that Vr + Djn— 1 Solution We know that (n + 1)/n—+ 1, Taking f(x) = V¥ and L = 1 in Theorem 3 gives Vor= Dn VI = 1 7 EXAMPLE 6 The sequence {1/n} converges to 0. By taking a ~ 1/n, f(x) = 2%, and L = 0 in Thcorem 3, we see that 21/* = f(1/n)— f(L) = 2° = 1. The sequence {24/"} converges to 1 (Figure 10.5). 7 Using L'Hépital's Rule ‘The next theorem formalizes the connection between liMy ast, and Lim, fle) It ‘enables us to use I’ H6pital’s Rule to find the limits of some sequences. THEOREM 4 Suppose that f(x) is a function defined for all x = ng and that {a,} is a sequence of real numbers such that a, = f(x) for n = my. Then Tim a,=L whenever im fix) = L10.1 Sequences 569 Proof Suppose that lim,.... f(x) = L. Then for each positive number & there is a ‘number M such that [fey —L| M. Let N be an integer greater than M and greater than or equal to Mg. Since a, = f(n), it follows that for all n > N' we have Ja, — L| = [fo - L] 0, there exists at least one integer N for which ay > L ~ &. = "The fact that {a,} is nondecreasing tells us further that FIGURE 10.7. Ifthe terms of anonde- y= ay > Le foralln = N. (HY 3. a, = 2 a Brora a = tanh hcan) 4874 Chapter 10 Inrite Sequences and Series ( 1) Jasin 88. a, = n( 1 — cos 89. a, = Visin \ 90. on 92. a 3. 94. a 95. 96. a om. 98. VERT = Vien mathe mea [be om fecunt bored agent n WL a) = 2 aes = PPE a4 +6 102 a, ani = 108. ay = 4, ayy = VOT Da 104, «; = 0, Via, 108. 4; = 5, dyey = V5 106. 107. 108, V7, V+ VI Vie Vi Vie vi, ‘Thoory and Examples 109. The fist term of a sequence is x, ~ 1. Each succeeding term is ‘the sum of all those that come before i fy sata te tay Write out enough carly terms ofthe soquence to deduce a general formula for xq that holds form = 2. 110. & sequence of rational numbers is described as follows @ at bate Here the numerators form ane sequence, the denominators form a second sequence, and thei ratios form a third sequence. Let x, and y, be, respectively, the numerator andthe denominator of the rah fraction 7, = Xe a. Verify that x5? — 2)? = —1ag? — 2y)? = +1 and, more eneeally that if a? ~ 25° ="—1 or + 1, then (a+ 2) — a+ BP = HL of 1, respectively, mm. mm, 13. D. The fractions r, = 14/34 approach limit a m increases. [What is that limit? (int: Use pat (a) to show that r2—2= (19,7 and that J, isnot less than m) Newton's method The following sequences come from the recursion formula for Newton's method, ee Fou) Do the sequences converge? If s0, to what value? In each case, begin by idemying the function f that generates the sequence. §-2 4 41 b, % em =h ‘a. Suppose that f(x is ffeentable forall xin [0, 1] and that {(0) = 0. Define sequence {a,} by the rule a, = nf(l/), Show that ly ody = f'(0). Use the result in par (a) to Find the mits ofthe following sequences {ay} a a mia + 2) : Pythagorean triples A sriple of postive integers a, band is called a Pythagorean triple if a? + # = ct Leta be an odd Positive integer and Ie [| om [3] be, respectively, the integer floor and ecling for «?/2 nie" = 1) fa. Show that + =e Hint: Let a express band c in tems of m) Qn + Vand . By direetcaleulation, or by appealing to the accompanying figure, ind114, The nth root of a! Show that lim, 2 2nz)¥% = 1 and hence, using String’s approximation (Chapter 8, Additional Exercise 32a), that Wal = forlarge values of ‘Test the approximation in pat (a) for as far as your calculator will allo. 40, $0, 60, TIS. a. Assuming that lim og(1/n)) sant, show that 0 if is any positive con- tim © if eis any positive constant, D, Prove tat limy-ae(/1#) = 0 if eis any positive constant. (Hint: If = 0.001 and e = 0.04, how large should N be to censure that |I/at — 0 < e ifn > N2) 116. Thezipper theorem Prove he"zipper theorem for sequences: I {a,} and {b,} both converge to L, then the sequence aby da Bs Be converges to L 117, Prove that lim. Vai = 1 1 > 0), 120, Prove Theorem 3, 118, Prove that lim, x! 119, Prove Theorem 2. In Bxercises 121-124, determine ifthe sequence is monotonic and if it is bounded xn gat1 128.0, 28 a an? Which of the sequences in Exereises 125-134 converge, and which diverge? Give reasons for your answers. 12s, 126. a, 127. «, =e 128, a, we. «= «or + 0(! 