MODERN PHYSICS

RADIOACTIVITY
Is the spontaneous disintegration of radioactivity nuclei with emission of radiations. The unstable heavy
nuclei splits and releases radiations namely

 Alpha particles α
 Beta particles β
 Gamma rays ᴽ
Heavy substances like uranium, Polonium etc are very unstable thus they are radioactive. Stable nuclei
can be made to integrate by bombarding with other particles e.g. neutron. External conditions can not
affect radioactivity e.g temperature and pressure.

PROPERTIES OF THE EMMITTED RADIATIONS

1. ALPHA PARTICLES
4
Alpha particles are helium particles. It is positively charged. It is represented as 2He . Therefore
an alpha particle is helium particle that has lost all its elements.
Properties
 They are positively charged particles
 They are deflected by both magnetic and electric fields.
 They can be stopped by the paper
 They move at allow speed hence causing intense ionizing effect on the air molecules.
 They have an extremely low penetrating power in air since they are heavy particles
with a mass of 4.

2. BETA PARTICLES
0
They are electrons moving at a very high speed. Beta particles are represented as −1e .
They are negatively charged with a very small mass
Properties of beta particles
 They are negatively charged particles
 They are deflected by both magnetic and electric fields
 They have a higher penetrating power than alpha particles because they are light and
move with very high speed.
 They cause less in tensed ionizing effect because they are spend less time with air
molecules.
 They can be stopped by a few contioneter of aluminum

3. GAMMA RAYS
They are electromagnetic waves with high penetrating power.

Properties
 They are electromagnetic waves.
 They have no mass and no charge.
  They have a high penetrating power.
 They cause almost negligible ionizations effect.
 They can be stopped by a few centimeters of lead.
 They are not deflected by magnetic or electric fields.

DETECTORS
Basically there are three types of radioactive detectors namely;
 Ionization chamber
 Cloud chamber
 Geiger Muller (G M tube)

IONISATION CHAMBER

A high pd is maintained between the anode and cathode and the ionizing radiation is
brought close to the mica window.
When the ionizing radiation enters the chamber through the mica window, ion pairs are
produced by collision with gas molecules
Electrons drift to the anode while the positive ions are attracted to the cathode.
When electrons reach the anode, the current flows. The circulation of current is
proportional to the energy of the incident ionizing particle hence the type of ionizing
radiation can be detected by the amount of current it produces.
2. THE CLOUD CHAMBER
There are two types or kinds of the cloud chambers;
 Diffusion cloud chamber
 Wilsons cloud chamber

DIFFUSION CLOUD CHAMBER.

From the diagram above the base of the chamber is maintained at 80 ℃ and the top is
room temperature so that there is a temperature gradient between the top the bottom.
The air in the chamber is saturated with alcohol where by the vapour diffuses
continuously from the top to the bottom and the air above the metal base becomes super
saturated.
The radioactive atom causes the ionsion of the air molecules.
The saturated vapour condenses on the ions formed producing tracks which can be seen
by looking through the Perspex lid using a camera.

4. THE WILSON’S CLOUD CHAMER

 The piston is moved down word wards quickly so that the air in the chamber under adiabatic
expansion and cools. Then the dust nuclei are carved away by drops falling on them after few
expansions.
The dust free air is subjected to control adiabatic expansion where by the air becomes
super saturated and its exposed to the radioactive source.
Water drops collected round the iron then are being produced which are viewed by the
camera.

 APPERNCES OF THE PHOTOGRAPH.

Alpha particles strongly interact with matter causing intense ionision so the tracks are thin and
have a very short range and straight.

BETA PARTICLES
These are more penetrating implying longer tracks.
They are less ionizing than alpha particles implying light tracks.
They are light particles ie electron moving at a high speed implying the tracks are originally
straight and their fore become erotic and varying length.

GAMMA RAYS
They tracks are very thin and they appear to which no source.

.
GEIGER MULLER (G M TUBE)

When the radiation enters the tube it causes ionision of the gas. The electrons created
are attracted towards the anode. As the electrons approach the anode the acquire more
energy and cause more ionision of argon atoms causing a large Pd of current which is
detected by the rate meter.
The positive ions created move at lower speed and may cause farther ionization at
letter time but this is prevented by the use of the particle generating to ensure one pulse
detected corresponds to the sign entering in the tube.
The number of pluses per unit corresponds to the activity of the source of radiation.

CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF THE G. M TUBE

Expiation
The G M is normally operated in the plateau region BC. In this region the count rate is not affected by
pluses in p d and a very incident particle that produces ion particles is registered hence giving count
rates.
If the p d goes beyond the plateau value, there is dauger of continuous flow discharge that can damage
tube.
Along OA the tube is not sensitive to the incoming signals because p d has not reached to threshold
value target sensitivity and along AO is called dead time.
DEAD TIME
This is the time taken by the tube to sense the incoming signals.
Along BC the pulsion is p d does not affect the count rate. Sign entry of an ionization particle in to the
rate meter. This is called the plateau region and is where the tube operates efficiently.
A loge AB, the count rate increases with increase in p d.
A loge CD, there is an avalanche. An avalanche is large number of ionized particles created as
resulted of secondary ionization due to collisions of the ions when they are accelerated by high enough
p d. A loge this region each ionization leads to formation of more electrons and ions which then cause
more ionizations.

THE DECAY LAW

It states that the rate of disintegration of given nuclei at any time is directly proportional to the number
active atom present at that time i.e.

AαN
Where A- activity of the source
N- Number of active atoms presence.
 dN
A=
dt

dN
α –N
dt

dN
=-λN
dt
Where λ is the decay constant.

Separating variable and integrating.

∫ 1/ N dN =∫−¿¿ λ dt
In N = -λ t +C

Taking the initial condition

When t = 0, N = N0

In N0 = 0 + C

C = In N0

In N = -λt + In N0

In (N/N0) = -λt

N/N0 = e− λt

N = N0 e− λt
Where , N – number of active atom presence after time t.
N0 – original number of atoms
λ – decay constant.
For activity of the source
dN
A=
dt

d
A= (N0 e− λt )
dt

d
Not (-λt) = -λ
dt

A = -λ ( N0 e− λt )
 A = (-) λN

:. A = λ N.
Also activity A = -λ ( N0 e− λt )

A = -λ ( N0 e− λt )

A = A0 e− λt

Where A0 = -λ N0

A0 = original activity of the source.

HALF LIFE
This is the time taken for the number of active atom present to decay half of its original number.
OR
It is the time taken for half a radioactive nuclei to disintegrate.

From N =N0 e− λt

In ( N/N0) = λt

At half life t = T1/2

and N = N0/2

In ((N0/2)/ N0 ) = -λ T1/2

In (1/2) = - λT1/2

In 2 = λ T1/2

λ = In 2/ T1/2 OR 0.693/T1/2
Avogadro’s number NA is the number of atoms contain in one mole of substance. It is the same for all
substances. ( NA = 6.02 X 1023 atoms )
The number of atoms presence in given mass of radioactive substance is
m
N = ( ) NA
M
Where m- is the mass of sample
M – molar mass of the element.
NA – Avogadro’s number.
Example
1. Anniston (Am) with atomic mass 240 is an alpha source. 2μg are estimated to emit 10 4 alpha
particles per second. Calculate its half life.
Soin
 N = (m/M) NA

−6
2 X 10 23
X 6.02 X 10
240

N = 5.02 X 1015 atoms

5.02 X 1015 atoms decay at 104 alpha particles.

1 atom decays at 104 / 5.02X1015 per second.

λ = 1.992X 10-12 per second.

From T1/2 = 0.69/λ

T1/2 = 0.693/1.992X10-12
=3.48 X 1011 seconds.
2. A radioactive sample contains 1.0μg of 210 p0. If a sample emits 2300 alpha particles per
second, find its half life?
3. A sample of radioactive element has 1018 active atoms. If the half life of this element is 2 days.
Find;
I. the fraction remaining after 5 days.
II. the activity of the sample after 5 days.
87
4. An isotope 36 Kr has half life of 78 minutes, calculate the activity of 10μg of krypton (Kr).
5. A sample of a radioactivity material has an activity of 9.0X10 12 per second. The material has
the half life of 80 seconds. How long will it take before the activity falls to 2.0X10 12 S-1.

