Grammar, Spelling and Punctuation & Reading Comprehension

Resource & Guide Booklet

Facilitated by: Mr. Bilal Nazir Khan
English Department, I.E.S. Abud Dhabi, U.A.E.

1. Advanced Figures of Speech

Figures of speech are the expressions or groups of words used to express figurative
language. It might be words with a literal meaning, a certain arrangement of words,
or a phrase with a meaning that is something entirely other than that of the words
themselves. Figures of speech can be refreshing and fun, but for some, can be very
confusing. Here are some of the most common figures of speech and what they
mean.
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1) Alliteration

This is a very common figure of speech that involves using words that begin with
the same sound.

For example, “Sally sells seashells by the seashore” is alliteration – and try
saying it fast to see how difficult it is! It is often used in advertising slogans to
create something catchy that more people will remember.

More Examples

➢ Becky’s beagle barked and bayed, becoming bothersome for Boris.

➢ Carrie’s cat clawed her couch, creating chaos.
➢ Dan’s dog dove deep in the dam, drinking dirty water as he dove.
➢ Eric’s eagle eats eggs, enjoying each episode of eating.
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2) Anaphora

This figure of speech uses a specific clause at the beginning of each sentence
or point to make a statement.

For instance: “Good night and good luck” is an example of the beginning word
being the same. The more it is used, the more of an emotional effect is can
evoke among those who are listening. Another example is "Mad world! Mad
kings! Mad composition!" from King John, II, I by William Shakespeare.

Here is another example from ‘The Tale of Two Cities’ of Charles Dickens.

“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it
was the age of foolishness, it was era of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it
was the season of light, it was the season of darkness, it was the spring of hope,
it was the winter of despair.”

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3) Assonance

Remember the phrase “I like Mike”? This is a figure of speech that focuses on
the vowel sounds in a phrase, repeating them over and over to great effect. In
poetry, the repetition of the sound of a vowel or diphthong in non-rhyming
stressed syllables near enough to each other for the echo to be discernible
(visible) e.g., penitence (shame), reticence (silence) etc.

Examples:

➢ Fight to light the fire!

➢ Fleet feet sweep by sleeping geese.
➢ Hear the lark and harden to the barking of the dark fox gone to ground!
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4) Hyperbole

“It was as big as a mountain! It was faster than a cheetah! It was dumber than a
rock!” This figure of speech makes things seem much bigger than they really
were by using grandiose depictions of everyday things. Hyperbole is often seen
as an exaggeration that adds a bit of humor to a story.

Examples:

➢ My grandmother is as old as the hills.

➢ Your suitcase weighs a ton.
➢ She is as heavy as an elephant.
➢ I am dying of shame.
➢ I am trying to solve a million issues these days.

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5. Irony
This figure of speech tries to use a word in a literal sense that debunks
(exposes) what has just been said. “Gentlemen, you can’t fight in here! This is
the War Room!” from Dr. Strangelove is a great example. It is often used to
poke fun at a situation that everyone else sees as a very serious matter. The
expression of one's meaning by using language that normally signifies the
opposite, typically for humorous or emphatic (forceful) effect.

"“Don't go overboard with the gratitude,” he rejoined with heavy irony"

synonyms: Sarcasm, mockery, satire etc.
"that note of irony in her voice"
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6) Metaphor

The use of metaphor compares two things that are not alike and finds something
about them to make them alike.
“My heart is a lonely hunter that hunts on a lonely hill” from a book by William
Sharp is a good example of metaphor. Some writers try to use this style to
create something profound out of comparing two things that appear to have
nothing at all in common. Metaphor is an implied simile. It is a figure of speech
in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not
literally applicable. "“I had fallen through a trapdoor of depression,” said Mark,
who was fond of theatrical metaphors"
synonyms: Image, trope, analogy, comparison, symbol, word painting/picture
"the profusion (excess) of metaphors in her everyday speech has
gotten pretty tiresome"
It is a thing regarded as representative or symbolic of something else, especially
something abstract.
"The amounts of money being lost by the company were enough to make
it a metaphor for an industry that was teetering (shaking / wavering)."
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7) Simile

In this figure of speech, two things are compared that are not really the same
but are used to make a point about each other.

“Life is like a box of chocolates; you never know what you’re going to get” is a
famous line from the movie Forrest Gump that illustrates the simile. This is often
used to make an emotional point about something. The difference between
simile and metaphor is that you can obviously see words "like" in the sentence.
It is a figure of speech involving the comparison of one thing with another thing
of a different kind, used to make a description more vigorous or vivid (e.g., as
brave as a lion, crazy like a fox).

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8) Metonymy

In this figure of speech, one word that has a very similar meaning can be used
for
another. Using the word “crown” for “royalty” or “lab coats” for “scientists” are
two examples. In some ways it be a nickname for something else; for instance,
“The White House said” does not mean the White House said it (a house cannot
speak!) but that the President said it. However, we all understand the meaning,
and so the words are interchangeable. It is the substitution of the name of an
attribute or adjunct for that of the thing meant. For example, suit for business
executive, or the track for horse racing.
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9) Onomatopoeia
This is the use of a word that sounds like what it means. Good examples include
“hiss” or “ding-dong” or “fizz.” These words are meant to describe something
that sounds very much like the word itself. This is a trick often used in
advertising to help convey what something is really like. It is the formation of a
word from a sound associated with what is named (e.g., cuckoo, sizzle).

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10) Paradox
This figure of speech completely contradicts itself in the same sentence.
Famous quotes that illustrate this from George Orwell’s “1984” include: “War is
peace.
Ignorance is strength. Freedom is slavery.” Though we know these things aren’t
true, they present an interesting paradox that makes a person think seriously
about what they have just read or heard. It is a statement or proposition that,
despite sound (or apparently sound) reasoning from acceptable premises, leads
to a conclusion that seems senseless, logically unacceptable, or self-
contradictory.