130. The first term ofa sequence is x) = cos (1), The next terms are 1 = %; oF cos (2), Whichover is larger; and xy =x; oF cos (3), Whichever is larger (father to the right). In general, peg YE a gD Va 133, «, <1 ¥ $34, = 1, dyer = 2a 3 = In Exercises 135-136, use the definition of convergence to prove the sven limit 135, tim #24 = 9 136, tim (1-4) =1 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 4s, A rec 875 10.1 Sequences ‘The sequence {n/(n + 1)} has a least upper bound of 1 ‘Shove that if Mis a number less than 1, then the tems of {nyt + 1)} eventually exceed M. That is, if M <1 there is an integer N such that n/(n + 1) > M whenever m > N, Since nfl + 1) < 1 for every n, this proves that | is a least upper pound for {n/n + 1} Uniqueness of least upper bounds Show that if M, and M are least upper bounds forthe sequence {a,}, then My = Ms ‘Thats, a sequence cannot have two different least upper bounds Is it true that a sequence (a,) of positive numbers mast con- verge if tis bounded from above? Give reasons for your answer. Prove that if {a,} isa convergent sequence, then 10 every posi- tive mumber 6 there coresponds an integer N such that lag — al < © whenever m>N and n>, ‘Uniqueness oftimits Prove tat limits of sequences are unique "That is, show that if Ly and L are numbers such that ay — £ and a,» Ly, then Ly = Ls Limits and subsequences Ifthe tems of one sequence appear inanother sequence in heir given ordc, we cal the fist sequence ‘a subsequence of the second, Prove that if two sub-sequences of fa sequence {a,} have different limits L # Ls, then {a,} di- verges. Fora sequence {44} the terms of even index are denoted by ay and the terms of odd index by ayy. Prove tha fay) Land fey then 6, Prove that a sequence {4,} converges to 0 if and ony ifthe sequence of absolute vals {|} converges 0. Sequences generated by Newton's method Newton's meth: cod, applid to a difereniable function fs), begin wit aan ‘ing value x» and constructs from it a sequence of numbers {5} that unde favorable circumstances converges ta zero of f.The recursion formula forthe sequence is _ Sis fat = FE ‘a. Show that the recursion formula for f(x) can be writen as x, = (& + a/)/2. Starting with x = 1 and a = 3, ealeulate successive terms ofthe sequence until the display begins to repeat. What number is being approximated? Explain Aefinition of 7/2 If you start with xj = 1 and define the subsequent tems of {1} by the rule {hy yay + £08 Reap YOu generate a sequence that converges rapidly to 27/2. (a) Try it. (b) Use the aceompanying figure to ‘explain why the convergence is so rapid x Po aard,576 Chapter 10 Invite Sequences and Series COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS Use a CAS to perform the following steps for the sequences in Exercises 147-158 149, 180. a, = 1, agen = ay + 2)" ‘a Calculate and then plot the lst 25 terms ofthe sequence. Does the sequence appear tobe bounded from above or ISL. a, = sine 152. ay below? Does it appear to converge or diverge? I it does converge, what is the iit? 153, o, = 0 154, «, = 2 b. Ifthe soquence converges ind an integer N such that Ja, ~ L| = 0.01 for n = N, How far in the sequence do 15S. a, = (0.99997 156. a, = (123456)! you have to get forthe terms to lie within 0.0001 of L? 157. a= © 158, a, = o- os)" nl 1 147. a, = Va us. a= (1495 FEE] intinite series An infinite series is the sum of an infinite sequence of numbers ata taste bay t ‘The goal of this section is to understand the meaning of such an infinite sum and to develop methods to calculate it, Since there ate infinitely many terms to add in an infinite seties, we cannot just keep adding to see What comes out, Instead we look at the result of summing just the first terms of the sequence. The sum of the first n terms waa ta tate ta, is an ordinary finite sum and can be calculated by normal addition. It is called the nth partial sum. As n gets larger, we expect the partial sums to get closer and closer to a limiting value in the same sense that the terms of a sequence approach a limit, as discussed in Section 10.1 For example, to assign meaning to an expression like 141 1 i=d+5 1 +t We add the terms one ata time from the beginning and look for @ pattern in how these par= tal sums grow Suggestive expression Partial sum Value for partial sum First nal 1 2-1 - 3 -1 Second: ne 3 2-4 1 7 Third: wel ; wth 1 ma