ANS 2. 8.64X1011 S, 3. 7.09X1011 S-1 4. 1.02X1013 S-1 5. 173.63 S

PRODUCTION OF ARTIFICAL ISOTOPES

This in voles bombarding stable nuclei using an alpha particle or neutron.
27 4 30 1
a) 13 Al + 2He 15 P +0n
10 4 13 1
b) 5 B + 2 He → 7 N + 0 n

Bombardment by the neutron is nuclear reaction.

23 1 24
a) 11 N + 0n 11 N

Qn. Explain why neutrons are prefered in the inducing nuclear reactions.
Neutron have no charge hence they are niether repled or attracted during the reaction and thy
only accelerated at the initial energy given to they towards the nucleus.
Neutrons are easly avalable and donot need acceleration for their production.
 Uses of radioactivity
 It used to destroy cancer cell.
 Used in surgery
 Used for the detection of leaks
 In cardon- 14 dating.
 In medicine .
 In the studies of reaction mechanism.

CARBONDATTING
This is the process of determining the age fossil. It is applied in radioactive decay. Living plants and
animals have a small % -tage of radioactive carbon (carbon 14) which is found in the atmosphere when
cosmic ray knocks our neutrons from nuclei and neutrona than coiled with nitrogen nuclears.

14
7 N + 1
0 n 14
6 C + 1
1 H

Carbon 14 C formed is then taken in by plants during respiriation. Since the haif life of carbon is 5600
years, there is negligable disintegration of this carbon and from this the age of fossil can be determined.
When plants and animals dies there is no more carbon 14 taken in hence the Proportion of carbon 14
in the dead body falls in time and is proportional to the number of active atoms remaining. This is doen
by comparing the activity of the dead sample to the activity of the living sample of the same spelies ,
there fore decay law
At = A0 e− λt

Example
1. The activity of the sample dead wood is 10 counts per second while that of the living plant is
14counts per second. If the T1/2 of C 14 is 5600years find the age of the wood.
238 206
2. When 92U decays, the end product is lead 82Pb and the half life is 1.4x 107 s. suppose a rock
sample contains lead and uranium atoms in the ratio of 1 : 5 weight. Calculate

I. the number of lead atoms in one of the rock sample.

II. the age of the rock.
Ans 1. 5186.698yrs 2. I) 4.87x10 20 ii) 9.35x109 yrs.

MASS AND ENERGY

Einstein made a suggestion that energy and mass are related. Ie mass and energy are interchangeable.
The relation of energy and mass is given as

E = M C2

Where E- energy

M - Mass of the body (mass detect / mass lost)

C – Speed of light in the vacuum.

The units of energy E are joules or electron volts (e V )

 1 eV = 1.6x1019 J
Energy is normally measured in the units called unified atomic units denoted by U and it defined as a
twelfths of mass of mass of 1 atom of carbon twelve ( 12 ) isotope.
From NA a hypothesis it contains NA atoms. This implies that NA atoms of carbon – 12 contains 12 g.

6.02X1023 atoms of carbon 12 contain 12 g.

12
1 atom of carbon 12 contains 23 g.
6.02 X 10

1
1U = (mass of one atom of carbon 12)
12

1
= X (12/6.02X1023)
12

=1.66X10-24 g

−24
1.66 X 10
1U =
103

=1.66X10-27Kg

From Einstein eqn E = M C2

For 1 atom of carbon 12 isotope

E = 1.66X10-27X ( 3.0X108 )2

E = 1.49 X 10-10 J.

A unit called electron volt is same times used. An electron volt is kinetic energy a quried by an electron
when accelerated by a p d of 1 V.

K.E = Charge X Voltage

1 e V = 1.6 X10 -19 X 1 J

1 e V = 1.6X10-19 J

1 J = (1/1.6X10-19 ) e V.

1U = 1.66X10-27 Kg

1U = 1.49X10-10 X( 1/1.6 X 10-19) e V

= 9.31 X108
 1U = 9.31X106 / 106 e V.

= 931 M e V.

NUCLEAR FISSION
This is the disintegration of heavy an stable nucleus in to two or more stable light nuclei with the release
of energy. Nuclear fission gives more energy than nuclear fusion.

Nuclear fusion
is the joining of two or more light an stable nuclei to form a heavy stable nuclei with release of energy.

