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Science Technology and Society

Historical Antecedents of Science Technology and Society

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Module on
Historical Antecedents of
Science Technology and
Society

This lesson will provide a background of the different scientific and technological contributions of
different parts of the world’s history. It will show how different societies were formed through science and
technology.

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. identify people who have greatly contributed in the history of Science, Technology and Society;
2. describe the contributions of different civilization; and
3. analyze the use of these contributions in the present time.

Reading Activity: Carefully examine the images and paragraphs from the YouTube video entitled Ancient
Mesopotamia 101 of the National Geographic.

“The story of writing, astronomy and law. The story of civilization itself begins in one place. Mesopotamia is
an exceedingly fertile plain situated between Tigris and Euphrates. Fostered innovations that would change the
world forever.

Inhabited for nearly 12, 000 years, Mesopotamia has They developed advance mathematics including a
the most stable climate; rich soil and steady supply of base 60 system that created a 60-seconds minute, a
water made it ideal for agriculture to develop and 60-minute hour and a 360-degree circular angle.
thrive.

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They divided 1 earth year into 12 periods. Each was named They also divided the weeks into 7 days, naming each after their
after the prominent constellations in heavens, a tradition 7 Gods, embodied by the 7 observable planets in the sky.
later adapted by the Greeks to create the zodiac.

But perhaps, the most impactful innovation that came from This includes recording the law of the Babylonian King
Mesopotamia is literacy with the writing system called Hammurabi which formed the basis of the standardized justice
cuneiform. system.”
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xVf5kZA0HtQ
These are just some of the contributions of early civilization to what we have in science and our
society at the present time. More of these will be discussed in this module and in order through time.

History of Science and Technology in Ancient Cultures

The history of science in early cultures refers to the study of protoscience in ancient history, prior to
the development of science in the Middle Ages. In prehistoric times, advice and knowledge was passed from
generation to generation in an oral tradition. The development of writing enabled knowledge to be stored and
communicated across generations with much greater fidelity. Combined with the development of agriculture,

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which allowed for a surplus of food, it became possible for early civilizations to develop and more time to be
devoted to tasks other than survival, such as the search for knowledge for knowledge's sake.

Mesopotamia
From their beginnings in Sumer (now Iraq) around
3500 BC, the Mesopotamian people began to attempt to record
some observations of the world with extremely thorough
numerical data. A concrete instance of Pythagoras' law was
recorded as early as the 18th century BC — the Mesopotamian
cuneiform tablet.

Astronomy is a science that lends itself to the recording and

study of observations: the vigorous notings of the motions of
the stars, planets, and the moon are left on thousands of clay
tablets created by scribes.
Mesopotamian writing- cuneiform tablet
Egypt
Significant advances in ancient Egypt included
astronomy, mathematics and medicine. Their geometry was a
necessary outgrowth of surveying to preserve the layout and
ownership of farmland, which was flooded annually by the
Nile River. The 3-4-5 right triangle and other rules of thumb
served to represent rectilinear structures including their post
and lintel architecture. Egypt was also a center of alchemical
research for much of the western world.
Egyptian hieroglyphs, a phonetic writing system,
served as the basis for the Egyptian Phoenician alphabet from Egypt Papyrus
which the later Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Cyrillic
alphabets were derived. The city of Alexandria retained
preeminence with its library, which was damaged by fire when it fell under Roman rule, being completely
destroyed before 642. With it a huge amount of antique literature and knowledge was lost.
The Edwin Smith papyrus is one of the first medical documents still extant, and perhaps the earliest
document that attempts to describe and analyze the brain: it might be seen as the very beginnings of modern
neuroscience.