➢ A potentially serious conflict between quantum mechanics and the

general theory of relativity is known as the information paradox.
➢ A seemingly absurd or self-contradictory statement or proposition that
when investigated or explained may prove to be well founded or true.
➢ In a paradox, he has discovered that stepping back from his job has
increased the rewards he gleans (gains) from it.
synonyms: Contradiction, contradiction in terms, self-contradiction,
inconsistency etc.
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11) Personification

This is a way of giving an inanimate object the qualities of a living thing. “The
tree quaked with fear as the wind approached” is an example; “The sun smiled
down on her” is another. This can sometimes be used to invoke an emotional
response to something by making it more personable, friendly, and relatable. It
is the attribution of a personal nature or human characteristics to something
nonhuman, or the representation of an abstract quality in human form.

➢ It is a figure intended to represent an abstract quality.

➢ The design on the franc shows Marianne, the personification of the

French republic"
Synonyms: Embodiment, , epitome, type, symbol, soul, model,
exemplar, image, representation

For example: Foote is the personification of heroism.

It means a person, animal, or object regarded as representing or embodying a

quality, concept, or thing.
He was the very personification of British pluck (courage) and diplomacy
(negotiation).
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12) Pun

This play on words uses different senses of the word, or different sounds that
make up the word, to create something fun and interesting. For instance: “I
would like to go to Holland someday. Wooden shoe?” is a pun that actually
means “wouldn’t you?” Sometimes puns are so subtle that they can be tough to
pick up unless you are really listening for them.

Examples:

➢ You can tune a guitar, but you cannot Tuna fish.

➢ Time flies like an arrow. Fruit flies like a banana.
➢ Hanging is too good for a man who makes puns, he should be drawn and
quoted.
➢ Atheism is a non-prophet institution.
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13) Synecdoche

This is a figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole (for example,
ABCs for alphabet) or the whole for a part ("England won the World Cup in 1966″).

This is a figure of speech in which one thing is meant to represent the whole.
A few good examples include “ABCs” for alphabet, “new set of wheels” for car, or
“9/11” to demonstrate the whole of the tragedy that happened in the United States on
September 11, 2001. This is often used in journalism as a type of shorthand. It is a
figure of speech in which a part is made to represent the whole or vice versa.
Examples:
A hundred head of cattle (using the part head to refer to the whole
animal)
Cleveland won by six runs. Here, Cleveland means ‘Cleveland's Baseball Team’.

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14) Understatement

A figure of speech in which a writer or speaker deliberately makes a situation seem

less important or serious than it is.
This is a situation in which the thing discussed is made to seem much less
important than it really is. This famous line from ‘Catcher in the Rye’ is a good
example: “I have to have this operation. It is not very serious. I have this tiny
tumor on the brain.” Understatement can often be used to comedic effect.

Example:
"The grave's a fine and private place,
But none, I think, do there embrace."
(Andrew Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress")
More Examples:

➢ An atomic blast is somewhat noisy.

➢ Hitler was not a nice person.
➢ It was windy in New Orleans during hurricane Katrina.
➢ Bill Gates is financially secure.
➢ The 1906 San Francisco earthquake caused some damage.

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 15) Antithesis

This figure of speech is a contradiction that pits two ideas against each other in
a balanced way.
‘You’re easy on the eyes, hard on the heart.’ is a line from a country song that
illustrates this perfectly. This is often used to indicate just how something can be
more than one thing at the same time. It refers to the juxtaposition of contrasting
ideas in balanced phrases.
Example:
Many are called, but few are chosen.
More Examples:

➢ That is one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.
➢ Unlike short-sighted, egocentric humans, God sees with an equal eye,
the fall of a hero and a sparrow, the destruction of an atom or a solar
system.
➢ The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can
never forget what we did here.
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16) Euphemism
Words that are used to soften the message are often considered euphemisms.
“Passed away” is often used in place of “died” or “killed.” A “misunderstanding”
might be used in place of “fight” or “argument.” And who could forget “wardrobe
malfunction,” which is a fancy way of saying “your clothes fell off.” It is a mild or
indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too harsh or
blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing.
Examples:

Downsizing is a euphemism for cutting.

An influential person is sometimes used as a euphemism for an underworld

don.
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17) Oxymoron

This puts two words together that seem to contradict each other. “Military
intelligence,” “real phony,” “civil war,” and “silent yell” are all examples of an
oxymoron. Many people use these to promote the humor in a situation. It is a
 figure of speech in which apparently contradictory terms appear in conjunction
e.g., faith unfaithful kept him falsely true.

