The Lymphatic System/Immunity

The Lymphatic System

Your circulatory system is not your body’s only vascular transport system. Closely associated
with the blood vessels of the circulatory system is the lymphatic system. The lymphatic system
is a network of glands and vessels that extend throughout your body.

The Lymphatic System consists of:

 Lymphatic Vessels
 Lymphatic Organs

Contributes to homeostasis by:

 Returning excess tissue fluid to the bloodstream
 Absorbing fat from the digestive tract and transports them to the bloodstream
 Helps defend the body against disease and pathogens

Lymphatic Vessels

 They are a one-way system

 Fluid inside is known as lymph and consists of water and dissolved solutes
 The most numerous lymph vessels are the lymphatic capillaries which are found in most
areas of the body
o These small, close-ended vessels merge with larger lymph vessels
o These larger vessels carry the lymph towards 2 major ducts that allow lymph to
enter into the circulatory system:
1. Thoracic Duct – largest in the body that receives lymph from the left side
of the head, neck and arm, abdomen, and lower limbs. It returns lymph to
the left subclavian vein.
2. Right Lymphatic Duct – collects lymph from vessels on the right side of
head, neck, and right arm. It returns lymph to the right subclavian vein.
 Larger Lymphatic vessels contain valves that prevent backflow
 Skeletal muscle contractions allow for the movement of lymph in its one-way system
(this is different from the circulatory system as it was a 2-way system – arteries moved
blood away from the heart to different parts of the body and veins moved bloods from
body systems back to the heart)

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 https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/21199-lymphatic-system

Lymph (pg. 293)

 Within lymphatic vessels is a fluid called lymph
 Lymph is made up of interstitial fluid which is derived from blood plasma
 Interstitial fluid constantly bathes cells within the body and instead of re-entering blood
capillaries, much of the interstitial fluid re-enters the lymphatic vessels.
 Lymph will eventually rejoin the circulatory system through ducts that merge with the
right and left subclavian veins.
 Edema is the term used for swelling or inflammation which is caused by accumulation of
interstitial fluid not being properly drained by lymph vessels

Lymphatic Organs

https://www.nursingtimes.net/clinical-archive/immunology/the-lymphatic-system-1-structure-function-and-oedema-21-09-2020/

Lymphatic organs contain large numbers of lymphocytes and more specifically, B lymphocytes
(B cells) and T lymphocytes (T cells)
 Primary Lymphatic Organs
o Red Bone Marrow
 Site of blood cell production (RBC, WBC, Platelets)
o B-cells (a type of agranular leukocytes known as a lymphocyte) mature in the
bone marrow
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 o Thymus Gland is an organ involved in maturation of T cells (lymphocytes)
 Located in the thoracic cavity and can vary in size per person (however, it
is always largest when you are a child and shrinks as you age)
 ~5% of all T cells are actually able to fight infections and leave the thymus
 Secondary Lymphatic Organs
o Spleen
 Cleanses the blood and acts as a reservoir for blood
 It also stores some WBC
 Specifically, it cleanses blood when antibody-coated bacteria or antibody-
coated blood cells are detected
o Lymph Nodes – store and produce active WBC
 Acts as a filter for lymph to remove pathogens and cancerous cells from
the lymph
 Lymph nodes may become enlarged or swollen when you are sick. This is
due to active proliferation (division) of WBC’s
o Tonsils
 Are located in the mouth
 Produce some WBC to fight pathogens entering the body within food or
in the air

Innate and Acquired Immunity

 Innate Immunity (also known as “non-specific” immunity, cellular immunity, and/or the
1st or 2nd line of defence
o Mechanisms against non-specific pathogens are fully functional without previous
exposure to that pathogen
o This is your body’s 1st and 2nd line of defense
 Acquired Immunity (aka specific immunity, acquired immunity, and/or the 3rd line of
defense)
o Dependent upon exposure to a specific antigen (non-self-surface protein)
o Each person’s acquired immunity is unique as each person’s “disease profile” (no
two people have had the same disease)
 Antigen
o A protein on the surface of a cell or particle (virus) that initiates an immune
response from the host
 Pathogen
o Or infectious agent (also known as a germ) is a microorganism, that can be viral,
bacterial, fungal, or protozoan in nature
o The host may be an animal (humans), plant, or even another microorganism
(bacteria)

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Innate Immunity (Non-Specific Immunity or Cellular Immunity or 1 st and 2nd Line
of Defense)

There are four different factors that make up your innate immunity:
1. Physical and Chemical Barriers (1st)
2. Inflammation (2nd)
3. Phagocytes and Natural Killer Cells (2nd)
4. Protective Proteins (2nd)

Physical and Chemical Barriers:

 Skin and mucous membranes of our respiratory, digestive, and reproductive organs
serve as protective barriers
 Cilia in the upper respiratory tract traps air-borne particles
 Oil glands (sebaceous glands) secrete chemicals that harm bacteria on your skin
 Stomach is acidic (HCl) which kills many pathogens
 Bacteria (microflora) in the intestines and reproductive tract out-compete potential
pathogens

Inflammation
 This is part of your 2nd line of defense
 It increases vasodilation (wider) which therefore increases blood flow to the area and
increases WBC to the area
 This will speed up elimination of a pathogen and increase healing
 See handout

Phagocytes
 Phagocytes engulf pathogens via endocytosis
o Neutrophils (type of granular leukocytes)
o Monocytes → Macrophages (found in all tissue types) or dendritic cells (located
in tissues exposed to the external environment, i.e., skin, lungs, and intestines)
 Natural Killer (NK) Cells
o Destroy virus-infected cells and cancer cells by cell-to-cell contact

Protective Proteins
 Complement system
o Approximately 30 plasma proteins that circulate in the plasma and initiate the
formation of holes on the outer surface of bacteria and viruses
o They also amplify the inflammatory response because they bind to mast cells
(like basophils but not in blood) and trigger histamine release and attract more
phagocytes to the scene
o Some can remain inactive until triggered by antibodies. Once they bind to the
surface of a pathogen tagged by antibodies, it will ensure the pathogen will be
phagocytized

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  Interferons
o Proteins produced by cells infected by a virus that protects non-infected cells.
They essentially warn other cells that they’ve been attacked

Acquired Immunity (Specific Immunity, Active Immunity, or 3 rd Line of Defense)

 Acquired Immunity is a type of immunity in which defense against a specific pathogen is

developed using:
1. B cells – antibody-mediated immunity
2. T cells – cell-mediated immunity
 Antibody: a protein that recognizes a specific non-self antigen and can destroy it. An
antibody is part of your 3rd line of defense because it has a specific target unlike a
macrophage which has non-specific targets (2nd line of defense)
 Each person’s acquired immunity is UNIQUE because it is dependent upon what
antigens they have been exposed to
 Recall that lymphocytes (B and T cells) are types of leukocytes in blood and lymph
 Each lymphocyte has antigen receptors on its surface to recognize foreign antigens so
they can begin responding to an invasion
 B cells produce antibodies, and these antibodies have specific antigen receptors that
allow them to bind to the antigen and kill it

Steps of an Immune Response

Step A:
 The first line of defense has been breached
 Inflammatory response (histamines) cause blood vessels to become more permeable
thus many leukocytes come to the area and try to kill the foreign antigen
Step B:
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  Macrophages engulf and destroy the bacteria and pus is visible at site of infection
Step C:
 Lymphocyte activation (B and T cells) begins after the pathogen is destroyed
 Antigens from the pathogen protrude from the cell membrane of the macrophage
Step D:
 Receptor sites on the surface of helper T cells bind to the antigen on the surface of the
macrophage (this initiates the 3rd line of defense)
 This union triggers the release of cytokines from helper T cells and macrophages
 Cytokines cause T cells to multiply and destroy infected tissue cells breaking the life
cycle of the pathogen
Step E:
 The antibodies on the B cells bind to the antigen, destroying them
Step F:
 T cells bind to the B cell antibody-antigen complex
 This union activates the B cell to enlarge and divide (Clonal Expansion)
 This process produces plasma B cells and memory B cells
Step G:
 Plasma B cells make many antibodies (2000/s) and will eventually die after infection is
cleared
 Memory B cells remain in the blood for many years or a lifetime ready to fight if the
pathogen returns

Other Important T Cells

1. Killer T Cells/Cytotoxic T Cells
o Bind to infected cells and destroy them by puncturing holes in their cell
membrane
o They may be activated cytokines produce by helper T cells or by the presence of
the pathogen
2. Suppressor T Cells
o Slow or suppress the process of cell-mediated immunity to ensure normal tissue
does not get destroyed
3. Memory T Cells
o Remain in the bloodstream and are able to act quickly if the antigen is
encountered again
o These cells are NOT permanent (unlike memory B cells)

Induced Immunity

1. Active Immunity
o Develops naturally after a person is infected with an antigen
o A person produces an immune response against an antigen
o Can be induced by use of vaccines

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 o Is dependent upon the presence of Memory B Cells and Memory T Cells in the
body
Vaccines are pathogens or their products that have been treated so they are no longer
able to cause disease.

2. Passive Immunity
o An individual is given prepared antibodies to combat disease
o Is temporary because there are no memory cells
 Ex. IgG antibodies cross the placenta during pregnancy
 IgG and IgA are secreted in breast milk
 Prepared antibodies can be injected by a physician

https://ib.bioninja.com.au/higher-level/topic-11-animal-physiology/111-antibody-production-and/types-of-immunity.html