Persia
In the Sassanid period (226 to 652 AD), great attention was given to mathematics and astronomy. The
Academy of Gundishapur is a prominent example in this regard. Astronomical tables, such as the Shahryar
Tables, date to this period, and Sassanid observatory was later imitated by Muslim astronomers and astrologers
of the Islamic period. In the mid-Sassanid era, an influx of knowledge came to Persia from the West in the
form of views and traditions of Greece which, following the spread of Christianity, accompanied Syriac (the
official language of Christians as well as the Iranian Nestorians). The Christian schools in Iran produced great
scientists such as Nersi, Farhad, and Marabai. Also, a book was left by Paulus Persa, head of the Iranian
Department of Logic and Philosophy of Aristotle, written in Syriac and dictated to Sassanid King Anushiravan.
In the Early Middle Ages, Persia became a stronghold of Islamic science.
Greco-Roman World
Scientific thought in Classical Antiquity became tangible from the 6th century BC in pre-Socratic
philosophy (Thales, Pythagoras). In c. 385 BC, Plato founded the Academy. With Plato's student began the
"scientific revolution" of the Hellenistic period culminating in the 3rd to 2nd centuries with scholars such as
Eratosthenes, Euclid, Aristarchus of Samos, Hipparchus and Archimedes.
In Classical Antiquity, the inquiry into the workings of the universe took place both in investigations
aimed at such practical goals as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of
illnesses and in those abstract investigations known as natural philosophy. The ancient people who are
considered the first scientists may have thought of themselves as natural philosophers, as practitioners of a
skilled profession (for example, physicians), or as followers of a religious tradition (for example, temple
healers).

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The important legacy of this period included substantial advances in factual knowledge, especially in
anatomy, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geography, mathematics and astronomy; an awareness of the
importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change and its causes; and
a recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of
undertaking empirical research.

India
Excavations at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and other sites of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) have
uncovered evidence of the use of "practical mathematics". The people of the IVC manufactured bricks whose
dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They used a
standardized system of weights based on the ratios. They mass-produced weights in regular geometrical
shapes, which included hexahedra, barrels, cones, and cylinders, thereby demonstrating knowledge of basic
geometry.
The inhabitants of Indus civilization also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree
of accuracy. They designed a ruler — the Mohenjo-daro ruler —whose unit of length (approximately 1.32
inches or 3.4 centimeters) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often
had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length.
Alchemy (Rasaśāstra in Sanskrit) was popular in India. It was the Indian alchemist and philosopher
Kanada who introduced the concept of 'anu' which he defined as the matter which cannot be subdivided. This
is analogous to the concept of atom in modern science.

China
The first recorded observations of solar eclipses
and supernovae were made in China. On July 4, 1054,
Chinese astronomers observed a guest star, a supernova,
the remnant of which is now called the Crab Nebula.
Korean contributions include similar records of meteor
showers and eclipses, particularly from 1500-1750 in the
Annals of the Joseon Dynasty. Traditional Chinese
Medicine, acupuncture and herbal medicine were also
The Zhusuan, or China’s Abacus
practiced, with similar medicine practiced in Korea.
Among the earliest inventions were the abacus, the public toilet, and the "shadow clock". Joseph
Needham noted the "Four Great Inventions" of China as among some of the most important technological
advances; these were the compass, gunpowder, papermaking, and printing, which were later known in Europe
by the end of the Middle Ages. The Tang dynasty (AD 618 - 906) in particular was a time of great innovation.
A good deal of exchange occurred between Western and Chinese discoveries up to the Qing dynasty.

History of Science and Technology in Medieval Ages

The Middle Ages have very little evidence to support the idea that there was any progress in society
during the periods 500 to 1400, and modern scholars regard the Golden Age of Islam and the enlightenment of
the Byzantine Empire as the true centers of knowledge.
In the years immediately after the fall of Rome, there was a period of readjustment, where medieval
society was more concerned with keeping peace and empire building than nurturing centers of learning.
Despite this, Charlemagne tried to establish a scholastic tradition, and the later Middle Ages saw advancements
in the philosophy of science and the refinement of the scientific method.
Many historians and scientists regard Western Europe, after the fall of the Roman Empire, as
completely devoid of interest, a barren wilderness in the history of science. Contemptuously, they give
medieval Europe the Dark Ages, and this epithet evokes pictures of filthy, illiterate peasants and rulers, with
medieval society a pale, superstitious shadow of the Greek and Roman ages of reason and high philosophy.

The Dark Ages

With the aid of arrogant hindsight, the modern perspective of medieval society is of a war-torn and
barbaric Europe. Poverty and ignorance replaced the great engineering works and relative peace of the Pax
Romanum, and the controlling, growing church stifled development.
This view is biased and prejudiced, because the term 'Dark Ages' simply means that there are few
written records remaining from that era, especially when compared to the meticulous record-keeping and

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prolific writing of the Romans. The Middle Ages have very little evidence to support the idea that there was
any progress in society during the periods 500 to 1400, and modern scholars regard the Golden Age of Islam
and the enlightenment of the Byzantine Empire as the true centers of knowledge.