Examples of Oxymoron from Everyday Life

• Great depression, jumbo shrimp, cruel kind, pain pleasure, clearly confused, act
naturally, beautifully painful, painfully beautiful, deafening silence, pretty ugly,
pretty fierce, pretty cruel, walking dead, only choice, amazingly awful, alone
together, virtual reality, random order, original copy, happy sad, disgustingly
delicious, run slowly, awfully good, awfully delicious, small crowd, dark light, light
darkness, dark snow, open secret, passive aggressive, appear invisible, awfully
lucky, awfully pretty, big baby, tiny elephant, wake up dead, goodbye reception,
growing smaller, least favorite, true myth, naturally strange, weirdly normal,
unpopular celebrity, worthless gold, sad joy, liquid food, heavy diet, noticeable
absence, quiet presence, short wait
• Sweet agony, clearly Misunderstood, exact estimate, small crowd, act naturally,
found missing, fully empty, pretty ugly, seriously funny, only choice, original
copies, open secret, tragic comedy, foolish wisdom, liquid gas etc.
• Mother of all Oxymorons is ‘Happily Married’.
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18. Allusion
The act of alluding is to make indirect reference. It is a literary device, a figure of
speech that quickly stimulates different ideas and associations using only a couple of
words.
Example: David was being such a scrooge! (Scrooge is the allusion, and it refers to
Charles Dicken's novel, A Christmas Carol. Scrooge was very greedy and unkind,
which David was being compared to.)
* Scrooge-someone who spends as little money as possible and is not
generous…Scrooge is a character who hates spending money but learns
how to be generous, in the book "A Christmas Carol" by Charles Dickens.
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19. Antanaclasis
It is a rhetorical device in which a word is repeated and whose meaning changes in
the second instance. Antanaclasis is a common type of pun.
Example:
Your argument is sound, nothing but sound. – Benjamin Franklin.
The word sound in the first instance means solid or reasonable. The second instance
of sound means empty.
Antanaclasis is a rhetorical device in which a phrase or word is repeatedly used,
though the meaning of the word changes in each case. It is the repetition of a similar
word in a sentence with different meanings, or a word is repeated in two or more
different senses. Many of Shakespeare’s literary pieces contain examples of
antanaclasis. Like in these lines, “Put out the light, then put out the light…” (Othello).
The first meaning is that Othello would extinguish the candle, and in the second
reference its meaning is that he would end Desdemona’s life.
* Desdemona occupies contradictory positions in Othello; she is an active female
who makes her own choices – to marry Othello and to defend Cassio, and the
passive prey or victim.
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20. Anticlimax
It refers to a figure of speech in which statements gradually descend in order of
importance.
Example:
She is a great writer, a mother, and a good humorist.
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21. Antiphrasis
This is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is used to mean the opposite of
its normal meaning to create ironic humorous effect. From the Greek: anti (opposite)
and phrasis (diction).
Example:
She's so beautiful. She has an attractive long nose.
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22. Juxtaposition
Juxtaposition occurs when an author places two things side by side as a way of
highlighting their differences. Ideas, images, characters, and actions are all things
that can be juxtaposed with one another. For example, it is a common plot device in
fairy tales such as Cinderella to juxtapose the good-natured main character with a
cruel stepsibling. The differences between the characters, as well as their close
relation to one another, serve to highlight the main character's good qualities.

Some additional key details about juxtaposition:

• The verb form of juxtaposition is juxtaposing, as in ‘the author juxtaposed the

protagonist's dirty, ragged clothes with the spotless interior of the wealthy
villain's mansion.’

• The word juxtaposition comes from the Latin ‘juxta’ meaning ‘next’ and the
French ‘poser’ meaning ‘to place’. This combination suggests juxtaposition's
meaning ‘to place next to’.

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23. Apostrophe
Breaking off discourse to address some absent person or thing, some abstract
quality, an inanimate object, or a nonexistent character.
Example:
"O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth,
That I am meek and gentle with these butchers!
Thou art the ruins of the noblest man
That ever lived in the tide of times."
Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, Act 3, Scene 1
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24. Assonance
Identity or similarity in sound between internal vowels in neighboring words.
Example:
"The crumbling thunder of seas" – Robert Louis Stevenson
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25. Cataphora
Refers to a figure of speech where an earlier expression refers to or describes a
forward expression. Cataphora is the opposite of anaphora, a reference forward as
opposed to backward in the discourse.
Example:
After he had received his orders, the soldier left the barracks. (he is also a cataphoric
reference to the soldier which is mentioned later in the discourse.
26. Chiasmus
A verbal pattern in which the second half of an expression is balanced against the
first but with the parts reversed.
Example:
He knowingly led, and we followed blindly.
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27. Climax
Refers to a figure of speech in which words, phrases, or clauses are arranged in
order of increasing importance.
Example:
"There are three things that will endure: faith, hope, and love. But the greatest of
these is love."
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28. Anti-climax (Bathos)
Anticlimax refers to a figure of speech in which statements gradually descend in
order of importance. Unlike climax, anticlimax is the arrangement of a series of
words, phrases, or clauses in order of decreasing importance. Anti-climax is a
rhetorical device that can be defined as a disappointing situation, or a
sudden transition in discourse from an important idea to a ludicrous or trivial one. It is
when, at a specific point, expectations are raised, everything is built-up, and then
suddenly something boring or disappointing happens — this is an anti-climax.
Besides that, the order of statements gradually descends in anti-climax.

This is an example of anti-climax as a figure of speech, which has taken place in the
final line of this excerpt. Christopher Marlowe uses it as a warning to
the audience not to follow the ways of Faustus, because it could bring shallow
reward and superficial happiness only.

Example #6: A Tale of Two Cities (By Charles Dickens)

‘In a moment, the whole company was on their feet. That somebody was
assassinated by somebody vindicating a difference of opinion was the likeliest
occurrence. Everybody looked to see somebody fall, but only saw a man, and a
woman standing staring at each other; the man with all the outward aspect of a
Frenchman and a thorough Republican; the woman, evidently English.’

In this excerpt, everybody is expecting that somebody has been killed, or someone
has fallen dead. However, there is only a man and woman standing there, staring at
each other. This is a disappointing anti-climax.

Function of Anti-Climax

Generally ludicrous or comic effect is produced by anti-climax. When employed

intentionally, it devalues the subject. Therefore, it is frequently used for satirical and
humorous composition in literature and movies. However, sometimes it is used
unintentionally – then it is known as “bathos.”

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28. Dysphemism
Refers to the use of a harsh, more offensive word instead of one considered less
harsh. Dysphemism is often contrasted with euphemism. Dysphemism is generally
used to shock or offend.
Example:
Snail mail for postal mail.
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29. Ellipsis
This figurative and stylistic device refers to the omission of a word or words. It refers
to constructions in which words are left out of a sentence, but the sentence can still
be understood. Ellipsis (or elliptical construction) is the omission of a word or
words. It refers to constructions in which words are left out of a sentence, but the
sentence can still be understood.