BINDING ENERGY
Binding energy of atom is the minimum energy required to split the nucleus in to its consistent
nucleons (protons and neutrons).

OR
B.E = ∆ M X 931 M e V =¿ ∆ MC2 (J).

MASS DEFECT
It is deference in mass between bass of the nucleus and mass of the nuclear. The mass of the
individual neutron is normally slighter lighter than the mass of nucleus.

Mass defect ∆ M =Mass of the nucleons−Mass of nuclear

∆ M =¿(MP + Mn ) – MN.

Where MP – Mass of proton .

Mn – Mass of neutrons.
MN – Mass of nucleus.

For the cause of an atom, the mass of electrons is conceded as;

∆ M =¿( MP + Mn + Me ) – Ma

Where Me – mass of electrons

Ma - mass of atoms.
In atomic physics both the law of conservation of energy and mass are obeyed. For any eqn to be
physical the energy of all products must be less than that of the parent product
Examples
220 216
1. calculate the energy released during the decay of 86 Rn in to 84 Po and an alpha particle
220
Mass Rn = 219.964176 U.
86
216
Mass Po =215.955794 U
84
4
Mass He =4.001566 U
2
1 U = 931 MeV
59
2. Calculate the mass defect for 28 Fe given the following information:
 59
Mass of 28 Fe nucleus = 58.93488 u.
Mass of a proton = 1.00728 u.
Mass of neutrons = 1.00867 u.
Hence calculate the binding energy per nucleon.

Ans 1. 6.345696 MeV. 2. 8.4852 MeV.

CATHODE RAYS
Cathode ray is stream of fast moving electrons.
Production of cathode rays.
The electrons are emitted from the cathode by thermionic emission.
Thermionic emission is the emission of electrons from the metal surface by heating.
CATHODE RAY TUBE
Cathode ray are emitted from the cathode by thermionic emission when current from the low voltage
source passes through the cathode.
The emitted electrons are than accelerated by high voltage between the anode and the cathode. The
fast moving electrons emerge through small hole in the anode as narrow beam of cathode rays.
When cathode rays stick the screen, they make it to fluorescent (give of light).

Properties of cathode rays.

 They move in straight line
 They are deflected by both electric and magnetic fields.
 They cause fluorescents in same material.
 When they stick the metal surface the cause a emission of X- rays.
 They cause photo electric emission.
 They have high kinetic energy.
 They are highly charged.

Exp’t to show that cathode rays travels in straight line.

A maltase cross is placed in the path of cathode rays in the cathode ray tube as shown below.

When electrons emitted thermionic ally from the cathode through the anode stick maltase cross, they
cast a shadow of maltase cross on the screen and this shows that the cathode rays move in the straight
line.

THE CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (C R O)

This is an instrument used for studying current and voltage waves fonts in serious electrical circuits.
It is useful for checking felts in lab equipments and radio reserves.

The structure of the C R O

The C R O is made up of three major components;
 Electron gun.
 Deflecting system.
 Display system. (fluorescent screen)

The cathode ray oscilloscope has a highly evacuated glass envelope containing un electron gun
deflecting system and fluorescent screen.
The electron gun is un assembly of electrodes for producing concentrating and focusing narrow
beam of cathode ray on to fluorescent screen.
At the fluorescent screen, the beam produces a spot of light.
The deflecting system is to able horizontal and vertical deflections.

MODE OF OPERATION.

 When a current from the low voltage source flows through the filament it heats up the
cathode which than emits electrons thermionic ally.
 The grid is at a negative potential with respect to the cathode and it limits the number
of electrons passing through it by repulsion.
 This controls the brightness of the spot on the screen.
 The anodes A1 and A2 are at a positive potential with respect to the cathode.
 Anode A1 accelerates electrons and anode A2 focuses electrons on to the screen.
 When electrons strike the screen, they lose their energy and the screen fluorescents.
 The screen is earthed that electrons falling on it are conducted a way to avoid the
dangerous build of potential there.
  By applying a p d a cross X and Y plates, the bright spot can be deflected both
horizontally and vertically across the screen respectively.

THE TIME BASE

It consists of electronic circuit which generates a saw – tooth type of alternating voltage.

pd

time

When the time base is switch on connected across the X plates,