Early Medieval Society - The Dark Ages after the Collapse of Rome
The Early Medieval period, from about AD 500 to 1000, is regarded as the true Dark Ages, where
medieval society slipped into barbarism and ignorance. The Norse sailors were master navigators and, whilst
lacking compasses, could use the stars and a few instruments to navigate the trackless ocean to Iceland,
Greenland, and Vinland.
However, monastic study kept some of the scientific processes alive and, while most of their
`scholastic endeavors concerned the Bible, the monks of Western Europe also studied medicine, to care for the
sick, and astronomy, to observe the stars and set the date for the all-important Easter. Their astronomy kept
alive mathematics and geometry, although their methods were but an echo of the intricate mathematical
functions of the Romans and the Greeks.

The Middle Ages - Charlemagne, Science, and Learning

During the 9th Century, these small embers of preserved knowledge leapt to life, as Western
Europeans tried to systemize education; rulers and church leaders realized that education was the key to
maintaining unity and peace. This period was known as the Carolingian Renaissance, a time when Charles the
Great, often known as Charlemagne, tried to reestablish knowledge as a cornerstone of medieval society. Often
depicted as the Golden Hero of the Church, he was a brutal man of war, but he was also a great believer in the
power of learning. He instigated a revival in art, culture, and learning, using the Catholic Church to transmit
knowledge and education. He ordered the translation of many Latin texts and promoted astronomy, a field that
he loved to study, despite his inability to read. The teaching of logic, philosophy, and theology would fuel the
growth of some of the greatest Christian thinkers ever seen, as Western European medieval society moved into
the High Middle Ages.
The High Middle Ages - The Rebirth of Science and Scholasticism
This era, from 1000 until 1300, saw Western Europe slowly begin to crawl out of the endless warring,
as populations grew and the shared Christian identity gave some unity of purpose, from Ireland to Italy, and
from Denmark to Spain. However, trade and the sharing of ideas were common, and merchants and
mercenaries brought back ideas from Moorish Spain, the Holy Land, and Byzantium. The Muslims translated
many of the Ancient Greek texts into Arabic and, in the middle of the 11th Century, scholars from all around
Europe flocked to Spain to translate these books from Arabic into Latin. This provided a conduit for the
knowledge of the Greeks to pass into Europe, where the schools set up by Charlemagne were now blossoming
into universities. Many of these scholars, such as Gerard of Cremona (c. 1114-1187), learned Arabic so that
they might complete their task.
By the 12th Century, centers of learning, known as the Studium Generale, sprang up across Western
Europe, drawing scholars from far afield and mixing the knowledge of the Ancient Greeks with the new
discoveries of the great Muslim philosophers and scientists. This period may not have seen the great
technological advances of the Greeks, Romans, Chinese, Persians, or Muslims, but the contribution of great
thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, Grosseteste, Francis Bacon, and William of Ockham to the creation of the
Scientific Method cannot be underestimated.
Aquinas and Grosseteste - The Fathers of Scholasticism and the Scientific Method. Thomas Aquinas,
while more interested in using philosophy to prove the existence of God, oversaw a shift from Platonic
reasoning towards Aristotelian empiricism. Robert Grosseteste, one of the major contributors to the scientific
method, founded the Oxford Franciscan School and began to promote the dualistic scientific method first
proposed by Aristotle.
His idea of resolution and composition involved experimentation and prediction; he firmly believed
that observations should be used to propose a universal law, and this universal law should be used to predict
outcomes. This was very similar to the idea of ancient astronomers, who used observations to discern trends,
and used these trends to create predictive models for astronomical events.
Roger Bacon - The Shining Light of Science in Medieval Society. Roger Bacon is a name that belongs
alongside Aristotle, Avicenna, Galileo, and Newton as one of the great minds behind the formation of the
scientific method. He took the work of Grosseteste, Aristotle, and the Islamic alchemists, and used it to
propose the idea of induction as the cornerstone of empiricism. He described the method of observation,

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prediction (hypothesis), and experimentation, also adding that results should be independently verified,
documenting his results in fine detail so that others might repeat the experiment.