Ellipsis helps us avoid a lot of redundancy. In fact, there is a lot of redundancy in

language and it can be surprising how much can be left out without losing much
meaning, particularly when there are contextual clues as to the real meaning.

Examples
Some examples of ellipsis are listed below:

▪ Lacy can do something about the problem, but I do not know what (she
can do.)
▪ She can help with the housework; Nancy can (help with the housework),
too.
▪ John can speak seven languages, but Ron can speak only two
(languages.)

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30. Litotes
A figure of speech consisting of an understatement in which an affirmative is
expressed by negating its opposite.
Litotes is a figure of speech and a form of understatement in which a sentiment is
expressed ironically by negating its contrary. For example, saying ‘It is not the best
weather today.’ during a hurricane would be an example of litotes, implying through
ironic understatement that the weather is, in fact, horrible.
Some additional key details about litotes:

• Litotes is simple in the way it works instead of stating something directly, you
state that the contrary statement is not true.

• Typically, the contrary statement will be phrased as some sort of superlative

(for example, "he's not the sharpest tool in the shed"). This is part of what
makes litotes an example of understatement since what is being expressed
is "He's far from the sharpest tool in the shed."
 • Litotes must contain a negative statement (as in, "not the best weather").

More Examples:
• It is not rocket science.
• He is no spring chicken.
• It is not my first rodeo (competition/festival).
• He is not the brightest bulb in the box.
• You will not be sorry you bought this knife set.
• I do not deny that it was wrong.
• The trip was not a total loss.
• He does not always have the best sense of direction.
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31. Merism
It is a figure of speech by which something is referred to by a conventional
phrase that enumerates (lists/specifies) several of its constituents
(ingredients) or traits (attributes/qualities).
Examples of Merism: 58116 97047 26498
Hook, line, and sinker (To swallow something hook, line, and sinker means to
swallow it completely)

High and low (To search high and low means to look for something everywhere)

Lock, stock, and barrel. (Referring to the different parts of a gun. As a Merism, it
refers to the whole of any object.)

Flesh and bone (Referring to the body)

Search every nook and cranny (Search everywhere).

Sun, sea, and sand (Referring to a holiday destination)

Young and old. (Describing all the population.)

Flesh and bone (Referring to the body)

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32. Metalepsis
It is a figure of speech in which reference is made to something by means of another
thing that is remotely related to it, either through a causal relationship, or through
another figure of speech.
Example:
A lead foot is driving behind me. (This refers to someone who drives fast. This
metalepsis is achieved only through a cause-and-effect relationship. Lead is heavy
and a heavy foot would press the accelerator, and this would cause the car to
speed.)
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33. Tautology (Pleaonasm)
A statement that says the same thing twice in different ways, or a statement that is
unconditionally true by the way it is phrased.
Example:
Forward planning
It is a free gift.
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34. Circumlocution
Circumlocution means “talking around” or “talking in circles.” It is when you want to
discuss something, but do not want to make any direct reference to it, so you create
a way to get around the subject. ... To one person, a long and flowery passage might
seem like a circumlocution. The key to circumlocution is that the statement must be
unnecessarily long and complicated. So “the vehicle that I use to drive to work in the
mornings” is a circumlocution for “my car.” Most of the time, circumlocution is just an
error — it is what happens when the author cannot come up with the best, most
concise expression. But sometimes, as we will see, there is a purpose behind the
circumlocution.

Circumlocution might have a negative connotation, but it can also be used as

descriptive language. To one person, a long and flowery passage might seem like a
circumlocution. But to others, the same passage might seem compelling and
imaginative. It depends on one’s tastes and how much one prefers directness over
flourishes.

Another word for “circumlocution” is “periphrasis.”

Example:
In the Harry Potter series, the dark lord Voldemort is frequently referred to
as:
▪ You-know-who
▪ He-who-must-not-be-named
These circumlocutions are designed to avoid bringing down Voldemort’s curse,
which can be caused by speaking his name. This euphemistic practice is like many
religious prohibitions around the world against speaking the names of divine or
demonic figures.

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35. Exclamation
When ideas or words express strong emotions such as joy, surprise, anger etc., it is
known as Exclamation. Words or sentences end in an exclamation mark in this
type of figure of speech.
Examples:
Oh my God! What a brilliant catch!
How sad it is to cry alone!
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36. Interrogation
This is a rhetorical mode of affirming or denying something more strongly and
emphatically than could be done in ordinary language.
Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman?
Who is here so vile that will not love his country?
(Shakespeare)
37. Epigram
An epigram is a brief, clever, and memorable statement. Some of them are
formulated with satirical purposes in mind, and others are purposely meant to be
confusing. Epigrams can be hard to find because they have a very broad definition.
What one person considers an epigram, another may consider an elegy, poem, or
perhaps even a song.

For example, John Donne uses an epigram in his poem "Hero and Leander" when
he writes:

‘Both robbed of air, we both lie in one ground

Both whom one fire had burnt; one water drowned.’

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38. Sarcasm
Sarcasm is a figure of speech or speech comment which is extremely difficult to
define. It is a statement or comment which means the opposite of what it says. It
may be made with the intent of humor, or it may be made to be hurtful. The basic
meaning is to be hostile under the cover of friendliness.
Examples:
1. I made the genius choice of selling my car right before I decided
to move.
Sarcasm does not always have to be vicious or mean. It can also be
humorous, playful, or (as in this example) self-deprecating. Again,
verbal irony plus the tone of voice makes this sarcasm.

2. The noble Brutus hath told you Caesar was ambitious: if it were
so, it was a grievous fault, and grievously hath Caesar answered
it.
 (Shakespeare, Julius Caesar)
Shakespeare imagines Mark Antony delivering a thoroughly sarcastic
speech at the funeral of Julius Caesar. He frequently refers to Brutus,
Caesar’s murderer, as “noble” and “honorable,” but the content of the
speech clearly shows that Mark Antony believes the opposite about
Brutus.
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39. Transferred Epithets
Transferred epithet is when an adjective usually used to describe one thing
is transferred to another. An epithet is a word or phrase which describes the main
quality of someone or something. For example: 'a happy person'. Epithets are
usually adjectives like 'happy' that describe a noun like 'person'. A transferred
epithet is a little known—but often used—figure of speech in which a modifier
(usually an adjective) qualifies a noun other than the person or thing it is describing.
In other words, the modifier or epithet is transferred from the noun it is meant to
describe to another noun in the sentence.
Examples:
An example of a transferred epithet is: "I had a wonderful day." The day is not in
itself wonderful. The speaker had a wonderful day. The epithet "wonderful" describes
the kind of day the speaker experienced. Some other examples of transferred
epithets are "cruel bars," "sleepless night," and "suicidal sky."
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40. Imagery

Imagery means to use figurative language to represent objects, actions, and ideas in
such a way that it appeals to our physical senses. Usually, it is thought that imagery
makes use of particular words that create visual representation of ideas in our minds.
The word “imagery” is associated with mental pictures. However, this idea is but
partially correct. Imagery, to be realistic, turns out to be more complex than just a
picture.

Examples:

• It was dark and dim in the forest.

The words “dark” and “dim” are visual images.
• The children were screaming and shouting in the fields.
“Screaming” and “shouting” appeal to our sense of hearing, or auditory sense.
• He whiffed the aroma of brewed coffee.
“Whiff” and “aroma” evoke our sense of smell, or olfactory sense.
• The girl ran her hands on a soft satin fabric.
The idea of “soft” in this example appeals to our sense of touch, or tactile
sense.
• The fresh and juicy orange is very cold and sweet.
“Juicy” and “sweet” – when associated with oranges – influence our sense of
taste, or gustatory sense.
Imagery needs the aid of figures of speech like simile, metaphor, personification,
and onomatopoeia, in order to appeal to the bodily senses. Let us analyze
how famous poets and writers use imagery in literature.

More Examples of Imagery

1. The old man took the handful of dust and sifted it through his fingers.
2. The starry night sky looked so beautiful that it begged him to linger, but he
reluctantly left for home.
3. The fragrance of spring flowers made her joyful.
4. The sound of a drum in the distance attracted him.
5. The people traveled long distances to watch the sunset in the north.
6. The stone fell with a splash in the lake.
7. The sound of bat hitting the ball was pleasing to his ear.
8. The chirping of birds heralded spring.
9. There lay refuse heaps on their path that were so smelly that it maddened
them.
10. The silence in the room was unnerving.
11. The blind man touched the tree to learn if its skin was smooth or rough.
12. When he was on the way to work, he heard the muffled cry of a woman.
13. The beacons of moonlight bathed the room in ethereal light.
14. The wild gusts of cold wind pierced her body.
15. The burger, aromatic with spices, made his mouth water in anticipation of the
first bite.
********************************
 2. Advanced Punctuation

(Semicolons, Colons, Quotation Marks, Dashes, Parentheses, Apostrophes etc.)

*************************
 Punctuation Tips

1. Use apostrophes correctly

Maybe it is because of its diminutive size, but the apostrophe tends to be neglected
and misused in equal measure.

The apostrophe is used to form possessives (e.g., the school’s faculty, our
family’s crest, the shirt’s collar, Bill Thomas’s house) and certain contractions
(e.g., it’s, let’s, she’s, they’re, I’ve, don’t).

The apostrophe is not used to form most plurals (e.g., she is looking at several
schools, the families have similar crests, these shirts are on sale, we are
dining with the Thomases). There are three exceptions: plurals of lowercase letters
(e.g., dot your i’s and cross your t’s); plurals of certain words used as words
(e.g., we need to tally the yes’s, no’s, and maybe’s); and plurals of certain
abbreviations (e.g., the staff includes a dozen Ph.D.’s and four M.D.’s).

2. Know where to place quotation marks

Periods and commas go inside quotation marks, even if they are not part of the
material being quoted. All other punctuation marks go outside the quotation marks,
unless they are part of the material being quoted.

Examples

“Any further delay,” she said, “would result in a lawsuit.”

His latest story is titled “The Beginning of the End”; wouldn't a better title be “The
End of the Beginning”?
3. Know how to punctuate with parentheses

When a parenthetical element is included at the end of a larger sentence, the

terminal punctuation for the larger sentence goes outside the closing parenthesis.

When a parenthetical sentence exists on its own, the terminal punctuation goes
inside the closing parenthesis.

Example

She nonchalantly told us she would be spending her birthday in Venice (Italy, not
California). (Unfortunately, we weren’t invited.)
 4. Use a hyphen for compound adjectives

When two or more words collectively serve as an adjective before the word they are
modifying, those words should normally be hyphenated. The major exception is
when the first such word is an adverb ending in -ly.

Example

The hastily arranged meeting came on the heels of less-than-stellar earnings.

5. Distinguish between the colon and the semicolon

The colon and the semicolon can both be used to connect two independent clauses.

When the second clause expands on or explains the first, use a colon. When the
clauses are merely related, but the second does not follow from the first, use a
semicolon.

Semicolon

Only a third of Americans have a passport; the majority of Canadians have a

passport.
Colon

Only a third of Americans have a passport: for most, foreign travel is either
undesirable or unaffordable.
6. Avoid multiple punctuation at the end of a sentence

Never end a sentence with a question mark or exclamation point followed by a

period. If a sentence ends with a period that is part of an abbreviation, do not add a
second period.

Examples

I don’t particularly like the play Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?

I didn’t like it even when I worked at Yahoo!