The Late Middle Ages - Scholasticism and the Scientific Method

The Late Middle Ages, from 1300 until 1500, saw progress speed up, as thinkers continued the work
of scholasticism, adding to the philosophy underpinning science, Late Middle Age made sophisticated
observations and theories that were sadly superseded by the work of later scientists. Finally, many of the
scholastic philosophers sought to remove divine intervention from the process of explaining natural
phenomena, believing that scholars should look for a simpler, natural cause, rather than stating that it must be
the work of divine providence.

The Black Death - The Destroyer of Medieval Society and Scholasticism

It seems strange that the advances of many of these philosophers and scholars became forgotten and
underplayed in favor of the later thinkers that would drive the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.
However, the first Renaissance of the Middle Ages was halted by a natural phenomenon, the Black Death,
which killed over a third of Europeans, especially in the growing urban areas.
The mass disruption to medieval society caused by the plague set the progress of science and
discovery back, and the knowledge would not reemerge until the Renaissance.

ACTIVITY

Name: _________________________________ Course & Section: __________________

A. Direction: Choose 10 prominent figures from the lecture. Complete the table by writing their name, place
of origin and contribution/s.

Name Origin Contribution/s

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

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8.

9.

10.

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B. Direction: Identify an important contribution from the following civilization and describe how it is
utilized in the present time.

MESOPOTAMIA EGYPT
Contribution: Contribution:

Present utilization: Present utilization:

PERSIA GRECO-ROMAN WORLD

Contribution: Contribution:

Present utilization: Present utilization:

INDIA CHINA
Contribution: Contribution:

Present utilization: Present utilization:

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Name: _________________________________ Course & Section: __________________

Direction: Create a summary of the lesson by completing the time line inside the box.

HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLGY

226 to 652 AD
Persia created
3,500 BC Astronomical
Mesopotamia tables such as
recorded Shahryar Tables
observations in
numerical Data

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Name: _________________________________ Course & Section: __________________

Direction: Look for an article (online, magazine or newspaper) about the latest development in science and
technology dated this year. Paste the article inside the box below.

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Module on
Historical Antecedents of
Science Technology and Society

Instruction: Encircle the letter of the correct

Name:_____________________________________ answer.
Course & Section: __________________ Date:
__________________
1. What is a science that lends itself to the recording and study of observations and the vigorous
noting of the motions of the stars, planets, and the moon?
A. Astronomy 
B. Protoscience 
C. Medicine
D. Astrology
2. Who among these began to record some observations of the world with extremely
thorough numerical data?
A. Syrian
B. Mesopotamian
C. Chinese
D. Persian
3. Which is perhaps the earliest document that attempts to describe and analyze the brain which
also marks the very beginnings of modern neuroscience?
A. Cuneiform Tablet
B. Shahryar Tables
C. Edwin Smith papyrus
D. Code of Hammurabi
4. Who introduced the concept of 'anu' which he defined as the matter which cannot be
subdivided?
A. Kanada
B. Pythagora
C. PLato
D. Joseon
5. Who is the head of the Iranian Department of Logic and Philosophy of Aristotle who left a
book written in Syriac dictated to Sassanid King Anushiravan?
A. Aristarchus of Samos
B. Eratosthenes
C. Hipparchus 
D. Paulus Persa

6. What event caused mass disruption to medieval society set the progress of science and
discovery back until the Renaissance?
A. Civil War
B. Black Death

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C. Invasion
D. Barbarism
7. What civilization in the Early Middle Ages became a stronghold of Islamic science?
A. Persian
B. Indian
C. Egyptian
D. Chinese
8. What discipline was a necessary outgrowth by Egyptians while observing the Nile River for
surveying to preserve the layout and ownership of farmland because of its annual flood?
A. Geometry
B. Astronomy
C. Medicine
D. Alchemy 
9. Whose students began the "scientific revolution" of the Hellenistic period with scholars such as
Eratosthenes, Euclid, Aristarchus of Samos, Hipparchus and Archimedes?
A. Thales
B. Pythagoras
C. Plato
D. Socrates
10. Who among these observed a guest star which is a supernova and the remnant of which is now
called the Crab Nebula?
A. Persian astronomers
B. Chinese astronomers
C. Egyptian astronomers
D. Joseph Needham

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