I especially didn’t like it when I saw it at 5:00 a.m.

7. Use a colon to introduce a list only when the introductory text is a
complete sentence

Not all lists should be introduced with a colon. The general rule is that if the
introductory text can stand as a grammatically complete sentence, use a colon;
otherwise, do not.
Correct

Please bring the following items: a flashlight, a comfortable pair of hiking boots, and
a jacket.

Please bring the typical evening hiking gear: a flashlight, a comfortable pair of hiking
boots, and a jacket.

Please bring a flashlight, a comfortable pair of hiking boots, and a jacket.

Incorrect

Please bring: a flashlight, a comfortable pair of hiking boots, and a jacket.

8. Use commas to indicate nonessential information

If explanatory matter can be omitted without changing the general meaning of the
sentence, it should be set off with commas. If the explanatory matter is essential to
the meaning of the sentence, do not set it off with commas.

Correct

The novelist Don DeLillo seldom gives interviews.

Incorrect

The novelist, Don DeLillo, seldom gives interviews.

Explanation: The identity of the specific novelist is essential to the meaning of the
sentence. Otherwise, there is nothing to indicate which of the multitude of novelists is
being referred to.
Correct

America’s first president, George Washington, served from 1789 to 1797.

Explanation: America has only one first president. Identifying him by name is not
essential to the meaning of the sentence.
Incorrect

America’s first president George Washington served from 1789 to 1797.

*********************
 3. Spelling
Standout Spelling Rules You Need to Know

1. “Q” Is Followed By “U”

The letter Q is almost always followed by U, as in words like "queen," "earthquake,"

and "equity." When used in this way, the U is not considered to be a vowel. There
are exceptions to this rule, but they are few and far between.

2. “S” Never Follows “X”

The letter S never follows X. The letter C often takes its place to achieve the desired
sound, as in excise and excite.

3. “C” Makes Two Sounds

The letter C can make either the “K” sound or the “S” sound. You will hear it
pronounced as a “K” before most letters, including words like “cat,” “cloud,” and
“cotton.” You will hear it pronounced as an “S” before the vowels E, I, and Y, as in
words like “century,” “citation,” and “cyclical.”

4. Short Vowels Only Need One Vowel

In most words with a short vowel sound, only one vowel is needed. Examples of this
rule include "at," "it," "hot," "red" and "up." For more on this, check out this List of
Short Vowel Words.

5. Double the “F,” “L,” and “S” in One Syllable Words

If these letters come at the end of a one-syllable word, you must double them.
Examples include the double F in “stiff,” the double L in “stall,” and the double S in
“class.” Here is another list for you. Have a look at these words with Double Letters.

6. Drop the Final “E” After a Suffix

When adding a suffix, you usually need to drop the final E, especially in American
English. Many words end with a silent final E, and when adding an ending that starts
with a vowel, you should always remove it.

In this way, "come" becomes "coming," "hope" becomes "hoping," "race" becomes
"racing" and "squeeze" becomes "squeezing."

7. Remove an “L” From “All” as a Prefix

The word "all," when written alone, has two L's. When used as a prefix, however,
only one L is written. Examples of this rule include "almost," "also," "altogether" and
"always."
 8. Prefixes (Generally) Do not Change the Spelling

Generally, adding a prefix to a word does not change the correct spelling. So, adding
de- to "activate" results in "deactivate," and adding non- to "fiction" becomes
"nonfiction."

9. Suffixes Do not Have to Change the Spelling

Words ending in a vowel and Y can add the suffix -ed or -ing without making any
other changes. "Jockeying," "journeying," and "toying" are all examples of this rule.

10. Contractions Need Apostrophes Where Letters Are Missing

This sounds obvious, doesn’t it? The apostrophe in “can’t” signifies the missing
letters “N” and “O” in “cannot.” But think of other words we use; ol’ is a good
example. Have you ever seen someone write it as ‘ol? If so, that apostrophe was
placed in error, because the apostrophe stands in place of the D that is missing from
“old.” An apostrophe should only hang wherever the letters are missing. For more on
this, read through Using Contractions Correctly.

12. Proper Nouns Must Be Capitalized

Proper nouns are specific people, places, or things. They are not buildings, but the
Empire State Building. They are not states but the state of Georgia. Proper nouns
are specific labels, and whenever someone’s name or the official title is being used,
these nouns must be capitalized.

13. Words Do Not End With “V” or “J”

We thought we would end on a clear note. Even though this rule is mostly true, like
“Q” being followed by “U,” there are a few exceptions. Here are 25 words ending in
V.

14. I Before E, Except After C

The rule goes like this:

I before E, except after C, unless it sounds like A, as in neighbor or weigh

There are many exceptions to this rule—maybe it is better to think of it as a

guideline—but it can be helpful with words like the ones below.

I before E

Would you like a piece of cake? Jerry will believe anything. They are planting new
grass on the football field.
 Except before C

Darnell received an A on his spelling test. Jeremy spotted a spider on the ceiling. I
never expected such deceit from you!

Unless it sounds like A

Our neighbors live in a beige house. How much does the kitten weigh?

15. Adding Suffixes to Words that End in Y

When you add a suffix that starts with E (such as -ed, -er, or -est) to a word that

ends in Y, the Y usually changes to an I.

• Cry – cried – crier

• Dry – dried – drier

• Lay – laid (note the irregular spelling: no E)

• Baby – babies

• Family – families

• Ugly – ugliest

This is the dustiest old house I’ve ever seen. The best bakers make the flakiest pie
crusts. The soup needs the tiniest pinch of salt, and then it’s perfect.
Seawater dries out your skin.

The Y does not change for the suffix -ing.

The baby has been crying for almost an hour. The minute we brought in the new
puppy; our mother began laying down sheets of newspaper. We should spend some
time tidying before the guests arrive.
If the word in question has two consonants before the Y, change the Y to I before

adding the suffix -ly.

o Sloppy – sloppily

o Happy – happily

o Scary – scarily

Funnily enough, I said the same thing just yesterday.

Of course, there are always exceptions:

“Funny,” he said dryly.

16. The Silent E

Typically, an E after a consonant at the end of a word is silent, but it does affect the

way you pronounce the vowel that comes before the consonant. The E makes the

vowel sound of the word (or syllable) long (like the I sound in kite) instead of short

(like the I sound in kitten). It’s important to get the silent E right, because its
presence or absence can change the meaning of a word.

The monkey bit me. Keep your fingers out of the cage: the monkey’s bite.
By adding the E to the end of bit, the word is changed from past to present tense.

Do not cut yourself on the sharp knives. The kitten is cute.

In this case, the silent E creates a completely different word.

When adding a suffix like -ed, -er or -est, the silent E is usually dropped from the end

of the root word.

The dog bared his teeth at the mail carrier. The baby’s eyes were the bluest I had
ever seen.
 17. Double Consonants

Watch out for double consonants. It can be difficult to hear them when a word is said

aloud—especially if the word has only one syllable. Double consonants are

frequently found in words that have suffixes added to them:

I dropped the heavy bags to the floor. Someone called for you earlier.

Some words can be pronounced as either one or two syllables, but the spelling

remains the same:

Blessed are the meek for they shall inherit the Earth.
In this sentence, which is a fixed expression, blessed is pronounced as two
syllables: bless-ed.

The father blessed his son before the wedding.

In this sentence, blessed is pronounced as one syllable: blest.

Be particularly careful with words where a double consonant can change the

pronunciation and the meaning of the word.

Cacti are native to the desert. Would you like ice cream for dessert?

18. Plural Suffixes

When do you add -s and when do you add -es to make a plural? It’s not quite as
arbitrary as it may seem. The rule is this: if a word ends in -s, -sh, -ch, -x, or -z, you

add -es.

I only had to take one bus; you had to take two buses. I only get one wish; you get
two wishes. I have a splotch on my shirt; you have two splotches. I’m carrying one
box; you’re carrying two boxes. Would you like a spritz of perfume? Two spritzes,
please.

For all other endings, add -s.

I have one cat; you have two cats. I have one cup; you have two cups. I have one
shoe; you have two shoes. Where is my other shoe? I have one ski; you have two
skis. How am I supposed to ski? I have one toque; you have two toques.

Be careful of words that do not change when they are pluralized (e.g., fish, sheep,

moose). If you are unsure, check the dictionary.

Be sure to also check out this list of commonly confused words to help you choose

the right spelling of words with similar meanings and pronunciations.

**********************

4. Sentence Structure
A sentence’s “structure” is the way its words are arranged.

In English, we have four main sentence structures: the simple sentence,

the compound sentence, the complex sentence, and the compound-complex
sentence. Each uses a specific combination of independent and dependent clauses
to help make sure that our sentences are strong, informational, and most
importantly, that they make sense!

Examples of Sentence Structures

In the examples, independent clauses are green, dependent clauses are purple, and
conjunctions are orange. Here are examples of each type of sentence:
1. The dog ran. Simple Sentence
2. The dog ran and he ate popcorn. Compound sentence
3. After the dog ran, he ate popcorn. Complex sentence
4. After the dog ran, he ate popcorn,
and he drank a big soda. Compound-complex sentence

Parts of Sentence Structures

All forms of sentence structures have clauses (independent, dependent, or both),

and some also have conjunctions to help join two or more clauses or whole
sentences.
Independent Clause

Independent clauses are key parts of every sentence structure. An independent

clause has a subject and a predicate and makes sense on its own as a complete
sentence. Here are a few:
▪ The dog ate brownies.
▪ The dog jumped high.
▪ She ate waffles.
▪ He went to the library.
So, you can see that all the clauses above are working sentences. What’s more, all
sentences have an independent clause!

Dependent (Subordinate) Clause

A dependent clause is a major part of three of the four sentence structures

(compound, complex, and compound-complex). It has a subject and a predicate; but
it can’t be a sentence. It provides extra details about the independent clause, and it
doesn’t make sense on its own, like these:
▪ After he went to the party
▪ Though he ate hotdogs
▪ While he was at the dance
▪ If the dog eats chocolate
Each of the bullets above leaves an unanswered question. By itself, a dependent
clause is just a fragment sentence (an incomplete sentence). So, it needs to be
combined with an independent clause to be a sentence.

Conjunction

A conjunction is a word in a sentence that connects other words, phrases, and

clauses. Conjunctions are a big part of compound, complex, and compound-complex
sentences. The most common conjunction that you know is “and.” Others
are for, but, or, yet, and so. Conjunctions are important because they let us combine
information, but keep ideas separate so that they are easy to understand.
Here are two sentences, with and without conjunctions:

Incorrect: The girl ran to the ice cream truck then she ate ice cream.
Correct: The girl ran to the ice cream truck, and then she ate ice cream.
It is important to know that the word “then” is NOT a conjunction—it is an adverb.
Types of Sentence Structures

As mentioned, there are four main types of sentence structures: simple, compound,
complex, and compound complex. To begin, here is a simple chart that outlines the
patterns of each type.

Simple Sentence

A simple sentence has only one subject and one predicate—one independent
clause. In fact, an independent clause itself is a simple sentence. Here are some
examples:
▪ She jumped.
▪ The cheetah ran.
▪ He ran to the gas station.
▪ He ate dinner.
Simple sentences don’t have many details and they don’t really combine multiple
ideas—they are simple!

Compound sentence

A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses. It uses a conjunction

like “and” to connect the ideas. Here are some examples:
▪ The dog ate pizza, but the cat drank apple juice.
▪ The dog ate pizza, but the cat drank apple juice and the fish had
eggs.
A compound sentence allows us to share a lot of information by combining two or
more complete thoughts into one sentence.

Complex sentence

A complex sentence has one independent clause and one or more dependent
clauses. It sometimes uses conjunctions and other words to combine all of the
clauses together.

▪ When he was on the airplane, the man bought cookies.

▪ When he was on the airplane, the man bought cookies, but not
brownies.
A great way to make a sentence more detailed is by adding dependent clauses
(which could not be sentences on their own). So, complex sentences let us add
information to simple sentences.

Compound-complex sentence

A compound-complex sentence has two or more independent clauses and at least

one dependent clause—so, it uses conjunction(s) to combine two complete
sentences and at least one incomplete sentence. Here is an example:
The girl smelled cookies, which were baking at home, so, she ran all the way
there.
The result of combining the three clauses and the conjunction is a compound-
complex sentence that is both informational and easy to understand. The
independent clauses give the main information, and the dependent clause(s) give
the details.

How to Avoid Mistakes

When it comes to making sure your sentence is clear and complete, having the right
sentence structure is very important. A couple of common mistakes can happen
when you forget how to use clauses or conjunctions in the right way, like run-on
sentences and fragment sentences.

Run-on sentences

In simple terms, a Run-on sentence is a sentence that is too long. For instance, if a
writer forgets to use conjunctions, a sentence seems like it “runs on” for too long. For
example:
The fox really liked pancakes, he ate them every day for breakfast, he couldn’t
eat them without syrup and butter.
But, with the right conjunctions, this can be a normal compound sentence:

The fox really liked pancakes, so, he ate them every day for breakfast; but, he
couldn’t eat them without syrup and butter.
Fragment (incomplete) sentences

A ‘fragment’ is a small piece of something. So, a fragment sentence is just a piece

of a sentence: it is missing a subject, a predicate, or an independent clause. It’s
simply an incomplete sentence. Fragment sentences can happen when you forget
an independent clause.
For instance, by itself, a dependent clause is just a fragment. Let’s use a couple of
the dependent clauses from above:

▪ While he was at the dance, what happened?

▪ If he eats chocolate, then what?
As you can see, each leaves an unanswered question. So, let us complete them:

▪ While he was at the dance, the dog drank fruit punch.

▪ The dog will get a stomachache if he eats chocolate.
Here, we completed the fragment sentences by adding independent clauses
(underlined), which made them into complex sentences.

**********************************

4. Reading Comprehension
Tips & Tricks

1. Do not over-emphasize trivialities.

Details are important but do not be obsessed with examples and
illustrations. Comprehending the overall flow and structure will help you
analyze and answer the questions.

2. Do not memorize.
You do not need to memorize every word present in the passage.
Understanding the flow, structure and main points in the passage
should be our priority.

IMPORTANT LINK FOR COMPREHENSION

https://www.superteacherworksheets.com/6th-comprehension.html
3. Do not read the passage first.
Always go through the questions first and then the passage. This will
prepare you to focus on the things you need to look in the passage.
Focus only on the questions, and not on a particular answer option. A
quick overview of the questions is sufficient.

4. Do not over-emphasize on vocabulary skills.

Having a strong vocabulary is important, however having
Shakespearean vocabulary will not prevent you from having to
understand the passage. So, do not put yourself under stress in this
area, and while reading the passage, make sure that you understand
the gist (idea/essence) of the passage, and do not get stuck on
particular words.

5. Do not spend time on the passage/s that you cannot comprehend

at first.
At times, we come across a passage that we are not able to
comprehend. If you are struggling with one such passage in the exam,
make sure you have the patience to avoid such a passage for a while.
First focus on the passage/questions you can manage easily. Go back
to the tricky passage afterwards.

6. Do not think the correct option/answer would come from outside

the passage/s.
Any of the options (out of scope) is never the correct answer. The right
answer is always based on the information given within the passage.
Do not focus on any of the options, distracting you from the passage.

7. Do not rely on ‘trigger words.

You might get trapped in the web of ‘trigger words’ if you don’t read
attentively through the passage. A passage may focus on one point for
quite a bit of sentences and then change it towards the end with trigger
words like ‘but’ or ‘however’. This will usually confuse readers who
skim through the passage or rush through it.

8. Make Notes.
 While reading obscure (vague, incomprehensible, abstract) text, make
sure you make some quick notes for your reference before you answer
the given questions. You can write the general flow, structure
paragraph-wise flow and important points. Do not make long notes, just
make a quick note of the important markers/points in the passage.

9. Opening and Closing paragraphs require extra focus.

Questions such as the main idea question are based on the overall
subject of the passage, and most of the times, the answer for this
question type lies in the first and last paragraph of the passage. Ensure
you derive the maximum possible information from these paragraphs.

10. Constantly question yourself while reading the passage.

To maintain your concentration while reading, make sure some basic
questions keep playing at the back of your mind: What is the author’s
main point? Why is the author writing about this? How has the author
chosen to convey his main point? How has the author generalized his
material? etc.

11. Do not expect to be stimulated.

Finally, do not expect to be stimulated. In fact, expect the opposite!
Majority of the times, you would feel bored by RC (Reading
Comprehension) topics, and you should not allow this to drain your
energy. Maintain an impartial attitude towards the passage, and do not
get mentally hassled (disturbed, worried) by an obscure (vague,
incomprehensible, abstract) content.

12. Important Note: These basic points should be kept in mind to improve
your focus, increase your grasp of the subject matter, and deliver
greater understanding, while approaching unseen Reading
Comprehensions.

**************************

IMPORTANT COMPREHENSION LINK

https://www.ereadingworksheets.com/browse-worksheets-by-grade-
level/reading-worksheets-by-grade-level/8th-grade-reading-worksheets/